Functions of scientific knowledge examples. Need help learning a topic? Theoretical methods of cognition

scientific knowledge - this is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition, connected with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of the phenomenon.

Epistemology - it is a science of knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

First of all, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the orientation of the study to the general, essential properties of the object and their expression in the system of abstraction.

Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is an objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods.

Thirdly, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is focused on being put into practice.

Fourth, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, schemes.

Fifth, scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

At sixth, scientific knowledge is characterized by both rigorous evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.

Seventh, scientific knowledge needs and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, instruments.

Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by process. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related.

Ninth, the field of scientific knowledge is verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of life.

Levels of scientific knowledge:

Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data on individual aspects and relationships of the object, understanding and describing the obtained data in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of the phenomenon, but the prerequisites for the penetration of the essence of the object have already been created.

Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object under study, not only by identifying, but also by explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, by constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.

Forms of scientific knowledge:

scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.

scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which the primary knowledge about the object is fixed; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of the fact of reality. At the same time, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.

scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of this or that knowledge about the object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes a problematic issue, a project for solving the problem and its content.

scientific hypothesis - this is a scientifically substantiated assumption that explains certain parameters of the object under study and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object under study, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.

In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not be in conflict with the laws established in the given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that they can be used to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of a hypothesis should not be logically inconsistent.

The advancement of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problem situations.

Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.

Types of evidence:

Practice that directly confirms

Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments pointing to facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.

A proven hypothesis is the basis for constructing a scientific theory.

scientific theory - it is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interrelated statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting the phenomena of a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge is expressed about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.

All theories develop within certain paradigms.

Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and vision of the world, influencing the direction of further research. paradigm

can be compared with an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.

Many theories are constantly being synthesized in unified scientific picture of the world, that is, an integral system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.

Methods of scientific knowledge:

Method(from the Greek. Metodos - the path to something) - it is a way of activity in any of its forms.

The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of the goal, regulating human activity and the general principles from which these techniques follow. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of knowledge at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In terms of their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object, the laws of its functioning.

scientific method - this is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the natural knowledge of the object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.

Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:

First foundation. According to the nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - tricks, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of actions (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods-approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (system analysis, functional analysis, diachronic method, etc.).

Second base. According to the functional purpose, there are:

a) universal methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);

b) empirical level methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);

c) theoretical level methods (modeling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).

Third ground is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:

a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal-logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);

b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own, characteristic task only for it ;

c) special methods.

Some methods of scientific knowledge:

Observation - this is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena for collecting facts.

Experiment - this is an artificial recreation of a cognizable object in controlled and controlled conditions.

Formalization - this is a display of the knowledge obtained in an unambiguous formalized language.

Axiomatic Method - this is a way of building a scientific theory, when it is based on certain axioms, from which all other provisions are logically derived.

Hypothetical-deductive method - creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which, ultimately, explanations of scientific facts are derived.

Inductive methods for establishing the causal relationship of phenomena:

similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon under study have only one previous common circumstance, then this circumstance in which they are similar to each other is probably the cause of the phenomenon sought;

difference method: if the case in which the phenomenon of interest to us occurs, and the case in which it does not occur, are similar in everything, with the exception of one circumstance, then this is the only circumstance in which they differ from each other, and is probably the cause of the desired phenomenon;

concomitant change method: if the rise or change of an antecedent phenomenon every time causes the rise or change of another accompanying phenomenon, then the first of these is probably the cause of the second;

residual method: if it is established that the cause of a part of a complex phenomenon is not the known previous circumstances, except for one of them, then we can assume that this single circumstance is the cause of the part of the phenomenon under study that interests us.

General human methods of thinking:

- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences of objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);

- Analysis- mental dismemberment of an object as a whole

(we divide each engine into constituent elements of the characteristic);

- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements selected as a result of the analysis (we mentally combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);

- abstraction- selection of some features of the object and distraction from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);

- Induction- the movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and as a result - to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, we come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);

- Deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the particular (based on the general laws of engine operation, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);

- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow obtaining the information necessary for knowing the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);

- Analogy- a conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, on the basis of similarity in other signs (a conclusion about an engine breakdown by a characteristic knock);

- Generalization- the union of individual objects in a certain concept (for example, the creation of the concept of "engine").

The science:

- it is a form of spiritual and practical activity of people, aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and their systematization.

Scientific complexes:

a)natural science- this is a system of disciplines, the object of which is nature, that is, a part of being that exists according to laws not created by the activity of people.

b)Social science- this is a system of sciences about society, that is, a part of being, constantly recreated in the activities of people. Social science includes social sciences (sociology, economic theory, demography, history, etc.) and the humanities that study the values ​​of society (ethics, aesthetics, religious studies, philosophy, legal sciences, etc.)

in)Technical science- these are sciences that study the laws and specifics of the creation and functioning of complex technical systems.

G)Anthropological sciences- this is a combination of sciences about man in its entirety: physical anthropology, philosophical anthropology, medicine, pedagogy, psychology, etc.

In addition, the sciences are divided into fundamental, theoretical and applied, which are directly related to industrial practice.

Scientific criteria: universality, systematization, relative consistency, relative simplicity (the theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena based on the minimum number of scientific principles is considered good), explanatory potential, predictive power, completeness for a given level of knowledge.

Scientific truth is characterized by objectivity, evidence, consistency (orderliness based on certain principles), verifiability.

Science Development Models:

the theory of reproduction (proliferation) of P. Feyerabend, which affirms the randomness of the emergence of concepts, the paradigm of T. Kuhn, the conventionalism of A. Poincaré, the psychophysics of E. Mach, the personal knowledge of M. Polanyi, the evolutionary epistemology of S. Toulmin, the research program of I. Lakatos, thematic analysis of science by J. Holton.

K. Popper, considering knowledge in two aspects: statics and dynamics, developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his opinion, growth of scientific knowledge is the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement by better and more perfect ones. T. Kuhn's position is radically different from this approach. His model includes two main stages: the stage of "normal science" (the dominance of one or another paradigm) and the stage of "scientific revolution" (the collapse of the old paradigm and the establishment of a new one).

global scientific revolution - this is a change in the general scientific picture of the world, accompanied by changes in the ideals, norms and philosophical foundations of science.

Within the framework of classical natural science, two revolutions stand out. First associated with the formation of classical natural science in the 17th century. Second The revolution dates back to the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. and marks the transition to a disciplinary organized science. Third The global scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. and is associated with the formation of non-classical natural science. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. new radical changes are taking place in the foundations of science, which can be characterized as fourth global revolution. In the course of it, a new post-nonclassical science is born.

Three revolutions (out of four) led to the establishment of new types of scientific rationality:

1. Classical type of scientific rationality(XVIII-XIX centuries). At that time, the following ideas about science were established: the value of objective universal true knowledge appeared, science was seen as a reliable and absolutely rational enterprise with which you can solve all the problems of mankind, natural scientific knowledge was considered the highest achievement, the object and subject of scientific research were presented in a rigid epistemological confrontation, explanation was interpreted as a search for mechanical causes and substances. In classical science, it was believed that only laws of a dynamic type could be true laws.

2. Non-classical type of scientific rationality(XX century). Its features are: the coexistence of alternative concepts, the complication of scientific ideas about the world, the assumption of probabilistic, discrete, paradoxical phenomena, reliance on the unavoidable presence of the subject in the processes under study, the assumption of the absence of an unambiguous connection between theory and reality; science begins to determine the development of technology.

3. Post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality(late XX - early XXI century). It is characterized by an understanding of the extreme complexity of the processes under study, the emergence of a value perspective in the study of problems, and a high degree of use of interdisciplinary approaches.

Science and Society:

Science is closely interconnected with the development of society. This is manifested primarily in the fact that it is ultimately determined, conditioned by social practice and its needs. However, with each decade, the reverse influence of science on society is also increasing. The connection and interaction of science, technology and production is becoming stronger and stronger - science is turning into a direct productive force of society. How is it shown?

First of all, science is now overtaking the development of technology, becoming the leading force in the progress of material production.

Secondly, science permeates all spheres of social life.

Thirdly, science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but also on the person himself, the development of his creative abilities, the culture of thinking, the creation of material and spiritual prerequisites for his integral development.

Fourth, the development of science leads to the emergence of parascientific knowledge. This is a collective name for ideological and hypothetical concepts and teachings characterized by an anti-scientist orientation. The term "parascience" refers to statements or theories that deviate to a greater or lesser extent from the standards of science and contain both fundamentally erroneous and possibly true statements. Concepts most often referred to as parascience: obsolete scientific concepts such as alchemy, astrology, etc., which have played a certain historical role in the development of modern science; folk medicine and other "traditional", but to a certain extent opposition to modern science teachings; sports, family, culinary, labor, etc. "sciences", which are examples of the systematization of practical experience and applied knowledge, but do not correspond to the definition of science as such.

Approaches to assessing the role of science in the modern world. First approach - scientism claims that with the help of natural-technical scientific knowledge it is possible to solve all social problems

Second approach - antiscientism, Based on the negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution, it rejects science and technology, considering them forces hostile to the true essence of man. Socio-historical practice shows that it is equally wrong to both exorbitantly absolutize science and underestimate it.

Functions of modern science:

1. Cognitive;

2. Cultural and worldview (providing society with a scientific worldview);

3. Function of direct productive force;

4. The function of social power (scientific knowledge and methods are widely used in solving all the problems of society).

Patterns of the development of science: continuity, a complex combination of processes of differentiation and integration of scientific disciplines, the deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization, theorization and dialectization of modern scientific knowledge, the alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of "abrupt breaking" (scientific revolutions) of laws and principles.

The formation of modern NCM is largely associated with discoveries in quantum physics.

Science and technology

Technics in the broad sense of the word - it is an artifact, that is, everything artificially created. Artifacts are: material and ideal.

Technics in the narrow sense of the word - this is a set of material-energy and information devices and means created by society for the implementation of its activities.

The basis of the philosophical analysis of technology was the ancient Greek concept of "techne", which meant skill, art, the ability to create something from natural material.

M. Heidegger believed that technology is a way of being a person, a way of his self-regulation. Yu. Habermas believed that technology unites everything "material", opposing the world of ideas. O. Toffler substantiated the wave-like nature of the development of technology and its impact on society.

Technology is the manifestation of technology. If what a person affects is a technique, then how it affects is technology.

Technosphere- this is a special part of the Earth's shell, which is a synthesis of artificial and natural, created by society to meet its needs.

Equipment classification:

By type of activity distinguish: material and production, transport and communications, scientific research, learning process, medical, sports, household, military.

By type of natural process used there is mechanical, electronic, nuclear, laser and other equipment.

According to the level of structural complexity the following historical forms of technology arose: guns(manual labor, mental labor and human activity), cars and automata. The sequence of these forms of technology, on the whole, corresponds to the historical stages in the development of technology itself.

Trends in the development of technology at the present stage:

The size of many technical means is constantly growing. So, the excavator bucket in 1930 had a volume of 4 cubic meters, and now it is 170 cubic meters. Transport planes are already lifting 500 or more passengers, and so on.

There was a trend of the opposite property, to a decrease in the size of equipment. For example, the creation of microminiature personal computers, tape recorders without cassettes, etc., has already become a reality.

Increasingly, technical innovation is driven by the application of scientific knowledge. A striking example of this is space technology, which has become the embodiment of scientific developments of more than two dozen natural and technical sciences. Discoveries in scientific creativity give impetus to technical creativity with inventions characteristic of it. The fusion of science and technology into a single system that has radically changed the life of a person, society, and the biosphere is called scientific and technological revolution(NTR).

There is a more intensive merging of technical means into complex systems and complexes: factories, power plants, communication systems, ships, etc. The prevalence and scale of these complexes allows us to speak about the existence of a technosphere on our planet.

An important and constantly growing field of application of modern technology and technology is the information field.

Informatization - it is the process of production, storage and dissemination of information in society.

Historical forms of informatization: colloquial speech; writing; typography; electrical - electronic reproductive devices (radio, telephone, television, etc.); EVM (computers).

The mass use of the computer marked a special stage of informatization. Unlike physical resources, information as a resource has a unique property - when used, it does not decrease, but, on the contrary, expands. The inexhaustibility of information resources dramatically accelerates the technological cycle "knowledge - production - knowledge", causes an avalanche-like increase in the number of people involved in the process of obtaining, formalizing and processing knowledge (in the USA, 77% of employees are involved in the field of information activities and services), has an impact on the prevalence of systems mass media and manipulation of public opinion. Based on these circumstances, many scientists and philosophers (D. Bell, T. Stoner, J. Masuda) proclaimed the offensive of the information society.

Signs of the information society:

Free access for any person in any place, at any time to any information;

The production of information in this society should be carried out in the volumes necessary to ensure the life of the individual and society in all its parts and directions;

Science should occupy a special place in the production of information;

Accelerated automation and operation;

Priority development of information activities and services.

Undoubtedly, the information society has certain advantages and benefits. However, one cannot fail to note its problems: computer theft, the possibility of an informational computer war, the possibility of establishing an information dictatorship and terror of provider organizations, etc.

Relationship between man and technology

On the one hand, the facts and ideas of distrust and hostility to technology. In ancient China, some Taoist sages denied technology, motivating their actions by the fact that, using technology, you become addicted to it, lose your freedom of action and become a mechanism yourself. In the 30s of the twentieth century, O. Spengler in the book "Man and Technology" argued that man has become a slave to machines and will be driven to death by them.

At the same time, the seeming indispensability of technology in all spheres of human existence sometimes gives rise to an unbridled apology for technology, a kind of the ideology of technology. How is it shown? First of all. In the exaggeration of the role and importance of technology in human life and, secondly, in the transfer to humanity and personality of the characteristics inherent in machines. Supporters of technocracy see the prospects for progress in the concentration of political power in the hands of the technical intelligentsia.

The consequences of the influence of technology on humans:

beneficial component includes the following:

the wide dissemination of technology contributed to the lengthening of the average life expectancy of a person by almost two times;

technology freed a person from embarrassing circumstances and increased his free time;

new information technology has qualitatively expanded the scope and forms of human intellectual activity;

technology has brought progress in the process of education; technology has raised the efficiency of human activity in various spheres of society.

Negative the impact of technology on man and society is as follows: some of its types of technology pose a danger to human life and health, the threat of environmental catastrophe has increased, and the number of occupational diseases has increased;

a person, becoming a particle of some technical system, loses his creative essence; an increasing amount of information tends to decrease the share of knowledge that one person is able to possess;

technology can be used as an effective means of suppression, total control and manipulation of a person;

the impact of technology on the human psyche is enormous both through virtual reality and through the replacement of the "symbol-image" chain with another "image-image", which leads to a halt in the development of figurative and abstract thinking, as well as the emergence of neuroses and mental illness.

Engineer(from French and Latin means “creator”, “creator”, “inventor” in a broad sense) is a person who mentally creates a technical object and controls the process of its manufacture and operation. Engineering activities - it is the activity of mentally creating a technical object and managing the process of its manufacture and operation. Engineering activities emerged from technical activities in the 18th century during the industrial revolution.

Stages of the process of cognition. Forms of sensory and rational knowledge.

The concept of method and methodology. Classification of methods of scientific knowledge.

General (dialectical) method of cognition, principles of the dialectical method and their application in scientific cognition.

General scientific methods of empirical knowledge.

General scientific methods of theoretical knowledge.

General scientific methods applied at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge.

Modern science is developing at a very fast pace, at present the volume of scientific knowledge is doubling every 10-15 years. About 90% of all scientists who have ever lived on Earth are our contemporaries. For some 300 years, namely such an age of modern science, mankind has made such a huge breakthrough that our ancestors did not even dream of (about 90% of all scientific and technological achievements were made in our time). The whole world around us shows what progress humanity has made. It was science that was the main reason for such a rapidly flowing scientific and technological revolution, the transition to a post-industrial society, the widespread introduction of information technologies, the emergence of a “new economy”, for which the laws of classical economic theory do not apply, the beginning of the transfer of human knowledge into an electronic form, so convenient for storage, systematization, search and processing, and many others.

All this convincingly proves that the main form of human knowledge - science in our days is becoming more and more significant and essential part of reality.

However, science would not be so productive if it did not have such a developed system of methods, principles and imperatives of knowledge inherent in it. It is the correctly chosen method, along with the talent of a scientist, that helps him to know the deep connection of phenomena, reveal their essence, discover laws and patterns. The number of methods that science develops to understand reality is constantly increasing. Their exact number is perhaps difficult to determine. After all, there are about 15,000 sciences in the world, and each of them has its own specific methods and subject of research.

At the same time, all these methods are in dialectical connection with general scientific methods, which they usually contain in various combinations and with the general, dialectical method. This circumstance is one of the reasons that determine the importance of having philosophical knowledge in any scientist. After all, it is philosophy as the science “about the most general laws of the existence and development of the world” that studies the trends and ways of developing scientific knowledge, its structure and research methods, considering them through the prism of its categories, laws and principles. In addition to everything, philosophy endows the scientist with that universal method, without which it is impossible to do in any field of scientific knowledge.

Cognition is a specific type of human activity aimed at comprehending the surrounding world and oneself in this world. “Cognition is, primarily due to socio-historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion, and improvement.”

A person comprehends the world around him, masters it in various ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished. First (genetically original) - logistical - production of means of subsistence, labor, practice. Second - spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relationship of subject and object is only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms.

Every form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. correspond to specific forms of knowledge. Usually, the following are distinguished: everyday, playful, mythological, artistic-figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. The latter, although related, are not identical to each other, each of them has its own specifics.

We will not dwell on the consideration of each of the forms of knowledge. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.

The main features of scientific knowledge are:

1. The main task of scientific knowledge is to discover the objective laws of reality - natural, social (social), the laws of cognition itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of the study mainly on the general, essential properties of the subject, its necessary characteristics and their expression in a system of abstractions. “The essence of scientific knowledge lies in a reliable generalization of facts, in the fact that it finds the necessary, regular behind the random, the general behind the individual, and on this basis it predicts various phenomena and events.” Scientific knowledge strives to reveal the necessary, objective connections that are fixed as objective laws. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

2. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation. Hence the characteristic feature of scientific knowledge is objectivity, the elimination, if possible, of subjectivistic moments in many cases in order to realize the “purity” of considering one’s subject. Even Einstein wrote: “What we call science has as its exclusive task to firmly establish what is.” Its task is to give a true reflection of the processes, an objective picture of what is. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the activity of the subject is the most important condition and prerequisite for scientific knowledge. The latter is impossible without a constructive-critical attitude to reality, excluding inertia, dogmatism, and apologetics.

3. Science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is focused on being embodied in practice, being a “guide to action” in changing the surrounding reality and managing real processes. The vital meaning of scientific research can be expressed by the formula: “To know in order to foresee, to foresee in order to practically act” - not only in the present, but also in the future. The whole progress of scientific knowledge is connected with the increase in the power and range of scientific foresight. It is foresight that makes it possible to control processes and manage them. Scientific knowledge opens up the possibility of not only foreseeing the future, but also its conscious formation. “The orientation of science to the study of objects that can be included in activity (either actual or potentially, as possible objects of its future development), and their study as obeying the objective laws of functioning and development is one of the most important features of scientific knowledge. This feature distinguishes it from other forms of human cognitive activity.

An essential feature of modern science is that it has become such a force that predetermines practice. From the daughter of production, science turns into his mother. Many modern manufacturing processes were born in scientific laboratories. Thus, modern science not only serves the needs of production, but also increasingly acts as a prerequisite for the technical revolution. Great discoveries over the past decades in the leading fields of knowledge have led to a scientific and technological revolution that has embraced all elements of the production process: comprehensive automation and mechanization, the development of new types of energy, raw materials and materials, penetration into the microcosm and space. As a result, the prerequisites for the gigantic development of the productive forces of society were formed.

4. Scientific knowledge in epistemological terms is a complex contradictory process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms fixed in a language - natural or - more characteristically - artificial (mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas, etc.). .P.). Scientific knowledge does not simply fix its elements, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with its own norms and principles. In the development of scientific knowledge, revolutionary periods alternate, the so-called scientific revolutions, which lead to a change in theories and principles, and evolutionary, calm periods, during which knowledge is deepened and detailed. The process of continuous self-renewal by science of its conceptual arsenal is an important indicator of scientific character.

5. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as instruments, tools, and other so-called “scientific equipment”, which are often very complex and expensive (synchrophasotrons, radio telescopes, rocket and space technology, etc.), are used. In addition, science, to a greater extent than other forms of cognition, is characterized by the use of such ideal (spiritual) means and methods for the study of its objects and itself as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, systemic, hypothetical-deductive and other general scientific methods. and methods (see more on this below).

6. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, the constant improvement of their thinking, the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles are of paramount importance here.

In modern methodology, various levels of scientific criteria are distinguished, referring to them, in addition to those named, such as the internal systemic nature of knowledge, its formal consistency, experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc. In other forms of cognition, the considered criteria may be present (to varying degrees), but there they are not decisive.

The process of cognition includes the receipt of information through the senses (sensory cognition), the processing of this information by thinking (rational cognition), and the material development of cognizable fragments of reality (social practice). There is a close connection between cognition and practice, during which the materialization (objectification) of the creative aspirations of people takes place, the transformation of their subjective plans, ideas, goals into objectively existing objects, processes.

Sensual and rational cognition are closely related and are the two main aspects of the cognitive process. At the same time, these aspects of cognition do not exist in isolation either from practice or from each other. The activity of the sense organs is always controlled by the mind; the mind functions on the basis of the initial information that the sense organs supply to it. Since sensory cognition precedes rational cognition, it is possible in a certain sense to speak of them as steps, stages of the process of cognition. Each of these two levels of cognition has its own specifics and exists in its own forms.

Sensory cognition is realized in the form of direct receipt of information with the help of the sense organs, which directly connect us with the outside world. Note that such knowledge can also be carried out using special technical means (devices) that expand the capabilities of the human senses. The main forms of sensory knowledge are: sensation, perception and representation.

Sensations arise in the human brain as a result of the influence of environmental factors on his sense organs. Each sense organ is a complex neural mechanism consisting of perceiving receptors, transmitting nerve conductors and the corresponding part of the brain that controls peripheral receptors. For example, the organ of vision is not only the eye, but also the nerves leading from it to the brain, and the corresponding department in the central nervous system.

Sensations are mental processes that occur in the brain when the nerve centers that control receptors are excited. “Sensations are a reflection of individual properties, qualities of objects of the objective world, directly affecting the sense organs, an elementary further psychologically indecomposable cognitive phenomenon.” Feelings are specialized. Visual sensations give us information about the shape of objects, about their color, about the brightness of light rays. Auditory sensations inform a person about a variety of sound vibrations in the environment. The sense of touch enables us to feel the temperature of the environment, the impact of various material factors on the body, their pressure on it, etc. Finally, the sense of smell and taste provide information about chemical impurities in the environment and the composition of the food we eat.

“The first premise of the theory of knowledge,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is undoubtedly that the only source of our knowledge is sensations.” Sensation can be considered as the simplest and initial element of sensory cognition and human consciousness in general.

Biological and psycho-physiological disciplines, studying sensation as a kind of reaction of the human body, establish various dependencies: for example, the dependence of a reaction, that is, sensation, on the intensity of irritation of a particular sense organ. In particular, it has been established that from the point of view of “information ability”, a person has vision and touch in the first place, and then hearing, taste, and smell.

The capabilities of the human senses are limited. They are able to display the world around them in certain (and rather limited) ranges of physical and chemical influences. Thus, the organ of vision can display a relatively small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from 400 to 740 millimicrons. Beyond the boundaries of this interval are ultraviolet and x-rays in one direction, and infrared radiation and radio waves in the other. Neither one nor the other does not perceive our eyes. Human hearing allows you to feel sound waves from a few tens of hertz to about 20 kilohertz. Vibrations of a higher frequency (ultrasonic) or a lower frequency (infrasonic) our ear is not able to feel. The same can be said about other sense organs.

From the facts testifying to the limitedness of the human senses, a doubt was born in his ability to know the world around him. Doubts about a person’s ability to cognize the world through their sense organs turn around in an unexpected way, because these doubts themselves turn out to be evidence in favor of the powerful possibilities of human cognition, including the capabilities of the sense organs, enhanced if necessary by appropriate technical means (microscope, binoculars, telescope, night vision device). visions, etc.).

But most importantly, a person can cognize objects and phenomena that are inaccessible to his senses, thanks to the ability for practical interaction with the outside world. A person is able to comprehend and understand the objective connection that exists between phenomena accessible to the sense organ and phenomena inaccessible to them (between electromagnetic waves and audible sound in a radio receiver, between the movements of electrons and those visible traces that they leave in a cloud chamber, etc. d.). The understanding of this objective connection is the basis of the transition (carried out in our consciousness) from the perceptible to the imperceptible.

In scientific knowledge, when detecting changes that occur for no apparent reason in sensually perceived phenomena, the researcher guesses the existence of phenomena that are not perceived. However, in order to prove their existence, reveal the laws of their action and use these laws, it is necessary that his (the researcher's) activity should be one of the links in the cause of the chain linking the observable and the unobservable. Managing this link at your own discretion and calling on the basis of knowledge of the laws unobservable phenomena observed effects, the researcher thereby proves the truth of knowledge of these laws. For example, the transformation of sounds into electromagnetic waves in a radio transmitter, and then their reverse transformation into sound vibrations in a radio receiver, proves not only the existence of an area of ​​electromagnetic oscillations that our senses cannot perceive, but also the truth of the provisions of the theory of electromagnetism created by Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz.

Therefore, the sense organs that a person has are quite enough for cognition of the world. “A person has just as many feelings,” L. Feuerbach wrote, “as much as it is necessary to perceive the world in its entirety, in its totality.” The lack of an additional sense organ in a person capable of responding to some environmental factors is fully compensated by his intellectual and practical-active capabilities. So, a person does not have a special sense organ that makes it possible to feel radiation. However, a person turned out to be able to compensate for the absence of such an organ with a special device (dosimeter) that warns of radiation danger in a visual or audible form. This suggests that the level of knowledge of the surrounding world is determined not just by the set, “range” of the sense organs and their biological perfection, but also by the degree of development of social practice.

At the same time, however, one should not forget that sensations have always been and will always be the only source of human knowledge about the surrounding world. The sense organs are the only “gates” through which information about the world around us can enter our consciousness. The lack of sensations from the outside world can even lead to mental illness.

The first form of sensory cognition (sensations) is characterized by an analysis of the environment: the sense organs, as it were, choose from an innumerable set of environmental factors, quite definite ones. But sensory knowledge includes not only analysis, but also synthesis, which is carried out in the subsequent form of sensory knowledge - in perception.

Perception is a holistic sensory image of an object, formed by the brain from sensations directly received from this object. Perception is based on combinations of different types of sensations. But this is not just a mechanical sum of them. Sensations that are received from various sense organs merge into a single whole in perception, forming a sensual image of an object. So, if we hold an apple in our hand, then visually we receive information about its shape and color, through touch we learn about its weight and temperature, smell conveys its smell; and if we taste it, we will know whether it is sour or sweet. In perception, the purposefulness of cognition is already manifested. We can focus on some side of the subject and it will be "bulged out" in perception.

Man's perceptions developed in the course of his social and labor activity. The latter leads to the creation of more and more new things, thereby increasing the number of perceived objects and improving the perceptions themselves. Therefore, the perceptions of man are more developed and perfect than the perceptions of animals. As F. Engels noted, an eagle sees much farther than a man, but the human eye notices much more in things than the eye of an eagle.

On the basis of sensations and perceptions in the human brain, representation. If sensations and perceptions exist only with direct contact of a person with an object (without this there is neither sensation nor perception), then the representation arises without a direct impact of the object on the senses. Some time after the object has affected us, we can recall its image in our memory (for example, remember an apple that we held in our hand some time ago and then ate). At the same time, the image of the object, recreated by our representation, differs from the image that existed in perception. Firstly, it is poorer, paler, in comparison with the multicolored image that we had with the direct perception of the object. And secondly, this image will necessarily be more general, because in the representation, with even greater force than in perception, the purposefulness of knowledge is manifested. In the image evoked from memory, the main thing that interests us will be in the foreground.

At the same time, imagination and fantasy are essential in scientific knowledge. This is where performances can become truly creative. Based on the elements that exist in reality, the researcher imagines something new, something that does not currently exist, but which will be either as a result of the development of some natural processes, or as a result of the progress of practice. All sorts of technical innovations, for example, initially exist only in the minds of their creators (scientists, designers). And only after their implementation in the form of some technical devices, structures, they become objects of sensory perception of people.

Representation is a great step forward in comparison with perception, for it contains such a new feature as generalization. The latter takes place already in ideas about concrete, single objects. But to an even greater extent this is manifested in general ideas (i.e., for example, in the idea not only of this particular birch growing in front of our house, but also of birch in general). In general ideas, the moments of generalization become much more significant than in any idea about a specific, single object.

Representation still belongs to the first (sensory) stage of cognition, for it has a sensory-visual character. At the same time, it is also a kind of “bridge” leading from sensory cognition to rational cognition.

In conclusion, we note that the role of sensory reflection of reality in ensuring all human cognition is very significant:

The sense organs are the only channel that directly connects a person with the external objective world;

Without sense organs, a person is generally incapable of either knowledge or thinking;

The loss of part of the sense organs complicates, complicates cognition, but does not block its possibilities (this is due to the mutual compensation of some sense organs by others, the mobilization of reserves in the active sense organs, the ability of the individual to concentrate his attention, his will, etc.);

The rational is based on the analysis of the material that the sense organs give us;

The regulation of objective activity is carried out primarily with the help of information received by the sense organs;

The sense organs provide the minimum of primary information that is necessary in order to cognize objects in many ways, in order to develop scientific knowledge.

Rational knowledge (from lat. ratio - reason) is the thinking of a person, which is a means of penetrating into the inner essence of things, a means of knowing the patterns that determine their existence. The fact is that the essence of things, their natural connections are inaccessible to sensory knowledge. They are comprehended only with the help of human mental activity.

It is “thinking that organizes the data of sensory perception, but by no means comes down to this, but gives rise to something new - something that is not given in sensibility. This transition is a leap, a break in gradualness. It has its objective basis in the “split” of the object into internal and external, essence and its manifestation, into separate and general. The external aspects of things, phenomena are reflected primarily with the help of living contemplation, and the essence, the common thing in them, is comprehended with the help of thinking. In this process of transition, what is called understanding. To understand means to reveal the essential in the subject. We can also understand what we are not able to perceive ... Thinking correlates the testimony of the sense organs with all the knowledge of the individual already available, moreover, with all the cumulative experience, knowledge of mankind to the extent that they have become the property of this subject.”

The forms of rational cognition (human thinking) are: concept, judgment and conclusion. These are the broadest and most general forms of thinking that underlie the entire incalculable wealth of knowledge that mankind has accumulated.

The original form of rational knowledge is concept. “Concepts are the products of the socio-historical process of cognition embodied in words, which single out and fix common essential properties; relations of objects and phenomena, and thanks to this, they simultaneously summarize the most important properties about the methods of action with given groups of objects and phenomena. The concept in its logical content reproduces the dialectical regularity of cognition, the dialectical connection between the individual, the particular and the universal. Essential and non-essential attributes of objects, necessary and random, qualitative and quantitative, etc. can be fixed in concepts. The emergence of concepts is the most important regularity in the formation and development of human thinking. The objective possibility of the emergence and existence of concepts in our thinking lies in the objective nature of the world around us, i.e., the presence in it of many individual objects that have a qualitative certainty. The formation of a concept is a complex dialectical process, including: comparison(mental comparison of one object with another, identification of signs of similarity and difference between them), generalization(mental association of homogeneous objects on the basis of certain common features), abstraction(highlighting in the subject of some features, the most significant, and distraction from others, minor, insignificant). All these logical devices are closely interconnected in a single process of concept formation.

Concepts express not only objects, but also their properties and relations between them. Such concepts as hard and soft, large and small, cold and hot, etc., express certain properties of bodies. Such concepts as motion and rest, speed and force, etc. express the interaction of objects and man with other bodies and processes of nature.

The emergence of new concepts is especially intensive in the field of science in connection with the rapid deepening and development of scientific knowledge. Discoveries in objects of new aspects, properties, relationships, relations immediately entail the emergence of new scientific concepts. Each science has its own concepts, which form a more or less harmonious system, called its conceptual apparatus. The conceptual apparatus of physics, for example, includes such concepts as “energy”, “mass”, “charge”, etc. The conceptual apparatus of chemistry includes the concepts of “element”, “reaction”, “valence”, etc.

According to the degree of generality, concepts can be different - less general, more general, extremely general. The concepts themselves are subject to generalization. In scientific cognition, particular scientific, general scientific and universal concepts function (philosophical categories such as quality, quantity, matter, being, etc.).

In modern science, an increasingly important role is played by general scientific concepts which arise at the points of contact (so to speak, “at the junction”) of various sciences. Often this occurs when solving some complex or global problems. The interaction of sciences in solving such scientific problems is significantly accelerated precisely due to the use of general scientific concepts. An important role in the formation of such concepts is played by the interaction of natural, technical and social sciences, characteristic of our time, which form the main areas of scientific knowledge.

More complex than the concept of the form of thinking is judgment. It includes the concept, but is not reduced to it, but is a qualitatively special form of thinking that performs its own, special functions in thinking. This is explained by the fact that “universal, particular and individual are not directly divided in the concept and are given as something whole. Their division and correlation is given in the judgment.

The objective basis of the judgment is the connections and relationships between objects. The necessity of judgments (as well as concepts) is rooted in the practical activity of people. Interacting with nature in the process of labor, a person seeks not only to distinguish certain objects from others, but also to comprehend their relationships in order to successfully influence them.

Connections and relations between objects of thought are of the most diverse nature. They can be between two separate objects, between an object and a group of objects, between groups of objects, etc. The variety of such real connections and relations is reflected in the variety of judgments.

“A judgment is that form of thinking through which the presence or absence of any connections and relations between objects is revealed (that is, it indicates the presence or absence of something in something)”. Being a relatively complete thought, reflecting things, phenomena of the objective world with their properties and relationships, the judgment has a certain structure. In this structure, the concept of the subject of thought is called the subject and is denoted by the Latin letter S ( subjectum- underlying). The concept of the properties and relations of the subject of thought is called a predicate and is denoted by the Latin letter P (Predicatum- said). The subject and the predicate are collectively called terms of judgment. At the same time, the role of terms in judgment is far from the same. The subject contains already known knowledge, and the predicate carries new knowledge about it. For example, science has established that iron has electrical conductivity. The presence of this connection between iron and its separate property makes possible the judgment: “iron (S) is electrically conductive (P)”.

The subjective-predicate form of judgment is associated with its main cognitive function - to reflect reality in its rich variety of properties and relationships. This reflection can be carried out in the form of individual, private and general judgments.

A singular is a judgment in which something is affirmed or denied about a separate subject. Such judgments in Russian are expressed by the words “this”, proper names, etc.

Private judgments are such judgments in which something is affirmed or denied about some part of a group (class) of objects. In Russian, such judgments begin with words such as “some”, “part”, “not all”, etc.

Judgments are called general, in which something is affirmed or denied about the whole group (about the whole class) of objects. Moreover, what is affirmed or denied in a general judgment concerns each subject of the class under consideration. In Russian, this is expressed by the words “all”, “any”, “everyone”, “any” (in affirmative judgments) or “none”, “nobody”, “none”, etc. (in negative judgments).

General judgments express the general properties of objects, general connections and relations between them, including objective laws. It is in the form of general judgments that essentially all scientific propositions are formed. The special significance of general judgments in scientific knowledge is determined by the fact that they serve as a mental form in which only the objective laws of the surrounding world, discovered by science, can be expressed. However, this does not mean that only general judgments have cognitive value in science. The laws of science arise as a result of the generalization of a multitude of individual and particular phenomena, which are expressed in the form of individual and particular judgments. Even single judgments about individual objects or phenomena (some facts that have arisen in an experiment, historical events, etc.) can have an important cognitive value.

Being a form of existence and expression of a concept, a separate judgment, however, cannot fully express its content. Only a system of judgments and inference can serve as such a form. In the conclusion, the ability of thinking to mediate rational reflection of reality is most clearly manifested. The transition to new knowledge is carried out here not by referring to the subject of cognition given sensory experience, but on the basis of already existing knowledge.

Inference contains in its composition judgments, and therefore concepts), but is not reduced to them, but also presupposes their definite connection. To understand the origin and essence of inference, it is necessary to compare two kinds of knowledge that a person has and uses in the course of his life. This is direct and indirect knowledge.

Direct knowledge is that which is obtained by a person with the help of the senses: sight, hearing, smell, etc. Such sensory information is a significant part of all human knowledge.

However, not everything in the world can be judged directly. In science, it is important mediated knowledge. This is knowledge that is not obtained directly, not immediately, but by derivation from other knowledge. The logical form of their acquisition is the conclusion. Inference is understood as a form of thinking by means of which new knowledge is deduced from known knowledge.

Like judgments, inference has its own structure. In the structure of any inference, there are: premises (initial judgments), a conclusion (or conclusion) and a certain connection between them. Parcels - this is the original (and at the same time already known) knowledge that serves as the basis for the conclusion. Conclusion - this is a derivative, new knowledge derived from premises and acting as their consequence. Finally, connection between premises and inference there is a necessary relation between them which makes it possible to pass from one to the other. In other words, it is a logical consequence relation. Any conclusion is a logical consequence of some knowledge from others. Depending on the nature of this following, the following two fundamental types of inferences are distinguished: inductive and deductive.

Inference is widely used in everyday and scientific knowledge. In science, they are used as a way of knowing the past, which can no longer be directly observed. It is on the basis of inferences that knowledge is formed about the emergence of the solar system and the formation of the Earth, about the origin of life on our planet, about the emergence and stages of development of society, etc. But inferences in science are used not only to understand the past. They are also important for understanding the future, which cannot yet be observed. And this requires knowledge about the past, about the development trends that are currently operating and paving the way for the future.

Together with concepts and judgments, inferences overcome the limitations of sensory knowledge. They turn out to be indispensable where the sense organs are powerless in comprehending the causes and conditions for the emergence of any object or phenomenon, in understanding its essence, forms of existence, patterns of its development, etc.

concept method (from the Greek word "methodos" - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality.

The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal. Possession of the method means for a person the knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

“Thus the method (in one form or another) is reduced to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of knowledge and action. It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that guide the subject in solving a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a given field of activity. It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save time and effort, to move towards the goal in the shortest way. The main function of the method is the regulation of cognitive and other forms of activity.”

The doctrine of the method began to develop in the science of modern times. Its representatives considered the correct method as a guide in the movement towards reliable, true knowledge. So, a prominent philosopher of the XVII century. F. Bacon compared the method of cognition with a lantern that illuminates the way for a traveler walking in the dark. And another well-known scientist and philosopher of the same period, R. Descartes, outlined his understanding of the method as follows: “By method,” he wrote, “I mean precise and simple rules, strict observance of which ... without unnecessary waste of mental strength, but gradually and constantly increasing knowledge, contributes to the fact that the mind reaches the true knowledge of everything that is available to it.

There is a whole field of knowledge that is specifically concerned with the study of methods and which is usually called methodology. Methodology literally means “the doctrine of methods” (because this term comes from two Greek words: “methodos” - method and “logos” - teaching). By studying the patterns of human cognitive activity, the methodology develops on this basis the methods for its implementation. The most important task of methodology is to study the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of cognitive methods.

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually subdivided according to the degree of their generality, i.e., according to the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

There are two general methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods. The metaphysical method from the middle of the 19th century began to be more and more forced out of natural science by the dialectical method.

The second group of methods of cognition consists of general scientific methods that are used in the most diverse fields of science, that is, they have a very wide, interdisciplinary range of applications.

The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical..“This difference is based on the dissimilarity, firstly, of the methods (methods) of cognitive activity itself, and secondly, the nature of the scientific results achieved.” Some general scientific methods are applied only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical level (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. The special role of empiricism in science lies in the fact that only at this level of research do we deal with the direct interaction of a person with the studied natural or social objects. Here living contemplation (sensory cognition) prevails, the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning. Therefore, the object under study is reflected mainly from the side of its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relations. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the actual data obtained in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a result of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and "mental operations". The absence of direct practical interaction with objects determines the peculiarity that an object at a given level of scientific knowledge can be studied only indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. However, living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.

At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects, phenomena are revealed by processing the data of empirical knowledge. This processing is carried out with the help of systems of “higher order” abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc. However, “at the theoretical level, we will not find a fixation or an abbreviated summary of empirical data; theoretical thinking cannot be reduced to the summation of empirically given material. It turns out that theory does not grow out of empiricism, but, as it were, next to it, or rather, above it and in connection with it.”

The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. “The theoretical level of knowledge is aimed at the formation of theoretical laws that meet the requirements of universality and necessity, i.e. work everywhere and all the time.” The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Singling out these two different levels in scientific research, however, one should not separate them from each other and oppose them. After all, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical one. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts, statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which the empirical level of research deals.

In turn, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without the achievements of the theoretical level. Empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical structure that determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used in this.

According to K. Popper, it is absurd to believe that we can start scientific research with “pure observations” without having “something like a theory”. Therefore, some conceptual point of view is absolutely necessary. Naive attempts to do without it can, in his opinion, only lead to self-deception and to the uncritical use of some unconscious point of view.

The empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing new data with the help of observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), sets new, more complex tasks for it. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirical knowledge, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

The third group of methods of scientific knowledge includes methods used only in the framework of the research of a particular science or a particular phenomenon. Such methods are called part scientific. Each particular science (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) has its own specific research methods.

At the same time, private scientific methods, as a rule, contain certain general scientific methods of cognition in various combinations. In particular scientific methods, there may be observations, measurements, inductive or deductive reasoning, etc. The nature of their combination and use depends on the conditions of the study, the nature of the objects being studied. Thus, private scientific methods are not divorced from general scientific ones. They are closely related to them and include the specific application of general scientific cognitive techniques to study a specific area of ​​the objective world. At the same time, particular scientific methods are also connected with the universal, dialectical method, which, as it were, is refracted through them.

Another group of methods of scientific knowledge is the so-called disciplinary methods, which are systems of techniques used in a particular discipline, which is part of some branch of science or that has arisen at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.

The last, fifth group includes interdisciplinary research methods which are a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods (arising as a result of a combination of elements of different levels of methodology), aimed mainly at the interfaces of scientific disciplines.

Thus, in scientific knowledge there is a complex, dynamic, integral, subordinated system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, direction, etc., which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions.

To what has been said, it remains to add that any method in itself does not predetermine success in the knowledge of certain aspects of material reality. It is also important to be able to correctly apply the scientific method in the process of cognition. If we use the figurative comparison of academician P. L. Kapitza, then the scientific method “is, as it were, a Stradivarius violin, the most perfect of violins, but in order to play it, you need to be a musician and know music. Without it, it will be just as out of tune as a normal violin.”

Dialectics (Greek dialektika - I am talking, arguing) is the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and knowledge, in which various phenomena are considered in the variety of their connections, the interaction of opposing forces, tendencies, in the process of change, development. According to its internal structure, dialectics as a method consists of a number of principles, the purpose of which is to lead cognition to the deployment of the contradictions of development. The essence of dialectics lies precisely in the presence of contradictions in development, in the movement towards these contradictions. Let us briefly consider the basic dialectical principles.

The principle of comprehensive consideration of the objects under study. An integrated approach to cognition.

One of the important requirements of the dialectical method is to study the object of knowledge from all sides, to strive to identify and study as many as possible (out of an infinite set) of its properties, connections, relations. Modern research in many fields of science increasingly requires taking into account the growing number of actual data, parameters, relationships, etc. This task is becoming increasingly difficult to solve without involving the information power of the latest computer technology.

The world around us is a single whole, a certain system, where each object as a unity of the diverse is inextricably linked with other objects and all of them constantly interact with each other. One of the basic principles of materialistic dialectics follows from the position on the universal connection and interdependence of all phenomena - the comprehensiveness of consideration. A correct understanding of a thing is possible only if the totality of its internal and external aspects, connections, relations to etc. is explored. In order to really know the subject deep and comprehensively, it is necessary to cover, study all its aspects, all connections and “mediation” in their system, with the isolation of the main, decisive side.

The principle of comprehensiveness in modern scientific research is realized in the form of an integrated approach to the objects of knowledge. The latter makes it possible to take into account the multiplicity of properties, aspects, relations, etc. of the objects and phenomena being studied. This approach underlies complex, interdisciplinary research, which makes it possible to “bring together” multilateral studies, to combine the results obtained by different methods. It was this approach that led to the idea of ​​creating scientific teams consisting of specialists in various fields and realizing the requirement of complexity in solving certain problems.

“Modern integrated scientific and technical disciplines and research are the reality of modern science. However, they do not fit into traditional organizational forms and methodological standards. It is in the sphere of these studies and disciplines that the practical “internal” interaction of the social, natural and technical sciences is now taking place ... Such studies (which, for example, include research in the field of artificial intelligence) require special organizational support and the search for new organizational forms of science. However, Unfortunately, their development is hampered precisely because of their unconventionality, the lack of a clear idea in the mass (and sometimes professional) consciousness about their place in the system of modern science and technology.

Nowadays, complexity (as one of the important aspects of dialectical methodology) is an integral element of modern global thinking. Based on it, the search for solutions to the global problems of our time requires a scientifically substantiated (and politically balanced) integrated approach.

The principle of considering in relation. System knowledge.

The problem of taking into account the connections of the thing under study with other things occupies an important place in the dialectical method of cognition, distinguishing it from the metaphysical one. The metaphysical thinking of many natural scientists, who ignored in their research the real relationships that exist between the objects of the material world, at one time gave rise to many difficulties in scientific knowledge. To overcome these difficulties, began in the XIX century. the transition from metaphysics to dialectics, "... considering things not in their isolation, but in their mutual connection."

The progress of scientific knowledge already in the 19th century, and even more so in the 20th century, showed that any scientist - in whatever field of knowledge he works - will inevitably fail in research if he considers the object under study out of connection with other objects, phenomena, or if will ignore the nature of the relationships of its elements. In the latter case, it will be impossible to understand and study the material object in its entirety, as a system.

The system is always some integrity representing yourself a set of elements, the functional properties and possible states of which are determined not only by the composition, structure, etc. of its constituent elements, but also by the nature of their mutual relations.

To study an object as a system, a special, systematic approach to its cognition is also required. The latter must take into account the qualitative originality of the system in relation to its elements (i.e., that it - as an integrity - has properties that its constituent elements do not have).

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that “... although the properties of the system as a whole cannot be reduced to the properties of the elements, they can be explained in their origin, in their internal mechanism, in the ways of their functioning based on the properties of the elements of the system and the nature their relationship and interdependence. This is the methodological essence of the systems approach. Otherwise, if there were no connection between the properties of the elements and the nature of their relationship, on the one hand, and the properties of the whole, on the other hand, there would be no scientific sense in considering the system precisely as a system, that is, as a set of elements with certain properties. Then the system would have to be considered simply as a thing that has properties, regardless of the properties of the elements and the structure of the system.

“The principle of consistency requires the differentiation of the external and internal sides of material systems, the essence and its manifestations, the discovery of the many different aspects of the subject, their unity, the disclosure of form and content, elements and structure, random and necessary, etc. This principle directs thinking to the transition from phenomena to their essence, to the knowledge of the integrity of the system, as well as the necessary connections of the subject under consideration with the processes surrounding it. The principle of consistency requires the subject to place at the center of cognition the idea of ​​integrity, which is designed to guide cognition from the beginning to the end of the study, no matter how it breaks up into separate, possibly, at first glance, and not related to each other, cycles or moments; on the whole path of cognition, the idea of ​​integrity will change, be enriched, but it should always be a systemic, holistic idea of ​​the object.

The principle of consistency is aimed at a comprehensive knowledge of the subject, as it exists at one time or another; it is aimed at reproducing its essence, integrative basis, as well as the diversity of its aspects, manifestations of the essence in its interaction with other material systems. Here it is assumed that the given object is delimited from its past, from its previous states; this is done for a more directed knowledge of its current state. Distraction from history in this case is a legitimate method of knowledge.

The spread of the systematic approach in science was associated with the complication of the objects of study and with the transition from metaphysical-mechanistic methodology to dialectical. Symptoms of the exhaustion of the cognitive potential of the metaphysical-mechanistic methodology, which focused on reducing the complex to individual connections and elements, appeared as early as the 19th century, and at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. the crisis of such a methodology was already quite clearly revealed, when a sound human mind increasingly began to come into contact with objects interacting with other material systems, with consequences that can no longer (without making an obvious mistake) be separated from the causes that gave rise to them.

The principle of determinism.

Determinism - (from lat. determino- define) is a philosophical doctrine of the objective regular relationship and interdependence of the phenomena of the material and spiritual world. The basis of this doctrine is the position on the existence of causality, i.e. such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause) under certain conditions necessarily gives rise to another phenomenon (consequence). Even in the works of Galileo, Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, the position was substantiated that when studying nature, one must look for effective causes and that “true knowledge is knowledge through causes” (F. Bacon).

Already at the level of phenomena, determinism makes it possible to distinguish necessary connections from accidental, essential from non-essential, to establish certain recurrences, correlative dependencies, etc., i.e., to carry out the advancement of thinking to essence, to causal connections within essence. Functional objective dependencies, for example, are connections between two or more consequences of the same cause, and the knowledge of regularities at the phenomenological level must be supplemented by the knowledge of genetic, producing causal relationships. The cognitive process, proceeding from effects to causes, from accidental to necessary and essential, aims to reveal the law. The law determines the phenomena, and therefore the knowledge of the law explains the phenomena and changes, the movements of the object itself.

Modern determinism presupposes the presence of various objectively existing forms of the interconnection of phenomena. But all these forms are ultimately formed on the basis of a universally acting causality, outside of which not a single phenomenon of reality exists.

The principle of learning in development. Historical and logical approach to cognition.

The principle of studying objects in their development is one of the most important principles of the dialectical method of cognition. This is one of the fundamental differences. dialectical method from the metaphysical. We will not get true knowledge if we study a thing in a dead, frozen state, if we ignore such an important aspect of its existence as development. Only by studying the past of the object of interest to us, the history of its origin and formation, it is possible to understand its current state, as well as to predict its future.

The principle of studying an object in development can be realized in cognition by two approaches: historical and logical (or, more precisely, logical-historical).

At historical approach, the history of the object is reproduced exactly, in all its versatility, taking into account all the details, events, including all kinds of random deviations, “zigzags” in development. This approach is used in a detailed, thorough study of human history, when observing, for example, the development of some plants, living organisms (with corresponding descriptions of these observations in all details), etc.

At logical The approach also reproduces the history of the object, but at the same time it is subjected to certain logical transformations: it is processed by theoretical thinking with the allocation of the general, essential and, at the same time, it is freed from everything random, insignificant, superficial, which interferes with the identification of the patterns of development of the object under study.

This approach in the natural sciences of the XIX century. was successfully (though spontaneously) realized by Ch. Darwin. For him, for the first time, the logical process of cognition of the organic world proceeded from the historical process of the development of this world, which made it possible to scientifically solve the issue of the emergence and evolution of plant and animal species.

The choice of one or another - historical or logical - approach in cognition is determined by the nature of the object under study, the objectives of the study, and other circumstances. At the same time, in the real process of cognition, both of these approaches are closely interrelated. The historical approach is not complete without some kind of logical understanding of the facts of the history of the development of the object under study. The logical analysis of the development of an object does not contradict its true history, it proceeds from it.

This interconnection between the historical and logical approaches in cognition was especially emphasized by F. Engels. “... The logical method,” he wrote, “... in essence is nothing more than the same historical method, only freed from historical form and from interfering accidents. From where history begins, the course of thought must also begin from the same, and its further movement will be nothing more than a reflection of the historical process in an abstract and theoretically consistent form; a corrected reflection, but corrected according to the laws that the actual historical process itself gives...”

The logical-historical approach, based on the power of theoretical thinking, allows the researcher to achieve a logically reconstructed, generalized reflection of the historical development of the object under study. And this leads to important scientific results.

In addition to the above principles, the dialectical method includes other principles - objectivity, specificity"split one" (principle of contradiction) etc. These principles are formulated on the basis of the relevant laws and categories, in their totality reflecting the unity, integrity of the objective world in its continuous development.

Scientific observation and description.

Observation is a sensual (mainly visual) reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. “Observation is a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on such sensory abilities of a person as sensation, perception, representation; in the course of observation, we gain knowledge about the external aspects, properties and signs of the object under consideration”. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows obtaining some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation (unlike ordinary, everyday observations) is characterized by a number of features:

Purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the task of research, and the attention of the observer should be fixed only on the phenomena associated with this task);

Regularity (observation should be carried out strictly according to the plan drawn up on the basis of the research task);

Activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience for this, using various technical means of observation).

Scientific observations are always accompanied description object of knowledge. An empirical description is a fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of information about objects given in an observation. With the help of a description, sensory information is translated into the language of concepts, signs, diagrams, drawings, graphs and numbers, thereby taking on a form convenient for further rational processing. The latter is necessary to fix those properties, aspects of the object under study, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of the results of observations form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the studied objects according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

Almost every science goes through this initial, “descriptive” stage of development. At the same time, as emphasized in one of the works on this issue, “the main requirements that apply to a scientific description are aimed at making it as complete, accurate and objective as possible. The description should give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself, accurately reflect the phenomena being studied. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. With the development of science, changes in its foundations, the means of description are transformed, and a new system of concepts is often created.

When observing, there is no activity aimed at transforming, changing objects of knowledge. This is due to a number of circumstances: the inaccessibility of these objects for practical impact (for example, observation of remote space objects), the undesirability, based on the objectives of the study, of interference in the observed process (phenological, psychological, and other observations), the lack of technical, energy, financial and other opportunities setting up experimental studies of objects of knowledge.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct and indirect.

At direct observations certain properties, aspects of the object are reflected, perceived by the human senses. Observations of this kind have provided much useful information in the history of science. It is known, for example, that Tycho Brahe's observations of the position of planets and stars in the sky, carried out for more than twenty years with an accuracy unsurpassed for the naked eye, were the empirical basis for Kepler's discovery of his famous laws.

Although direct observation continues to play an important role in modern science, however, most often scientific observation is mediated i.e., it is carried out using certain technical means. The emergence and development of such means largely determined the enormous expansion of the possibilities of the method of observation that has taken place over the past four centuries.

If, for example, before the beginning of the XVII century. Since astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, Galileo's invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level. And the creation in our days of X-ray telescopes and their launch into outer space on board the orbital station (X-ray telescopes can only work outside the Earth's atmosphere) made it possible to observe such objects of the Universe (pulsars, quasars), which would be impossible to study in any other way.

The development of modern natural science is associated with an increase in the role of the so-called indirect observations. Thus, objects and phenomena studied by nuclear physics cannot be directly observed either with the help of human senses or with the help of the most advanced instruments. For example, when studying the properties of charged particles using a cloud chamber, these particles are perceived by the researcher indirectly - by such visible manifestations as the formation tracks, consisting of many liquid droplets.

At the same time, any scientific observations, although they rely primarily on the work of the senses, require at the same time participation and theoretical thinking. The researcher, relying on his knowledge, experience, must be aware of sensory perceptions and express (describe) them either in terms of ordinary language, or - more strictly and abbreviated - in certain scientific terms, in some kind of graphs, tables, drawings, etc. For example, emphasizing the role of theory in the process of indirect observations, A. Einstein in a conversation with W. Heisenberg noted: “Whether a given phenomenon can be observed or not depends on your theory. It is the theory that must establish what can be observed and what cannot.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observation, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated.

From the foregoing, it follows that observation is a very important method of empirical knowledge, which ensures the collection of extensive information about the world around us. As the history of science shows, when used correctly, this method is very fruitful.

Experiment.

An experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It involves an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study in order to identify and study certain aspects, properties, relationships. At the same time, the experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, and interfere with the natural course of processes.

“In the general structure of scientific research, the experiment occupies a special place. On the one hand, it is the experiment that is the link between the theoretical and empirical stages and levels of scientific research. By design, an experiment is always mediated by prior theoretical knowledge: it is conceived on the basis of relevant theoretical knowledge, and its goal is often to confirm or refute a scientific theory or hypothesis. The results of the experiment themselves require a certain theoretical interpretation. At the same time, the method of experiment, according to the nature of the cognitive means used, belongs to the empirical stage of cognition. The result of experimental research is, first of all, the achievement of factual knowledge and the establishment of empirical patterns.

Experimentally oriented scientists argue that a cleverly designed and “cunningly”, masterfully staged experiment is higher than theory: a theory can be completely refuted, but a reliably obtained experience cannot!

The experiment includes other methods of empirical research (observations, measurements). At the same time, it has a number of important, unique features.

Firstly, the experiment makes it possible to study the object in a “purified” form, i.e., to eliminate all kinds of side factors, layers that impede the research process.

Secondly, during the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular, extreme conditions, i.e., studied at ultra-low temperatures, at extremely high pressures, or, conversely, in a vacuum, with huge electromagnetic field strengths, etc. In such artificially created conditions, it is possible to discover surprising and sometimes unexpected properties of objects and thereby to comprehend their essence more deeply.

Thirdly, while studying any process, the experimenter can interfere with it, actively influence its course. As Academician I. P. Pavlov noted, “experience, as it were, takes phenomena into its own hands and sets in motion one or the other, and thus, in artificial, simplified combinations, determines the true connection between phenomena. In other words, observation collects what nature offers it, while experience takes from nature what it wants.

Fourth, an important advantage of many experiments is their reproducibility. This means that the conditions of the experiment, and, accordingly, the observations and measurements carried out in this case can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

The preparation and conduct of the experiment require compliance with a number of conditions. So, scientific experiment:

Never taken at random, it presupposes a well-defined goal of the study;

It is not done “blindly”, it is always based on some initial theoretical positions. Without an idea in your head, I.P. Pavlov said, you won’t see the fact at all;

It is not carried out unplanned, chaotically, the researcher preliminarily outlines the ways of its implementation;

Requires a certain level of development of technical means of cognition necessary for its implementation;

Should be carried out by people who have a sufficiently high qualification.

Only the totality of all these conditions determines success in experimental studies.

Depending on the nature of the problems solved in the course of experiments, the latter are usually divided into research and testing.

Research experiments make it possible to discover new, unknown properties in an object. The result of such an experiment may be conclusions that do not follow from the existing knowledge about the object of study. An example is the experiments carried out in the laboratory of E. Rutherford, which led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus, and thus to the birth of nuclear physics.

Verification experiments serve to test, confirm certain theoretical constructions. Thus, the existence of a number of elementary particles (positron, neutrino, etc.) was first predicted theoretically, and only later they were discovered experimentally.

Based on the methodology and the results obtained, the experiments can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative experiments are exploratory in nature and do not lead to any quantitative ratios. They allow only to reveal the effect of certain factors on the phenomenon under study. Quantitative experiments aimed at establishing accurate quantitative dependencies in the phenomenon under study. In the real practice of experimental research, both of these types of experiments are implemented, as a rule, in the form of successive stages in the development of cognition.

As you know, the connection between electrical and magnetic phenomena was first discovered by the Danish physicist Oersted as a result of a purely qualitative experiment (by placing a magnetic compass needle next to a conductor through which an electric current was passed, he found that the needle deviates from its original position). After Oersted published his discovery, quantitative experiments by the French scientists Biot and Savart followed, as well as experiments by Ampère, on the basis of which the corresponding mathematical formula was derived.

All these qualitative and quantitative empirical studies laid the foundations for the doctrine of electromagnetism.

Depending on the field of scientific knowledge in which the experimental method of research is used, there are natural science, applied (in technical sciences, agricultural science, etc.) and socio-economic experiments.

Measurement and comparison.

Most scientific experiments and observations involve making various measurements. Measurement - this is a process that consists in determining the quantitative values ​​of certain properties, aspects of the object under study, the phenomenon with the help of special technical devices.

The great importance of measurements for science was noted by many prominent scientists. For example, D. I. Mendeleev emphasized that “science begins as soon as they begin to measure.” And the famous English physicist W. Thomson (Kelvin) pointed out that "every thing is known only to the extent that it can be measured."

The measurement operation is based on comparison objects by some similar properties or sides. To make such a comparison, it is necessary to have certain units of measurement, the presence of which makes it possible to express the properties under study in terms of their quantitative characteristics. In turn, this makes it possible to widely use mathematical tools in science and creates the prerequisites for the mathematical expression of empirical dependencies. Comparison is not only used in connection with measurement. In science, comparison acts as a comparative or comparative-historical method. Initially, it arose in philology, literary criticism, then it began to be successfully applied in jurisprudence, sociology, history, biology, psychology, history of religion, ethnography and other fields of knowledge. Entire branches of knowledge have arisen that use this method: comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, comparative psychology, and so on. So, in comparative psychology, the study of the psyche is carried out on the basis of comparing the psyche of an adult with the development of the psyche in a child, as well as animals. In the course of scientific comparison, not arbitrarily chosen properties and connections are compared, but essential ones.

An important aspect of the measurement process is the method of its implementation. It is a set of techniques that use certain principles and means of measurement. Under the principles of measurement, in this case, we mean some phenomena that form the basis of measurements (for example, temperature measurement using the thermoelectric effect).

There are several types of measurements. Based on the nature of the dependence of the measured value on time, measurements are divided into static and dynamic. At static measurements the quantity that we measure remains constant in time (measuring the size of bodies, constant pressure, etc.). To dynamic include such measurements during which the measured value changes in time (measurement of vibration, pulsating pressures, etc.).

According to the method of obtaining results, direct and indirect measurements are distinguished. AT direct measurements the desired value of the measured value is obtained by directly comparing it with the standard or issued by the measuring device. At indirect measurement the desired value is determined on the basis of a known mathematical relationship between this value and other quantities obtained by direct measurements (for example, finding the electrical resistivity of a conductor from its resistance, length and cross-sectional area). Indirect measurements are widely used in cases where the desired value cannot be or is too difficult to measure directly, or when direct measurement gives a less accurate result.

With the progress of science, the measuring technique also advances. Along with the improvement of existing measuring devices operating on the basis of traditional established principles (replacing the materials from which the parts of the device are made, making individual changes to its design, etc.), there is a transition to fundamentally new designs of measuring devices due to new theoretical prerequisites. In the latter case, devices are created in which new scientific ones are realized. achievements. For example, the development of quantum physics has significantly increased the possibility of measurements with a high degree of accuracy. The use of the Mössbauer effect makes it possible to create a device with a resolution of the order of 10 -13% of the measured value.

Well-developed measuring instrumentation, a variety of methods and high characteristics of measuring instruments contribute to progress in scientific research. In turn, the solution of scientific problems, as noted above, often opens up new ways to improve the measurements themselves.

Abstraction. Rising from the abstract to the concrete.

The process of cognition always begins with the consideration of specific, sensually perceived objects and phenomena, their external signs, properties, connections. Only as a result of studying the sensory-concrete does a person come to some kind of generalized ideas, concepts, to one or another theoretical position, i.e., scientific abstractions. Obtaining these abstractions is connected with the complex abstracting activity of thinking.

In the process of abstraction, there is a departure (ascension) from sensually perceived concrete objects (with all their properties, aspects, etc.) to abstract ideas about them reproduced in thinking. At the same time, sensory-concrete perception, as it were, “evaporates to the level of an abstract definition.” abstraction, Thus, it consists in a mental abstraction from some - less significant - properties, aspects, features of the object under study with the simultaneous selection, formation of one or more essential aspects, properties, features of this object. The result obtained in the process of abstraction is called abstraction(or use the term "abstract" - as opposed to concrete).

In scientific knowledge, abstractions of identification and isolating abstractions are widely used, for example. Identification abstraction is a concept that is obtained as a result of identifying a certain set of objects (at the same time, they are abstracted from a number of individual properties, features of these objects) and combining them into a special group. An example is the grouping of the entire multitude of plants and animals living on our planet into special species, genera, orders, etc. Isolating abstraction is obtained by separating some properties, relations, inextricably linked with the objects of the material world, into independent entities (“stability”, “solubility”, “electrical conductivity”, etc.).

The transition from the sensory-concrete to the abstract is always associated with a certain simplification of reality. At the same time, ascending from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, theoretical, the researcher gets the opportunity to better understand the object under study, to reveal its essence. At the same time, the researcher first finds the main connection (relationship) of the object under study, and then, step by step, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections, establishes their interactions, and in this way displays the essence of the object under study in its entirety.

The process of transition from sensory-empirical, visual representations of the phenomena being studied to the formation of certain abstract, theoretical structures that reflect the essence of these phenomena underlies the development of any science.

Since the concrete (i.e., real objects, processes of the material world) is a set of many properties, aspects, internal and external connections and relations, it is impossible to know it in all its diversity, remaining at the stage of sensory cognition, limited to it. Therefore, there is a need for a theoretical understanding of the concrete, that is, an ascent from the sensually concrete to the abstract.

But the formation of scientific abstractions, general theoretical propositions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of a deeper, more versatile knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, further movement (ascent) of knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete is necessary. The knowledge about the concrete obtained at this stage of the study will be qualitatively different in comparison with that which was available at the stage of sensory cognition. In other words, the concrete at the beginning of the process of cognition (sensory-concrete, which is its starting point) and the concrete, comprehended at the end of the cognitive process (it is called logical-concrete, emphasizing the role of abstract thinking in its comprehension), are fundamentally different from each other.

The logically concrete is the concrete theoretically reproduced in the researcher's thinking in all the richness of its content.

It contains in itself not only the sensuously perceived, but also something hidden, inaccessible to sensual perception, something essential, regular, comprehended only with the help of theoretical thinking, with the help of certain abstractions.

The method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete is used in the construction of various scientific theories and can be used both in the social and natural sciences. For example, in the theory of gases, having singled out the basic laws of an ideal gas - Clapeyron's equations, Avogadro's law, etc., the researcher goes to specific interactions and properties of real gases, characterizing their essential aspects and properties. As we go deeper into the concrete, more and more new abstractions are introduced, which act as a deeper reflection of the essence of the object. Thus, in the process of developing the theory of gases, it was found that the laws of an ideal gas characterize the behavior of real gases only at low pressures. This was due to the fact that the abstraction of an ideal gas neglects the attractive forces of molecules. Accounting for these forces led to the formulation of the van der Waals law. Compared with Clapeyron's law, this law expressed the essence of the behavior of gases more concretely and deeply.

Idealization. Thought experiment.

The mental activity of a researcher in the process of scientific knowledge includes a special kind of abstraction, which is called idealization. Idealization is the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the research.

As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, attributes of objects can be excluded from consideration. Thus, the idealization widespread in mechanics, called a material point, implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient in describing the movement of a wide variety of material objects from atoms and molecules to the planets of the solar system.

Changes in an object, achieved in the process of idealization, can also be made by endowing it with some special properties that are not feasible in reality. An example is the abstraction introduced into physics by idealization, known as completely black body(such a body is endowed with a property that does not exist in nature to absorb absolutely all the radiant energy that falls on it, reflecting nothing and passing nothing through itself).

The expediency of using idealization is determined by the following circumstances:

Firstly, “idealization is expedient when the real objects to be investigated are quite complex for the available means of theoretical, in particular mathematical, analysis, and in relation to the idealized case, by applying these means, it is possible to build and develop a theory that, under certain conditions and purposes, is effective. , to describe the properties and behavior of these real objects. The latter, in essence, certifies the fruitfulness of idealization, distinguishes it from a fruitless fantasy.

Secondly, it is advisable to use idealization in those cases when it is necessary to exclude certain properties, connections of the object under study, without which it cannot exist, but which obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it. A complex object is presented as if in a “purified” form, which facilitates its study.

Thirdly, the use of idealization is advisable when the properties, sides, and connections of the object under study that are excluded from consideration do not affect its essence within the framework of this study. In this case, the correct choice of the admissibility of such an idealization plays a very important role.

It should be noted that the nature of idealization can be very different if there are different theoretical approaches to the study of a phenomenon. As an example, we can point to three different concepts of “ideal gas”, which were formed under the influence of various theoretical and physical concepts: Maxwell-Boltzmann, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac. However, all three variants of idealization obtained in this way turned out to be fruitful in the study of gas states of various nature: the Maxwell-Boltzmann ideal gas became the basis for studies of ordinary molecular rarefied gases at sufficiently high temperatures; the Bose-Einstein ideal gas was applied to study the photon gas, and the Fermi-Dirac ideal gas helped solve a number of electron gas problems.

Being a kind of abstraction, idealization allows an element of sensory visualization (the usual process of abstraction leads to the formation of mental abstractions that do not have any visualization). This feature of idealization is very important for the implementation of such a specific method of theoretical knowledge, which is thought experiment ( also called mental, subjective, imaginary, idealized).

A thought experiment involves operating with an idealized object (replacing a real object in abstraction), which consists in the mental selection of certain positions, situations that allow us to detect some important features of the object under study. This shows a certain similarity between a mental (idealized) experiment and a real one. Moreover, any real experiment, before being carried out in practice, is first “played out” by the researcher mentally in the process of thinking, planning. In this case, the thought experiment acts as a preliminary ideal plan for a real experiment.

At the same time, the thought experiment also plays an independent role in science. At the same time, while maintaining similarity with the real experiment, it at the same time differs significantly from it.

In scientific knowledge, there may be cases when, in the study of certain phenomena, situations, conducting real experiments is generally impossible. This gap in knowledge can only be filled by a thought experiment.

The scientific activity of Galileo, Newton, Maxwell, Carnot, Einstein and other scientists who laid the foundations of modern natural science testifies to the essential role of a thought experiment in the formation of theoretical ideas. The history of the development of physics is rich in facts about the use of thought experiments. An example is Galileo's thought experiments, which led to the discovery of the law of inertia. “... The law of inertia,” A. Einstein and L. Infeld wrote, “cannot be derived directly from experiment, it can be derived speculatively, by thinking associated with observation. This experiment can never be done in reality, although it leads to a deep understanding of actual experiments.”

A thought experiment can be of great heuristic value, helping to interpret new knowledge obtained in a purely mathematical way. This is confirmed by many examples from the history of science.

The idealization method, which turns out to be very fruitful in many cases, has at the same time certain limitations. In addition, any idealization is limited to a specific area of ​​phenomena and serves to solve only certain problems. This is clearly seen at least on the example of the above idealization of “absolutely black body”.

The main positive value of idealization as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the theoretical constructions obtained on its basis make it possible then to effectively investigate real objects and phenomena. The simplifications achieved with the help of idealization facilitate the creation of a theory that reveals the laws of the studied area of ​​the phenomena of the material world. If the theory as a whole correctly describes real phenomena, then the idealizations underlying it are also legitimate.

Formalization.

Under formalization is understood as a special approach in scientific knowledge, which consists in the use of special symbols that allow one to abstract from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical provisions describing them and operate instead with a certain set of symbols (signs).

This technique consists in the construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). The relations of signs replace statements about the properties and relations of objects. In this way, a generalized sign model of a certain subject area is created, which makes it possible to discover the structure of various phenomena and processes, while abstracting from the qualitative characteristics of the latter. The derivation of some formulas from others according to the strict rules of logic and mathematics is a formal study of the main characteristics of the structure of various phenomena, sometimes very distant in nature.

A striking example of formalization is the mathematical descriptions of various objects and phenomena widely used in science, based on the corresponding meaningful theories. At the same time, the mathematical symbolism used not only helps to consolidate the existing knowledge about the objects and phenomena under study, but also acts as a kind of tool in the process of their further knowledge.

To build any formal system, it is necessary: ​​a) to specify an alphabet, that is, a certain set of characters; b) setting the rules by which “words”, “formulas” can be obtained from the initial characters of this alphabet; c) setting the rules by which one can move from one word, formula of a given system to other words and formulas (the so-called inference rules).

As a result, a formal sign system is created in the form of a certain artificial language. An important advantage of this system is the possibility of carrying out within its framework the study of an object in a purely formal way (operating with signs) without directly referring to this object.

Another advantage of formalization is to ensure the brevity and clarity of the recording of scientific information, which opens up great opportunities for operating with it.

Of course, formalized artificial languages ​​do not have the flexibility and richness of a natural language. But they lack the ambiguity of terms (polysemy), which is characteristic of natural languages. They are characterized by a well-constructed syntax (which establishes the rules for the connection between signs, regardless of their content) and unambiguous semantics (the semantic rules of a formalized language quite unambiguously determine the correlation of a sign system with a specific subject area). Thus, a formalized language has the monosemic property.

The ability to represent certain theoretical positions of science in the form of a formalized sign system is of great importance for cognition. But it should be borne in mind that the formalization of a particular theory is possible only if its content is taken into account. “A bare mathematical equation does not yet represent a physical theory; in order to obtain a physical theory, it is necessary to give mathematical symbols a specific empirical content.”

The growing use of formalization as a method of theoretical knowledge is connected not only with the development of mathematics. In chemistry, for example, the corresponding chemical symbolism, together with the rules for operating it, was one of the variants of a formalized artificial language. The method of formalization occupied an increasingly important place in logic as it developed. The works of Leibniz laid the foundation for the creation of the method of logical calculus. The latter led to the formation in the middle of the XIX century. mathematical logic, which in the second half of our century played an important role in the development of cybernetics, in the emergence of electronic computers, in solving problems of industrial automation, etc.

The language of modern science differs significantly from natural human language. It contains many special terms, expressions, formalization tools are widely used in it, among which the central place belongs to mathematical formalization. Based on the needs of science, various artificial languages ​​\u200b\u200bare created to solve certain problems. The entire set of created and being created artificial formalized languages ​​is included in the language of science, forming a powerful means of scientific knowledge.

axiomatic method.

In the axiomatic construction of theoretical knowledge, a set of initial positions is first set that does not require proof (at least within the framework of a given system of knowledge). These provisions are called axioms, or postulates. Then, according to certain rules, a system of output sentences is built from them. The totality of the initial axioms and the propositions derived from them form an axiomatically constructed theory.

Axioms are statements that do not need to be proven true. The number of axioms varies widely: from two or three to several dozen. Logical inference allows you to transfer the truth of the axioms to the consequences derived from them. At the same time, the axioms and conclusions from them are subject to the requirements of consistency, independence and completeness. Following certain, clearly fixed rules of inference makes it possible to streamline the process of reasoning when deploying an axiomatic system, to make this reasoning more rigorous and correct.

To define an axiomatic system, some language is required. In this regard, symbols (icons) are widely used, rather than cumbersome verbal expressions. Replacing spoken language with logical and mathematical symbols, as mentioned above, is called formalization. . If formalization takes place, then the axiomatic system is formal, and the provisions of the system take on the character formulas. The resulting formulas are called theorems and the arguments used are evidence theorems. Such is the structure of the axiomatic method, which is considered almost well-known.

Hypothesis method.

In methodology, the term “hypothesis” is used in two senses: as a form of existence of knowledge, characterized by problematic, unreliable, need for proof, and as a method of forming and substantiating explanatory proposals, leading to the establishment of laws, principles, theories. A hypothesis in the first sense of the word is included in the hypothesis method, but it can also be used outside of it.

The best way to understand the hypothesis method is to get acquainted with its structure. The first stage of the hypothesis method is familiarization with empirical material subject to theoretical explanation. Initially, they try to explain this material with the help of laws and theories already existing in science. If there are none, the scientist proceeds to the second stage - putting forward a guess or assumption about the causes and patterns of these phenomena. At the same time, he tries to use various methods of research: inductive guidance, analogy, modeling, etc. It is quite possible that at this stage several explanatory assumptions are put forward that are incompatible with each other.

The third stage is the stage of assessing the severity of the assumption and selecting the most probable one from the set of guesses. The hypothesis is tested primarily for logical consistency, especially if it has a complex form and unfolds into a system of assumptions. Next, the hypothesis is tested for compatibility with the fundamental intertheoretical principles of the given science.

At the fourth stage, the unfolding of the put forward assumption and the deductive derivation of empirically verifiable consequences from it takes place. At this stage, a partial reworking of the hypothesis is possible, the introduction of clarifying details into it with the help of mental experiments.

At the fifth stage, an experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis is carried out. A hypothesis either receives empirical confirmation or is refuted as a result of experimental verification. However, the empirical confirmation of the consequences of the hypothesis does not guarantee its truth, and the refutation of one of the consequences does not unequivocally testify to its falsity as a whole. All attempts to build an effective logic of confirmation and refutation of theoretical explanatory hypotheses have not yet been successful. The status of an explanatory law, principle or theory is given to the best hypothesis based on the results of verification. From such a hypothesis, as a rule, maximum explanatory and predictive power is required.

Familiarity with the general structure of the hypothesis method allows us to define it as a complex complex method of cognition, which includes all its diversity and forms and is aimed at establishing laws, principles and theories.

Sometimes the method of hypothesis is also called the hypothetical-deductive method, bearing in mind the fact that putting forward a hypothesis is always accompanied by a deductive derivation of empirically verifiable consequences from it. But deductive reasoning is not the only logical device used in the framework of the hypothesis method. When establishing the degree of empirical confirmation of a hypothesis, elements of inductive logic are used. Induction is also used at the stage of guessing. An essential place in putting forward a hypothesis is the conclusion by analogy. As already noted, a thought experiment can also be used at the stage of development of a theoretical hypothesis.

An explanatory hypothesis, as an assumption about a law, is not the only kind of hypothesis in science. There are also "existential" hypotheses - assumptions about the existence of elementary particles unknown to science, units of heredity, chemical elements, new biological species, etc. The methods of putting forward and substantiating such hypotheses differ from explanatory hypotheses. Along with the main theoretical hypotheses, there may be auxiliary hypotheses that make it possible to bring the main hypothesis into better agreement with experience. As a rule, such auxiliary hypotheses are later eliminated. There are also so-called working hypotheses that allow better organizing the collection of empirical material, but do not claim to explain it.

The most important version of the hypothesis method is mathematical hypothesis method, which is typical for sciences with a high degree of mathematization. The hypothesis method described above is the content hypothesis method. Within its framework, meaningful assumptions about the laws are first formulated, and then they receive the corresponding mathematical expression. In the method of mathematical hypothesis, thinking takes a different path. First, to explain quantitative dependencies, a suitable equation is selected from related fields of science, which often involves its modification, and then they try to give a meaningful interpretation to this equation.

The scope of application of the method of mathematical hypothesis is very limited. It is applicable primarily in those disciplines where a rich arsenal of mathematical tools has been accumulated in theoretical research. These disciplines primarily include modern physics. The method of mathematical hypothesis was used in the discovery of the basic laws of quantum mechanics.

Analysis and synthesis.

Under analysis understand the division of an object (mentally or actually) into its component parts for the purpose of studying them separately. As such parts, there may be some material elements of the object or its properties, features, relationships, etc.

Analysis is a necessary stage in the cognition of an object. Since ancient times, analysis has been used, for example, for the decomposition into components of certain substances. Note that the method of analysis played an important role in the collapse of the theory of phlogiston.

Undoubtedly, analysis occupies an important place in the study of objects of the material world. But it is only the first stage of the process of cognition.

To comprehend an object as a single whole, one cannot limit oneself to studying only its constituent parts. In the process of cognition, it is necessary to reveal the objectively existing connections between them, to consider them together, in unity. To carry out this second stage in the process of cognition - to move from the study of individual constituent parts of an object to the study of it as a single connected whole is possible only if the method of analysis is supplemented by another method - synthesis.

In the process of synthesis, the constituent parts (sides, properties, features, etc.) of the object under study, dissected as a result of the analysis, are joined together. On this basis, further study of the object takes place, but already as a single whole. At the same time, synthesis does not mean a simple mechanical connection of disconnected elements into a single system. It reveals the place and role of each element in the system of the whole, establishes their interrelation and interdependence, i.e., allows us to understand the true dialectical unity of the object under study.

Analysis fixes mainly that specific thing that distinguishes the parts from each other. Synthesis, on the other hand, reveals that essentially common thing that links the parts into a single whole. Analysis, which provides for the implementation of synthesis, has the allocation of the essential as its central core. Then the whole does not look the same as when the mind “first met” with it, but much deeper, more meaningful.

Analysis and synthesis are also successfully used in the sphere of human mental activity, that is, in theoretical knowledge. But here, as well as at the empirical level of cognition, analysis and synthesis are not two operations separated from each other. In essence, they are, as it were, two sides of a single analytical-synthetic method of cognition.

These two interrelated methods of research receive their concretization in each branch of science. They can turn from a general technique into a special method: for example, there are specific methods of mathematical, chemical, and social analysis. The analytical method has been developed in some philosophical schools and directions. The same can be said about synthesis.

Induction and deduction.

Induction (from lat. inductio- induction, inducement) is a formal logical conclusion that leads to a general conclusion based on particular premises. In other words, it is the movement of our thinking from the particular to the general.

Induction is widely used in scientific knowledge. Finding similar features, properties in many objects of a certain class, the researcher concludes that these features, properties are inherent in all objects of this class. Along with other methods of cognition, the inductive method played an important role in the discovery of some laws of nature (universal gravity, atmospheric pressure, thermal expansion of bodies, etc.).

Induction used in scientific knowledge (scientific induction) can be implemented in the form of the following methods:

1. The method of single similarity (in all cases of observing a phenomenon, only one common factor is found, all others are different; therefore, this single similar factor is the cause of this phenomenon).

2. The method of a single difference (if the circumstances of the occurrence of a phenomenon and the circumstances under which it does not occur are similar in almost everything and differ only in one factor that is present only in the first case, then we can conclude that this factor is the cause of this phenomena).

3. Combined method of similarity and difference (is a combination of the above two methods).

4. The method of concomitant changes (if certain changes in one phenomenon each time entail some changes in another phenomenon, then the conclusion follows about the causal relationship of these phenomena).

5. Method of residuals (if a complex phenomenon is caused by a multifactorial cause, and some of these factors are known as the cause of some part of this phenomenon, then the conclusion follows: the cause of another part of the phenomenon is the remaining factors included in the general cause of this phenomenon).

The founder of the classical inductive method of cognition is F. Bacon. But he interpreted induction extremely broadly, considered it the most important method of discovering new truths in science, the main means of scientific knowledge of nature.

In fact, the above methods of scientific induction serve mainly to find empirical relationships between the experimentally observed properties of objects and phenomena.

Deduction (from lat. deductio- deduction) is the receipt of particular conclusions based on the knowledge of some general provisions. In other words, it is the movement of our thinking from the general to the particular, the individual.

But the especially great cognitive significance of deduction is manifested in the case when the general premise is not just an inductive generalization, but some kind of hypothetical assumption, for example, a new scientific idea. In this case, deduction is the starting point for the birth of a new theoretical system. The theoretical knowledge created in this way predetermines the further course of empirical research and directs the construction of new inductive generalizations.

The acquisition of new knowledge through deduction exists in all natural sciences, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Operating with mathematical abstractions and building their reasoning on very general principles, mathematicians are forced most often to use deduction. And mathematics is, perhaps, the only proper deductive science.

In the science of modern times, the prominent mathematician and philosopher R. Descartes was the propagandist of the deductive method of cognition.

But, despite the attempts that have taken place in the history of science and philosophy to separate induction from deduction, to oppose them in the real process of scientific knowledge, these two methods are not used as isolated, isolated from each other. Each of them is used at a corresponding stage of the cognitive process.

Moreover, in the process of using the inductive method, deduction is often “hidden” as well. “Generalizing the facts in accordance with some ideas, we thus indirectly derive the generalizations we receive from these ideas, and we are far from always aware of this. It seems that our thought moves directly from facts to generalizations, that is, that there is pure induction here. In fact, in conformity with some ideas, in other words, being implicitly guided by them in the process of generalizing facts, our thought indirectly proceeds from ideas to these generalizations, and, consequently, deduction also takes place here ... We can say that in in all cases when we generalize, in accordance with any philosophical provisions, our conclusions are not only induction, but also hidden deduction.

Emphasizing the necessary connection between induction and deduction, F. Engels strongly advised scientists: “Induction and deduction are interconnected in the same necessary way as synthesis and analysis. Instead of unilaterally exalting one of them to the skies at the expense of the other, one should try to apply each in its place, and this can be achieved only if one does not lose sight of their connection with each other, their mutual complement to each other.

Analogy and modeling.

Under analogy similarity, the similarity of some properties, features or relationships of objects that are generally different is understood. The establishment of similarities (or differences) between objects is carried out as a result of their comparison. Thus, comparison underlies the method of analogy.

If a logical conclusion is made about the presence of any property, attribute, relationship of the object under study on the basis of establishing its similarity with other objects, then this conclusion is called inference by analogy.

The degree of probability of obtaining a correct conclusion by analogy will be the higher: 1) the more common properties of the compared objects are known; 2) the more essential the common properties found in them; and 3) the deeper the mutual regular connection of these similar properties is known. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that if the object, in relation to which a conclusion is made by analogy with another object, has some property that is incompatible with the property, the existence of which should be concluded, then the general similarity of these objects loses all meaning. .

The analogy method is used in various fields of science: in mathematics, physics, chemistry, cybernetics, in the humanities, etc. The well-known energy scientist V. A. Venikov well said about the cognitive value of the analogy method: “Sometimes they say:“ Analogy - not a proof”... But if you think about it, you can easily understand that scientists do not seek to prove anything only in this way. Isn’t it enough that a correctly seen similarity gives a powerful impetus to creativity?.. Analogy is capable of jumping thought into new, unknown orbits, and, of course, the position that analogy, if handled with due care, is the simplest and most a clear path from the old to the new.”

There are different types of inferences by analogy. But what they have in common is that in all cases one object is directly investigated, and a conclusion is made about another object. Therefore, inference by analogy in the most general sense can be defined as the transfer of information from one object to another. In this case, the first object, which is actually subjected to research, is called model, and another object, to which the information obtained as a result of the study of the first object (model) is transferred, is called original(sometimes - a prototype, sample, etc.). Thus, the model always acts as an analogy, i.e., the model and the object (original) displayed with its help are in a certain similarity (similarity).

“...Modeling is understood as the study of a simulated object (original), based on the one-to-one correspondence of a certain part of the properties of the original and the object (model) that replaces it in the study and includes the construction of a model, studying it and transferring the information obtained to the simulated object - the original” .

The use of modeling is dictated by the need to reveal such aspects of objects that are either impossible to comprehend through direct study, or it is unprofitable to study them in this way for purely economic reasons. A person, for example, cannot directly observe the process of the natural formation of diamonds, the origin and development of life on Earth, a whole series of phenomena of the micro- and mega-world. Therefore, one has to resort to artificial reproduction of such phenomena in a form convenient for observation and study. In some cases, it is much more profitable and economical to build and study its model instead of directly experimenting with the object.

Depending on the nature of the models used in scientific research, there are several types of modeling.

1. Mental (ideal) modeling. This type of modeling includes various mental representations in the form of certain imaginary models. It should be noted that mental (ideal) models can often be realized materially in the form of sensually perceived physical models.

2. Physical modeling. It is characterized by a physical similarity between the model and the original and aims to reproduce in the model the processes inherent in the original. According to the results of the study of certain physical properties of the model, the phenomena that occur (or may occur) in the so-called “natural conditions” are judged.

Currently, physical modeling is widely used for the development and experimental study of various structures, machines, for a better understanding of some natural phenomena, for the study of efficient and safe methods of mining, etc.

3. Symbolic (sign) modeling. It is associated with a conditionally sign representation of some properties, relations of the original object. Symbolic (sign) models include a variety of topological and graph representations (in the form of graphs, nomograms, diagrams, etc.) of the objects under study or, for example, models presented in the form of chemical symbols and reflecting the state or ratio of elements during chemical reactions.

A special and very important type of symbolic (sign) modeling is mathematical modeling. The symbolic language of mathematics makes it possible to express the properties, sides, relations of objects and phenomena of the most diverse nature. Relationships between various quantities describing the functioning of such an object or phenomenon can be represented by the corresponding equations (differential, integral, integro-differential, algebraic) and their systems.

4. Numerical simulation on a computer. This type of modeling is based on a previously created mathematical model of the object or phenomenon under study and is used in cases of large amounts of calculations required to study this model.

Numerical modeling is especially important where the physical picture of the phenomenon under study is not entirely clear, and the internal mechanism of interaction is not known. By means of computer calculations of various options, facts are accumulated, which makes it possible, in the final analysis, to select the most realistic and probable situations. The active use of numerical simulation methods makes it possible to drastically reduce the time of scientific and design developments.

The modeling method is constantly evolving: some types of models are being replaced by others as science progresses. At the same time, one thing remains unchanged: the importance, relevance, and sometimes the indispensability of modeling as a method of scientific knowledge.

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1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, idea, hypothesis, theory, law, category.

scientific fact knowledge

The foundation of all scientific knowledge is scientific facts, from the establishment of which scientific knowledge begins.

scientific fact is a reflection of a particular phenomenon in human consciousness, i.e. its description with the help of science (for example, terms, designations). One of the most important properties of a scientific fact is its reliability. In order for a fact to be considered reliable, it must be confirmed in the course of numerous observations or experiments. So, whether we once saw that the apple of a tree falls to the ground is just a single observation. But, if we recorded such falls more than once, we can talk about a reliable fact. Such facts constitute the empirical, i.e. experienced, the foundation of science.

The main forms of scientific knowledge include facts, problems, hypotheses, ideas and theories. Their purpose is that they reveal the dynamics of the process of cognition, i.e. the movement and development of knowledge in the course of research or study of an object.

Problem is defined as “knowledge about ignorance”, as a form of knowledge, the content of which is a conscious question, for which the available knowledge is not enough to answer. Any scientific research begins with the presentation of a problem, which indicates the emergence of difficulties in the development of science, when newly discovered facts cannot be explained by existing knowledge.

In turn, the presence of a problem in comprehending unexplained facts entails a preliminary conclusion that requires its experimental, theoretical and logical confirmation. This kind of conjectural knowledge, the truth or falsity of which has not yet been proven, is called a scientific hypothesis.

Hypothesis- this is knowledge in the form of an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of reliable facts. By its origin, hypothetical knowledge is probabilistic, not reliable, and therefore requires substantiation and verification. If, during the test, the content of the hypothesis does not agree with the empirical data, then the hypothesis is rejected. If the hypothesis is confirmed, then we can talk about a certain degree of probability of the hypothesis. The more evidence found to support a hypothesis, the more likely it is. Thus, as a result of verification, some hypotheses become theories, others are refined and corrected, and others are discarded as delusions if their verification gives negative results. The decisive criterion for the truth of a hypothesis is practice in all its forms, and the logical criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role here.

Proposing a number of hypotheses is one of the most difficult tasks of science. After all, they are not directly related to previous experience, which only gives impetus to reflection.

A scientific hypothesis is hypothetical knowledge, the truth or falsity of which has not yet been proven, but which is not put forward arbitrarily, but subject to a number of rules - requirements. Namely, the hypothesis should not contradict known and verified facts; the hypothesis must be consistent with well-established theories; the availability of the put forward hypothesis for practical verification; maximum simplicity of the hypothesis

If confirmed, the hypothesis becomes a theory.

Theory is a logically substantiated and practice-tested system of knowledge that provides a holistic display of regular and existing relationships in a certain area of ​​objective reality. The main task of the theory is to describe, systematize and explain the whole set of empirical facts. Theory is a system of true, already proven, confirmed knowledge about the essence of a phenomenon, the highest form of scientific knowledge, comprehensively revealing the structure, functioning and development of the object under study, the relationship of all its elements, aspects and connections.

Hypotheses, theories and ideas are sometimes refuted in the course of experiments, scientific research and subsequent discoveries.

The main elements of the theory

In modern science, the following main elements of the theory structure are distinguished:

1) Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.

2) An idealized object is an abstract model of the essential properties and relationships of the objects under study (for example, "absolutely black body", "ideal gas", etc.).

3) The logic of the theory is a set of certain rules and methods of proof aimed at clarifying the structure and changing knowledge.

4) Philosophical attitudes, socio-cultural and value factors.

5) The totality of laws and statements derived as consequences from the foundations of a given theory in accordance with specific principles.

The laws sciences reflect the essential connections of phenomena in the form of theoretical statements. Principles and laws are expressed through the ratio of two or more categories. The discovery and formulation of laws is the most important goal of scientific research: it is with the help of laws that the essential connections and relations of objects and phenomena of the objective world are expressed.

All objects and phenomena of the real world are in the eternal process of change and movement. Where on the surface these changes seem random, unrelated to each other, science reveals deep, internal connections that reflect stable, repetitive, invariant relationships between phenomena. Based on laws, science gets the opportunity not only to explain existing facts and events, but also to predict new ones. Without this, conscious, purposeful practical activity is inconceivable.

The way to the law lies through the hypothesis. Indeed, in order to establish significant connections between phenomena, observations and experiments alone are not enough. With their help, we can only discover relationships between empirically observed properties and characteristics of phenomena. Only comparatively simple, so-called empirical laws can be discovered in this way. Deeper scientific or theoretical laws apply to unobservable objects. Such laws contain in their composition concepts that can neither be directly obtained from experience nor verified by experience. Therefore, the discovery of theoretical laws is inevitably associated with an appeal to a hypothesis, with the help of which they try to find the desired pattern. After sorting through many different hypotheses, a scientist can find one that is well supported by all the facts known to him. Therefore, in its most preliminary form, the law can be characterized as a well-supported hypothesis.

In his search for the law, the researcher is guided by a certain strategy. He seeks to find such a theoretical scheme or an idealized situation, with the help of which he could represent the regularity he found in its purest form. In other words, in order to formulate the law of science, it is necessary to abstract from all non-essential connections and relations of the objective reality under study and single out only essential, repetitive, and necessary connections.

The process of comprehending the law, as well as the process of cognition as a whole, proceeds from incomplete, relative, limited truths to more and more complete, concrete, absolute truths. This means that in the process of scientific knowledge, scientists identify ever deeper and more significant connections of reality.

The second essential point, which is connected with the understanding of the laws of science, refers to the definition of their place in the general system of theoretical knowledge. Laws form the core of any scientific theories. It is possible to correctly understand the role and significance of a law only within the framework of a certain scientific theory or system, where the logical connection between various laws, their application in constructing further conclusions of the theory, and the nature of the connection with empirical data are clearly visible. As a rule, scientists strive to include any newly discovered law into some system of theoretical knowledge, to connect it with other already known laws. This forces the researcher to constantly analyze the laws in the context of a larger theoretical system.

The search for separate, isolated laws, at best, characterizes an undeveloped, pre-theoretical stage in the formation of science. In modern, developed science, the law acts as an integral element of scientific theory, reflecting, with the help of a system of concepts, principles, hypotheses and laws, a wider fragment of reality than a separate law. In turn, the system of scientific theories and disciplines seeks to reflect the unity and connection that exists in the real picture of the world.

Categories sciences are the most general concepts of theory, characterizing the essential properties of the object of the theory, objects and phenomena of the objective world. For example, the most important categories are matter, space, time, movement, causality, quality, quantity, etc. unity and connection that exists in the real picture of the world.

Methods of scientific knowledge

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Some general scientific methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical side implies the need to collect facts and information (establishing facts, registering them, accumulating), as well as describing them (statement of facts and their primary systematization).

The theoretical side is associated with explanation, generalization, creation of new theories, hypotheses, discovery of new laws, prediction of new facts within the framework of these theories. With their help, a scientific picture of the world is developed and thus the ideological function of science is carried out.

1 General scientific methods of empirical knowledge

Observation- this is a sensual reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

1. Cognition as a philosophical problem. The existence and development of man is impossible without the creative activity of consciousness, aimed at the real transformation of nature and society. The content of consciousness is knowledge - ideal (non-material) sensual and mental forms that reflect reality.

All life activity of people is carried out on the basis of knowledge, among which a special place is occupied by information(lat. informatio - familiarization, explanation, exposition), i.e. information that the subject receives about the world around him. For the first time, the concept of "information" was introduced into scientific use in 1928. R. Hartley to indicate a measure of quantitative measurement of information disseminated through technical channels. Unfortunately, in philosophy and science there is still no single generally accepted definition of the concept of "information". Many researchers generally argue that it is impossible to determine it. So, N.N. Moiseev believes that information is a phenomenon so complex and capacious that its content is guessed at the level of intuition, and N. Wiener wrote that "information is information, not matter and not energy." Information is also defined as a measure of the uncertainty of events ( C. Shenon), and as reflected diversity ( A.D. Ursul).

In philosophy, for several decades coexisting and competing two basic concepts in understanding information- attributive and functional. Attributive concept interprets information as a property of all material objects, that is, as an attribute of matter ( V.M. Glushkov). functional the concept, on the contrary, connects information only with the functioning of self-organizing systems ( W. Ashby).

Within the boundaries of the system-cybernetic approach, information is considered in three aspects: 1) the information itself, associated with the implementation in the system of a certain set of reflection processes by selecting, accumulating and processing signals; 2) managerial, taking into account the processes of functioning of the system, the direction of its movement under the influence of the information received and the degree of achievement of its goals; 3) organizational, characterizing the structure and degree of perfection of the control system itself in terms of its reliability, survivability, completeness of the implemented functions, perfection of the structure and efficiency of costs for the implementation of control in the system. The role of information and related technical and social systems has now grown so much that many researchers define the society of the XXI century. as informational. The main resource of this type of society is knowledge (information).

Knowledge is diverse, and its types can be distinguished on various grounds: 1) according to the degree of correspondence to reality (true, untrue); 2) by purpose (practical, value, normative); 3) by means of expression (scientific, everyday, artistic, religious), etc. The diversity of forms and types of cognition presupposes the diversity of human knowledge itself.

All types of knowledge are aimed at achieving truth - knowledge, the content of which is adequate to reality, without which human activity is impossible. But in most types of cognition, truth contains a significant amount of subjectivity, associated both with the form of its expression and with the subjective interests of a person. And only in scientific knowledge is objective truth, in which subjective contributions are reduced to a minimum, an end in itself. The growing role of science in the life of society has led to a certain "scientificization" of other types of cognition, but scientific cognition cannot completely displace them.

Philosophical knowledge is aimed at identifying and, as a rule, the theoretical expression of the universal principles and patterns of the existence of the world, man and their interaction, including cognitive. At the same time, philosophy does not directly investigate specific objects, but generalizes knowledge about them obtained by other types of knowledge and, above all, by science. Philosophical knowledge, like scientific knowledge, strives for objectively true knowledge. But since philosophy deals with qualitatively infinite objects - the world and man as wholes - then its truths are completely unprovable, are ambiguous and largely contain moments of subjectivity associated with the personality of the philosopher.

Cognition itself, man's cognitive relation to the world, is studied in theory of knowledge as a branch of philosophy.

Epistemology (from the Greek gnsch?uyt - knowledge and lgpt - teaching) - branch of philosophy in which the subject of study is the process of cognition as such in its entirety.

Its main problems are: the essence of the cognitive process, its regularities, conditions and prerequisites, opportunities and boundaries, universal grounds and sociocultural determinants. When posing and solving these problems, the opinions of philosophers differ, they all have arguments. Theoretically, none of these points of view can be confirmed or refuted with absolute certainty.

The problem of obtaining true knowledge about the world, i.e. the question of the comprehensibility of the world, is the central problem of epistemology. As noted in Topic 1, this problem is the content of the second side of the main question of philosophy.

In the history of philosophy, there have been three main approaches responding differently to the question of the cognizability of reality: 1) cognitive optimism; 2) skepticism; 3) agnosticism (cognitive pessimism).

Cognitive optimists(they mainly include materialists and objective idealists) believe that the phenomena of reality are, in essence, cognizable, although the world - due to its infinity - is not fully cognizable.

Supporters skepticism(from the Greek ukerfykt - seeking, examining, investigating) they doubt the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge about the world, absolutizing the moment of relativity in true knowledge, pointing to its formal unprovability.

Representatives agnosticism(from the Greek. bgnsch??? ufpt - inaccessible to knowledge; these are mostly subjective idealists) deny the possibility of knowing the essence of phenomena. Absolutizing the imperfection of the sensory perception of reality, agnostics in their extreme conclusions even deny the existence of objective reality.

All these approaches have a certain theoretical justification. But the decisive arguments in favor of cognitive optimism are: the development of social practice and material production, the successes of experimental natural science, confirming the truth of knowledge. The epistemological situation has its own structure, including the subject and object of cognition, as well as the "intermediary" linking them into a single process.

The subject of knowledge is a separate individual, a team of researchers or society as a whole, carrying out purposeful cognitive activity. In the mind of the subject are in unity public(knowledge and experience of mankind in this field of study, assimilated by the subject) and individual(specific innate and educated qualities of the subject).

Object of knowledge- this is that part of reality, to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed. Allocate also subject of knowledge as a separate side of the object. The objects of cognition can be: the subject itself, knowledge and cognition.

The subject and object of knowledge are inseparable unity, interacting with each other. The active side is the subject, who chooses the object and subject of research, organizes this process, fixes the results of cognition and uses them in practice. The object, with its properties and aspects, predetermines the choice of its subject, and also “requires” the methods and means of cognition corresponding to it.

Most often, in the process of cognition, the subject and object interact not directly, but indirectly, in connection with which the problem arises. "gnoseological mediator".“The subject cannot influence the object otherwise than in an objective way,” notes F.V. Lazarev. - This means that he must have at his disposal a system of material mediators of his influences on a cognizable object - hands, tools, measuring instruments, chemical reagents, particle accelerators, experimental installations, etc. The progress of knowledge would be impossible without the constant expansion and complication of this "world of intermediaries". In the same way, the mechanism of the object's influence on the subject assumes its own system of intermediaries - sensory information, various sign systems, and, above all, human language. In the second half of the twentieth century. the world of intermediaries has expanded enormously through the use of computer technology, the Internet system, etc.”

Thus, the object, subject and epistemological intermediary (mediator), taken in unity, constitute the original epistemological situation. The unfolding of this situation is creatively active, manifested: 1) in the comprehension of the sensually unperceivable essence of phenomena; 2) in the theoretical expression of the acquired knowledge and the identification of this knowledge with a cognizable object; 3) in the application of various methods and means of cognition; 4) in using the results of cognition.

2. Dialectics of the process of cognition. Practice and its role in the process of cognition. Depending on what abilities the subject mainly uses at a particular stage of cognition, one can distinguish sensual, rational and intuitive stages of knowledge. They differ both in forms of reflection and in their role in the process of cognition.

The starting point for knowledge is sense cognition in which the object is known primarily through the senses. The sense organs are the direct channel of communication of the subject with reality, through which he receives primary information about the object.

The main forms of sensory knowledge are sensation, perception and representation.

AT feelings individual aspects and properties of the object are directly reflected.

Perception- this is a holistic reflection of the object by the senses, representing the unity of all sensations.

Representation- these are sensually visual images of objects that are stored and recreated in the human mind outside the direct impact of objects on the senses. The emergence of representations occurs on the basis of memory, i.e. the ability of the psyche to preserve and reproduce the past experience of the subject.

The forms of sensory cognition include and sensory imagination, which consists in the ability to create new images based on previous experience.

Rational step knowledge is based on abstract thinking, which is a purposeful, mediated and generalized reflection by a person of the essential properties and relations of things. Abstract thinking is also called logical, because it functions according to the laws of logic - the science of thinking.

The main forms of abstract thinking are: concept, judgment and inference.

concept- a form of thought expressing the totality of the most essential features of an object. In linguistic form, concepts are fixed in words. In any science, its own conceptual apparatus has developed and functions: “point”, “line”, “plane” - in geometry; “body”, “mass”, “energy” - in physics, “atom”, “molecule”, “reaction” - in chemistry, “market”, “commodity”, “labor” - in economics, “algorithm”, “ formalized language", "interface" - in computer science, etc.

Judgment- a form of thinking in which, by means of concepts, something is affirmed or denied about an object. In a language, any statement (a phrase and a simple sentence) is an example of judgments. For example, “all metals are conductors of electricity”, “knowledge is power”, “I think - therefore I exist”, etc.

inference is a form of thinking in which a new judgment containing new knowledge is derived from several judgments. So, the idea that the Earth has the shape of a ball was obtained in antiquity on the basis of the conclusion:

all spherical bodies cast a disc-shaped shadow

During a lunar eclipse, the Earth casts a disc-shaped shadow on the Moon.

Therefore, the Earth is a spherical body

Rational cognition is inextricably linked with the sensual, but plays a leading role in the process of cognition. This is manifested, firstly, in the fact that true knowledge at the level of essence and law is formulated and substantiated at the rational level of knowledge; secondly, sensory cognition is always "controlled" by thinking.

Many scientists have noted that an important role in the process of cognition is played by intuition , i.e. the ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without sensual and logical justification. Intuition is based on the unconscious combination and processing of accumulated abstractions, images and rules in order to solve a specific problem. The main types of intuition are sensual, intellectual and mystical.

On the question of the role, place and correlation of the sensual and the rational in cognition, two opposite currents have developed in the history of philosophy - sensationalism and rationalism. Sensationalists considered sensory knowledge to be the main form of achieving true knowledge, considering thinking only a quantitative continuation of sensory knowledge. Rationalists sought to prove that universal and necessary truths can only be deduced from thought itself. Sense data were assigned only a random role. As we can see, both of these currents suffered from one-sidedness, instead of recognizing the necessity and complementarity of the sensual and rational stages of cognition.

In the history of philosophy, a fairly common trend is also intuitionism, who considers intuition (mainly intellectual) the main means of achieving truth in isolation from the sensual and rational stages of cognition. Linking intuition with the "work" of the subconscious, intuitionists forget that the main content of the subconscious has its sources of sensory reflection and thinking.

The process of cognition is conditioned public practice, which is understood as a material, sensual-objective, purposeful activity of people to transform nature and society to meet their needs. In relation to cognition, practice is: 1) source, basis and driving force force knowledge , because it sets cognitive tasks for him, provides factual material for generalizations and means for cognition; 2) ultimate goal knowledge, as the acquired knowledge materializes in practice; 3) criterion ("measurement") of truth acquired knowledge, which is manifested primarily in material production and experiment.

The internal necessary side of practice is theory, denoting in a broad sense an ideal reflection of reality, the entire body of knowledge that practice seeks to use. Theory and practice are inextricably linked with each other, and cannot exist one without the other. “Practice without theory is blind, and theory without practice is dead,” says a well-known aphorism.

Cognition, introducing new knowledge into theory, thereby enriches practice, contributes to its further progressive transformation.

3. The doctrine of truth. The problem of the criterion of truth. The immediate goal of knowledge is to achieve truth, which is understood as knowledge corresponding to reality. From the point of view of dialectical materialism, “correspondence” means the essential coincidence of the content of knowledge with the object, and “reality” is, first of all, an objective reality, matter.

Truth is objective-subjective. Her objectivity lies in the independence of its content from the cognizing subject. Subjectivity truth is manifested in its expression by the subject, in the form that only the subject gives it.

Like knowledge in general, truth is an endless process of development of already existing knowledge about a particular object or about the world as a whole to more and more complete and accurate knowledge, a constantly evolving system of theoretical knowledge.

To characterize the procedural nature of truth, the concepts of objective, absolute, relative, concrete and abstract truth are used.

The Absoluteness of Truth means, firstly, complete and accurate knowledge about the object, which is an unattainable epistemological ideal; secondly, the content of knowledge, which, within certain limits of the knowledge of the object, can never be refuted in the future.

Relativity of truth expresses its incompleteness, incompleteness, approximation, binding to certain boundaries of comprehension of the object.

There are two extreme points of view on the absoluteness and relativity of truth. This is dogmatism, exaggerating the moment of absoluteness, and relativism absolutizing the relativity of truth.

Any true knowledge is always determined by given conditions, place, time, and other circumstances, which knowledge must take into account as fully as possible. The connection of truth with certain specific conditions in which it operates is denoted by the concept concrete truth. At the same time, in cognition it is not always possible to reveal the fullness of the conditions for which this truth would be applicable. Therefore, for knowledge, the conditions for revealing the truth of which are not complete enough, the concept is used abstract truth. When the conditions of application change, abstract truth can turn into concrete and vice versa.

In the process of cognition, the subject can take untrue knowledge for truth and, conversely, truth for untrue knowledge. This inconsistency of knowledge with reality, presented as truth, is called delusion. The latter is a constant companion of the process of cognition, and there is no absolute boundary between it and truth: it is always mobile. If we are convinced that this knowledge is a delusion, then this fact becomes the truth, albeit a negative one. According to G.-W.-F. Hegel, delusion cannot be untruth in general, since it is a fact of knowledge, it is a shell in which truth appears. Therefore, it is important not only to state a delusion, but to establish how it appears, to discover in it the necessary moment for the development of truth.

One of the main problems of the theory of knowledge is the question of criteria truth, i.e. about what is the measure of the truth of knowledge. In the history of philosophy, various criteria for truth have been put forward: mind and intuition ( Plato), sense data and scientific experiment ( F. Bacon, B. Spinoza, C.-A. Helvetius, D. Diderot, M.V. Lomonosov), self-evidence, consistency and mutual consistency of all knowledge ( R. Descartes), correspondence of the thing to the concept ( G.-W.-F. Hegel), benefit ( W. James), validity ( E.Mach), convention (agreements) between scientists (neopositivists), morality ( I.V. Kirievsky, Vl.S.So-loviev). This shows that the criteria of truth can be sensory data, intellect, intuition, and everyday experience of people, and traditions, and authorities, etc. At the same time, it seems that the most preferred criterion of truth introduced into the theory of knowledge K. Marx and F. Engels, is an public practice. It has the property of immediate reality, is of a sensitive-objective nature, is a sphere of realization of knowledge, takes the subject beyond the framework of speculative knowledge into the world of material activity. Practice is a complex and supreme criterion of truth, including to one degree or another all other criteria. That is why it is the ultimate, absolute criterion of truth.

Public practice each historical stage in the development of society - as a criterion of truth - acts absolute in relation to the previous step and relative in relation to the next one.

Just like the truth practice is process. It is necessary to consider social practice historically: there is the practice of "yesterday", today's practice, the practice of the future. From here we can speak about the absoluteness and relativity of practice as a criterion of truth. The relativity of concrete historical practice as a criterion of truth is also manifested in the fact that it cannot always confirm or refute certain ideas or theories due to its limitations.

4. The concept of science. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge. The highest level of human cognitive activity is scientific knowledge.

The science -it is a specific sphere of human activity aimed at the production, systematization and use of objective knowledge about reality. Science includes both activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge, and the result of this activity - true knowledge.

Being a multidimensional phenomenon, science can be considered from the following perspectives: as a form of activity, as a system and totality of disciplinary knowledge, as a social institution. As an activity, science is placed in the field of goal-setting, choice, decision-making, and responsibility. Among the features of scientific activity V.V. Ilyin names universality, uniqueness, personification, discipline, democracy, sociability.

Science is characterized by relative independence and the internal logic of development, ways (methods) of cognition and realization of ideas, as well as socio-psychological features of the objectively essential perception of reality, i.e. style of scientific thinking.

Scientific knowledge is a kind of subject-object relations, the main essential feature of which is scientific rationality. The rationality of the cognizing subject finds its expression in the appeal to the arguments of reason and experience, in the logical and methodological orderliness of the thinking process, in the impact on scientific creativity of the existing ideals and norms of science.

Scientific knowledge, having common features with other - extra-scientific - forms of knowledge, also has its own characteristics. First, science deals with special objects that are not reducible to objects of ordinary experience. Secondly, science has its own conceptual language. Thirdly, scientific knowledge is associated with a special system of cognitive means. Fourth, science is characterized by specific ways of substantiating the truth of knowledge. Fifth, scientific knowledge is systemic and evidence-based.

Speaking about science in its various manifestations, one can single out a single a set of criteria for scientific knowledge, which includes:

• 1. objectivity. Any science is objective, because it is always aimed at identifying the subject connections and dependencies of those things and processes that constitute the area of ​​its priorities.
• 2. Objectivity. This means that all objects and their relations must be known as they really are, without introducing into them anything subjective or supernatural;
• 3. Rationality, validity, evidence. Reason becomes the criterion of reliability, and criticality, rational principles of cognition become the means of achieving it.
• 4. Orientation to the knowledge of the essence, patterns of the object.
• 5. Special organization, systematic knowledge, those. orderliness in the form of a theory and a detailed theoretical position.
• 6. Verifiability by referring to scientific observation, experiment, to practice, to the test of logic; scientific truth characterizes knowledge that is, in principle, verifiable. The reproducibility of scientific truths through practice gives them the property of general validity.

The immediate goals of science are the study, description, explanation, prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality that make up the subject of its study.

Scientific problems are dictated by both the immediate and future needs of society, the political process, the interests of social groups, the economic situation, the level of spiritual needs of the people, and cultural traditions. Science differs from all other ways of mastering the world by the development of a special language for describing the objects of research and the procedure for proving the truth of the results of scientific research.

Speaking about the interaction of science with various spheres of society, we can distinguish three groups of activities performed by it. social functions. These are, firstly, cultural and ideological functions; secondly, the functions of science as a direct productive force; thirdly, the functions of science as a social force associated with the use of scientific knowledge to solve a variety of social problems.

Finally, science acts as a measure of the development of a person's abilities for creative creation, for constructive-theoretical transformation of reality and oneself. In other words, scientific activity produces not only new technologies, creates materials, equipment and tools, but, being a part of spiritual production, allows people involved in it to creatively self-realize, objectify ideas and hypotheses, thereby enriching culture.

In the structure of scientific knowledge and cognition, there are two levels: empirical and theoretical. The empirical level provides knowledge of regular connections, based on the data of sensory cognition. At the theoretical level, mainly rational forms of cognition are used, and the knowledge obtained is of a general and necessary nature. Both levels are necessary for cognition, but the theoretical level plays a decisive role in the system of scientific cognition.

The unity of the two levels of scientific knowledge follows from the cognitive abilities of the subject of knowledge. At the same time, it is predetermined by the two-level nature of the functioning of the object (phenomenon - essence). On the other hand, these levels are different from each other, and this difference is set by the way the object is reflected by the subject of scientific knowledge. Without experimental data, theoretical knowledge cannot have scientific force, just as empirical research cannot fail to take into account the path laid by theory.

Empirical level knowledge is the level of accumulation of knowledge and facts about the objects under study. At this level of cognition, the object is reflected from the side of connections and relations accessible to contemplation and observation.

On the theoretical level the synthesis of scientific knowledge in the form of a scientific theory is achieved. Theoretical, conceptual at its core, the level of scientific knowledge is designed to systematize, explain and predict the facts established in the course of empirical research.

Fact(from Latin factum - done) is a fixed empirical knowledge and acts as a synonym (i.e. identical or close in meaning) to the concepts of "event", "result". Facts in science perform not only the role of an information source and the empirical basis of theoretical reasoning, but also serve as a criterion for their reliability, truth. In turn, the theory forms the conceptual basis of the fact: highlights the studied aspect of reality, sets the language in which the facts are described, determines the means and methods of experimental research.

Scientific knowledge unfolds according to the scheme: problem - hypothesis - theory, each element of which reflects the degree of penetration of the cognizing subject into the essence of the objects of science. In this regard, we can say that the problem, hypothesis, theory are forms of scientific knowledge .

Cognition begins with understanding or posing a problem. Problem(Greek rsvlzmb - task) - this is something that is still unknown, but needs to be known, this is a question of the researcher to the object. It represents: 1) difficulty, an obstacle in solving a cognitive task; 2) the contradictory condition of the question; 3) a task, a conscious formulation of the initial cognitive situation; 4) conceptual (idealized) object of scientific theory; 5) a question that arises in the course of cognition, a practical or theoretical interest that motivates scientific research.

Hypothesis(from the Greek hreuit - assumption) is a scientific assumption or assumption regarding the essence of an object, formulated on the basis of a number of known facts. It goes through two stages: nomination and subsequent verification. As the hypothesis is tested and substantiated, it can be discarded as untenable, but it can also be "polished" to a true theory.

Theory(from the Greek. eschsYab - research) is a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic display of the essential connections of the object under study. Theory, as an integral developing system of knowledge, has the following structure: a) axioms, principles, laws, fundamental concepts; b) an idealized object, in the form of an abstract model of relations and properties of the object; c) logical tricks and methods; d) laws and statements derived from the main provisions of the theory.

The theory performs the following functions: descriptive, explanatory, prognostic (predictive), synthetic, methodological and practical.

Scientific theory replenishes the methodological arsenal of science, acting as a certain method of cognition. The set of principles of formation and practical application of methods of cognition and transformation of reality is the methodology of human exploration of the world. The very same doctrine of the adequate use of a variety of cognitive techniques, methods and methods is called methodology.

Method (from the Greek. mEpdpt - the path) is a system of principles, techniques and requirements that guide the process of scientific knowledge. A method is a way of reproducing the object under study in the mind.

Methods of scientific knowledge are divided into special(private scientific), general scientific and universal(philosophical). Depending on the role and place in scientific knowledge, formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical methods, research and presentation are fixed. In science, there is a division into the methods of the natural sciences and the humanities. The specificity of the former (methods of physics, chemistry, biology) is realized through explanation cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena and processes of nature, the second (methods of phenomenology, hermeneutics, structuralism) - through the procedure understanding the essence of human existence, man-made human world.

Differentiating the levels of scientific knowledge, it should be noted that to empirical level methods include observation, comparison, measurement, experiment.

Observation- this is a systematic, purposeful perception of objects and phenomena in order to clarify their specific properties and relationships. Observation is carried out both directly (with the help of our sense organs) and indirectly (with the help of various instruments and technical devices - a microscope, a telescope, a photo and movie camera, computer tomographs, etc.).

Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies the judgment of the similarity and difference of objects. With the help of comparison, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed. Comparison of different objects can be either direct or indirect. In the latter case, the comparison of two objects is carried out through their correlation with the third, acting as a standard. Such an indirect comparison has received the name of measurement in science.

Measurement- this is a procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain quantity using a specific unit (meters, grams, watts, etc.). Measurement is a method of quantitative analysis. widely known idea I. Kant that there is exactly as much science in science as there is mathematics in it. However, in order to reflect reality in its entirety, it is necessary to comprehend the internal unity of qualitative and quantitative certainty, in other words, in cognition it is necessary to go beyond the limits of mathematical one-sidedness to holistic cognition.

Experiment- a method of research in which an object is placed in precisely taken into account conditions or artificially reproduced in order to clarify certain properties. Experiments are research (search) and verification (control), reproducing and isolating, laboratory and field.

To theoretical level scientific knowledge include abstraction, idealization, formalization, axiomatic method.

abstraction(from Latin abstraho - distraction) - a special method of thinking, which consists in abstracting from a number of properties and relations of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of properties and relations of interest to us. As a result of the abstracting activity of thinking - various kinds of abstractions (concepts, categories and their system, concepts).

Idealization(from the French idéaliser) - the ultimate distraction from the real properties of the object, when the subject mentally constructs an object, the prototype of which is in the real world. In other words, idealization is a technique that means operating with such idealized objects as “point”, “straight line”, “ideal gas”, “absolutely black body”.

Formalization- a method of describing recurring mass-like phenomena in the form of formal systems, using special signs, symbols, formulas. Formalization is the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form.

Axiomatic(from the Greek. boYashmb - significant, worthy, accepted position) method- this is the derivation of new knowledge according to certain logical rules from certain axioms or postulates, i.e. statements that are accepted without proof and are the starting point for all other statements of this theory. The sciences that develop on the basis of the axiomatic method are called deductive. These include, first of all, mathematics, as well as some sections of logic, physics, etc.

The above classification of the methods of empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge will not be complete if we do not take into account methods , which can be used at both levels : methods of generalization and specification, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analogy, modeling, logical and historical, etc.

Generalization- this is a mental selection of essential properties belonging to a whole class of homogeneous objects, as well as the formulation on the basis of this selection of such a conclusion that applies to each individual object of this class.

The opposite of generalization is called specification. By means of the specification, that peculiar, special that is inherent in each object that is part of the generalized set is revealed.

Analysis(from the Greek bnlhuyt - decomposition, dismemberment) - the mental division of an integral object into its constituent elements (features, properties, relations) of a part with the aim of its comprehensive study.

Synthesis(from the Greek ueneuit - connection, addition) - a mental connection of the elements and parts of an object, the establishment of their interaction and the study of this object as a whole.

Induction(lat. inductio - guidance) - the movement of thought from the particular to the general, from isolated cases to general conclusions.

Deduction(lat. deductio - derivation) - the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from general provisions to particular cases.

At the heart of the method analogies(Greek bnblpgYab - correspondence, similarity) lies such a conclusion in which, from the similarity of some essential features of two or more objects, a conclusion is made about the similarity of other features of these objects as well.

Modeling- a research method in which the object of study is artificially replaced by another object (model) in order to obtain new knowledge, which, in turn, is evaluated and applied to the object under study.

Historical the method means, firstly, the reproduction of the real history of the object in all its versatility, taking into account the sum of the facts characterizing it and individual events; secondly, the study of the history of cognition of a given object (from its genesis to the present), taking into account its inherent details and accidents. The basis of the historical method is the study of real history in its concrete diversity, the identification of historical facts and, on this basis, such a mental reconstruction, reconstruction of the historical process, which makes it possible to reveal the logic and patterns of its development.

Logical the method studies the same processes in objective history and the history of research, but the focus is not on particulars, but on clarifying the patterns underlying them in order to reproduce them in the form of a historical theory.

Among the scientific methods of research, a special place is occupied by systems approach, which is a set of general scientific requirements (principles), with the help of which any objects can be considered as systems. System analysis implies: a) identifying the dependence of each element on its functions and place in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements; b) analysis of the behavior of the system in terms of conditionality of its elements included in it, as well as the properties of its structure; c) study of the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment in which it is “fitted”; d) study of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

The systems approach is of great heuristic value, since it is applicable to the analysis of natural-science, social and technical objects.

Summing up the above, it should be noted that the growing role of science and scientific knowledge in the modern world, the complexity and contradictions of this process gave rise to the two positions mentioned above in relation to science - scientism(from lat. scientia - knowledge, science) and antiscientism. Supporters of scientism argue that science is "above all" and it must be introduced in every possible way as a standard and absolute social value in all forms of human activity. While identifying science with natural-mathematical and technical knowledge, scientism at the same time belittles the social sciences as allegedly having no cognitive significance, and rejects the humanistic content of science. Anti-scientism sharply criticizes science and technology, absolutizing the negative results of their development (aggravation of the environmental problem, the danger of man-made disasters, wars, etc.).

Undoubtedly, both positions in relation to science contain rational moments. But it is equally wrong to both exorbitantly absolutize science and underestimate, and even more so - completely reject it. It is necessary to objectively, comprehensively consider science and scientific knowledge in their connection with other spheres of social life, revealing the complex and diverse nature of this relationship. From this point of view, science acts as a necessary product of the development of culture and, at the same time, as one of the main sources of the process of culture itself in its entirety.

scientific knowledge - it is an objective study of the world, independent of the views and beliefs of man. Scientific knowledge arose on the basis of everyday knowledge. However, there are significant differences between them.

First of all, science deals with a special set of objects of reality, not reducible to objects of everyday experience. To study the objects of science, special means and tools are needed that are not used in everyday knowledge. Science uses special equipment, measuring instruments, which make it possible to experimentally study new types of objects.

Secondly, science uses a special language. Science also has a place in the language of everyday speech, but it cannot describe the objects of study on its basis alone. Ordinary language is adapted to describe the objects of everyday human practice, while science goes beyond such practice. The concepts of everyday language are often fuzzy, ambiguous. Their exact meaning can be understood only in the process of communication. Science, on the other hand, seeks to formulate its concepts as clearly as possible.

In the process of accumulating scientific knowledge, the language of science is constantly evolving, new concepts appear, some of which can gradually enter into everyday speech. For example, such previously special scientific terms as "electricity", "computer" and others have become familiar to all words.

Scientific apparatus and the language of science are the results of knowledge already acquired, but at the same time they are used for further research.

The features of scientific knowledge include specificity of scientific knowledge . They can not always be tested empirically and applied in practice. Science is forced to provide evidence of new knowledge on the basis of those whose truth has already been proven. In this regard, important differences between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge are relationship and systematic scientific knowledge.

During the period of the birth of science, scientific knowledge was associated with the reflection of only those phenomena that constantly took place in the process of human life. The analysis of these phenomena led to certain theoretical conclusions. In the course of the development of scientific knowledge, the research methodology has changed. Scientists began to first create ideal objects in a given scientific field, and then transfer them to practice. Thus, there appeared hypotheses - scientific assumptions, the truth of which requires proof. Thanks to the advancement of hypotheses, scientific knowledge gets the opportunity to predict the development of certain phenomena in the future. So put forward theories - special types of knowledge that combine a set of concepts and conclusions on any issue into a single system. Theories are already proven scientific positions. They can be called proven hypotheses. However, when applying the theory in any particular case, new data must be included in the context of the evidence.

Scientific knowledge is different from ordinary methods of cognitive activity. Ordinary knowledge is based on sensory perception and rational understanding of an already existing object. In scientific knowledge, it is often necessary first to discover the object of knowledge itself, for example, a celestial body in astronomy, an atom in physics, and so on. The object under study is distinguished from the totality of other elements of nature and is studied using special techniques and methods. Method called a method of solving cognitive problems. The application to the subject of research of specific techniques and methods of scientific knowledge is called methodology. This term also defines the science that studies the methods of scientific knowledge.

Scientific knowledge, in contrast to the ordinary, makes certain demands on the subjects of cognitive activity. To engage in science requires special training, the availability of basic knowledge and skills, possession of special research tools. In order to engage in any science, it is necessary to obtain an appropriate education in a higher educational institution. The subject of scientific knowledge must clearly understand that he is investigating, how to do it and why it is necessary, i.e. he must be aware of the goals of his activity and know the means to achieve them. The goal of any scientist, in whatever field of science he conducts research, is the search for objective truth and the acquisition of new knowledge. The process of cognition can be fruitful only when it is carried out on the basis of the objective laws of development of the subject of study. In this regard, the main task of science is to identify such laws.

It is necessary to distinguish scientific knowledge from various forms extra-scientific knowledge . These include:

1) mythology - pre-scientific knowledge, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of science;

2) pseudoscientific knowledge , using conjectures and prejudices in cognitive activity;

3) unscientific knowledge, deliberately distorting reality;

4) common knowledge, including daily practical experience of a person.

The results of scientific knowledge - scientific knowledge - in most cases are used in practice. The same can be said about other types of knowledge. However, mythological thinking is based on fiction, orienting a person to obedience to the forces of nature. Pseudo-scientific and anti-scientific knowledge is unable to contribute to the achievement of positive results of practical activity due to untruth. Finally, the knowledge obtained as a result of everyday knowledge is embodied in the practical activities of specific people or their groups, in contrast to the results of scientific knowledge, which are of great practical importance for all mankind. In addition, scientific knowledge is not personified. According to its results, it is impossible to characterize the personality of the researcher, in contrast to the results of ordinary knowledge or artistic creativity.

At the same time, the process and results of scientific knowledge are influenced by the worldview, political, religious views of the scientist, his value orientations, as well as factors of the external socio-cultural environment. Thus, the interpretation of phenomena in historical, political science, philosophical and other humanitarian sciences depends on the position of the researcher. In addition, the assessment of phenomena depends on the social system, the policy of the state, the level of development of knowledge in a given era. Thus, hypotheses that considered the structure of the Universe in a new way met with a negative reaction from the church, as they diverged from its doctrine.

An analysis of the historical development of science shows that it is often ahead of its time, and the results of scientific knowledge find application only in the future. This once again proves the importance of science and its role in the development of scientific, technological and social progress.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical.Empirical level associated with sensory cognition, the task of which is to obtain knowledge based on sensory experience. Unlike spontaneous sensory cognition, empirical is a purposeful perception of the surrounding world (for example, a purposeful choice of an object of study). On the theoretical level principles, laws are formulated, theories are created that contain the essence of cognizable objects. Each of these levels contains a set of cognition methods.

Any kind of human knowledge is characterized by such methods as analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, abstraction and generalization, etc. They got the name general logical methods of cognition.

Analysis - this is a method of studying a holistic subject by considering its constituent parts (sides, features, properties or relationships) with the aim of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis - this is a generalization, a reduction into a single whole of data obtained by analyzing previously identified parts (sides, features, properties or relationships) of an object.

Analysis and synthesis are the simplest and at the same time the most universal methods of cognition.

In the process of research, a scientist often has to draw conclusions about the object under study based on information about already known objects. At the same time, conclusions about individual phenomena can be based on general principles and vice versa. Such reasoning is called induction and deduction. Induction - this is a method of research in which a general conclusion is made on the basis of particular premises (from the particular to the general). Deduction - it is a method of research by means of which a conclusion of a particular nature (from general to particular) follows from general premises.

One of the general logical methods of cognition is abstraction. It consists in abstracting from a number of properties of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of properties of interest to the researcher. As a result, outwardly disparate phenomena can be compared, in connection with which a basis is created for combining them into a single species (for example, a class of animals, mineral rocks, etc.). Such a combination takes place taking into account common features. In this case, it is used generalization method , those. highlighting common features and properties.

In the course of the process of cognition, it may turn out that the properties of the object under study coincide with the properties of the object already studied. As a result, we can draw a conclusion about the similarity of the objects themselves. This research method is called by analogy.

Close in meaning to analogy is simulation method , those. creation of a copy of the object under study to study the original from one side. The model may differ from the original in size, shape, etc., but must repeat those properties of the object that are to be studied. An important property of the model is its convenience for research, especially when it is difficult to study the original for some reason. Sometimes the study of an object according to its model is dictated by economic considerations (it is cheaper than the original). Models can be material and ideal. The former are real objects, while the latter are built in the mind of the researcher and are depicted in a symbolic form, for example, in the form of mathematical formulas. At present, it is becoming more and more common computer simulation , based on the use of special programs.

To methods of empirical scientific knowledge applies observation - purposeful perception of the studied objects. This is not passive contemplation, but active activity, including rational factors. The elements of empirical knowledge are the observer himself, the object of observation and the means of observation (instruments, technical means, etc.). Observation is never spontaneous. It is always based on a scientific idea, hypothesis, assumption.

observation is associated with description , which fixes and transmits the results of observation with the help of certain symbolic means (diagrams, drawings, graphs and figures). The description can be quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative description fixes measurement data, i.e. digital data by which objects are compared. In this case, it is necessary that the units of measurement coincide or can be converted one into another. A qualitative description captures the essence of objects, their qualitative characteristics (elasticity of materials, thermal conductivity, etc.).

Associated with observation and comparison experimental method . In this case, the researcher actively influences the object under study, creating specific conditions in order to obtain certain results. The peculiarity of the experiment is that the researcher can repeatedly repeat the impact on the object. However, he cannot create the properties of an item, he can only reveal them. In addition, new problems often arise during the experiment, which become an incentive for further research.

To theoretical scientific methods of cognition applies formalization method , consisting in the construction of abstract models that reveal the essence of phenomena. At the same time, information about the object of study is fixed by signs, formulas, etc.

The next method is axiomatic . It consists in putting forward initial positions that do not require proof, on the basis of which a certain system of conclusions is built. A statement whose truth is not required is called axiom. This method is most often used in mathematical sciences.

The task of scientific knowledge is to give a holistic image of the phenomenon under study. Any phenomenon of reality can be represented as a concrete interweaving of the most diverse connections. Theoretical research highlights these connections and reflects them with the help of certain scientific abstractions. But a simple set of such abstractions still does not give an idea about the nature of the phenomenon, about the processes of its functioning and development. In order to create such a representation, it is necessary to mentally reproduce the object in all its completeness and complexity of its connections and relationships. This type of research is called ascending from the abstract to the concrete. Applying it, the researcher first finds the main connection of the object under study, and then, step by step, tracing how it changes under different conditions, discovers new connections, establishes their interactions, and in this way displays the essence of the object under study in its entirety.

Special methods of research are used in the construction of theoretical knowledge about complex, historically developing objects. Such objects most often cannot be reproduced in experience. For example, it is impossible to reproduce in experience the history of the emergence of man, the history of any people, etc. Scientific knowledge about such objects is obtained through historical and logical research methods.

At the core historical method lie the study of real history in its concrete diversity, the identification of historical facts, and on this basis - such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic, the pattern of its development is revealed. Boolean Method reveals the objective logic of history by studying the historical process at the highest stages of its development. Such an approach is possible because, at the highest stages of development, history concisely reproduces the main features of its previous evolution. Both the historical and the logical method involve the study of an empirical base - real historical facts. On this basis, hypotheses are put forward, which are transformed into theoretical knowledge about the laws of the historical process.

All methods of scientific knowledge are always used in combination. Their specific combination is determined by the characteristics of the object under study, the specifics of the study. With the development of science, the system of its methods also develops, new techniques and methods of research activity are formed. With the development of computerization, they started talking about the methods of computer analysis, the construction of virtual models. In this regard, the task of methodology is not only to state the already known methods of research activity, but also to clarify the prospects for their development.

Questions and tasks

1. What is scientific knowledge? How does it differ from ordinary knowledge?

2. Explain the concepts of hypothesis, theory, axiom. What is meant by the terms "method" and "methodology"?

4. Give a description of the subject of scientific knowledge.

5. How does scientific knowledge differ from non-scientific knowledge?

6. Describe the levels of scientific knowledge.

7. What general logical methods of cognition exist? Give them a description.

8. Describe the methods of empirical scientific knowledge.

9. What are the methods of theoretical scientific knowledge?

10. F. Engels wrote: “Induction and deduction are interconnected in the same necessary way as synthesis and analysis. Instead of unilaterally exalting one of them to the skies at the expense of the other, one should try to apply each in its place, and this can only be achieved if one does not lose sight of their connection with each other, their mutual complementation of each other. What is the relationship between inductive and deductive methods of cognition?