When was compulsory military service introduced in Russia? General conscription was introduced in Russia in 1874. The charter of 1874 determined the draft age at 21 years, the total service life at 15 years, of which 7 years of active service (7 years in the navy) and 9 years in the reserve. In 1876 the term

Universal measure

The original proposal was expressed at the time by Professor of the University of Krakow S. Pudlovsky. His idea was that as a single measure one should take the length of the pendulum, which makes a full swing in one second. This proposal was published in the book "Universal Measure", published in Vilna in 1675 by his student T. Buratini. He also proposed to name meter unit of length.

Somewhat earlier, in 1673, the Dutch scientist H. Huygens published the brilliant work Pendulum Clock, where he developed the theory of oscillations and described the construction of pendulum clocks. Based on this work, Huygens proposed his universal measure of length, which he called hourly foot, and in size the hourly foot was equal to 1/3 of the length of the second pendulum. “This measure can not only be determined everywhere in the world, but can always be restored for all future centuries,” Huygens wrote proudly.

However, there was one circumstance that confused scientists. The period of oscillation of a pendulum with the same length was different depending on the geographical latitude, that is, the measure, strictly speaking, was not universal.

Huygens' idea was propagated by the French geodesist Ch. Condamine, who proposed to base the measurement system on a unit of length corresponding to the length of a pendulum making one swing per second at the equator.

The French astronomer and mathematician G. Mouton also supported the idea of ​​a second pendulum, but only as a control apparatus, and G. Mouton proposed to put the principle of connection of a unit of measurement with the dimensions of the Earth as a basis for the universal system of measures, i.e., take a part as a unit of length meridian arc length. This scientist also proposed to divide the measured part into tenths, hundredths and thousandths, that is, to use the decimal principle.

Metric

Projects for the reform of systems of measures have appeared in different countries, but this issue has been especially acute in France for the reasons listed above. Gradually, the idea of ​​creating a system of measures that meets certain requirements emerged:

- the system of measures should be unified and common;

- units of measurement must have strictly defined dimensions;

- there must be standards of units of measurement, unchanged in time;

- for each quantity there should be only one unit;

– units of different quantities should be related to each other in a convenient way;

– units must have submultiple and multiple values.

On May 8, 1790, the National Assembly of France adopted a decree on the reform of the system of measures and instructed the Paris Academy of Sciences to carry out the necessary work, guided by the above requirements.

Several commissions have been formed. One of them, led by academician Lagrange, recommended the decimal subdivision of multiples and submultiples of units.

Another commission, which included scientists Laplace, Monge, Borda and Condors, proposed to accept one forty-millionth part of the earth's meridian as a unit of length, although the overwhelming majority of experts who knew the essence of the matter thought that the choice would be in favor of a second pendulum.

The decisive factor here was that a stable basis was chosen - the size of the Earth, the correctness and invariance of its shape in the form of a ball.

Commission member Ch. Borda, a geodesist and hydraulician, proposed calling the unit of length a meter; in 1792, he determined the length of a second pendulum in Paris.

On March 26, 1791, the National Assembly of France approved the proposal of the Paris Academy, and a temporary commission was formed for the practical implementation of the decree on the reform of measures.

On April 7, 1795, the National Convention of France passed a law on new weights and measures. It was accepted that meter- one ten-millionth part of a quarter of the earth's meridian passing through Paris. but at the same time, it was especially emphasized that the introduced unit of length in name and size did not coincide with any of the French units of length that existed at that time. Therefore, the possible further argument that France is “pushing through” its system of measures as an international one is ruled out.

Instead of temporary commissions, commissioners were appointed, who were instructed to carry out work on the experimental determination of units of length and mass. The famous scientists Berthollet, Borda, Brisson, Coulomb, Delambre, Gaui, Lagrange, Laplace, Méchain, Monge and others were among the commissioners.

Delambre and Méchain resumed work on measuring the length of the meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona, ​​corresponding to the 9° 40′ sphere (later this arc was extended from the Shetland Islands to Algiers).

These works were completed by the autumn of 1798. Standards of the meter and kilogram were made of platinum. The standard meter was a platinum bar 1 meter long and 25 × 4 mm in section, i.e. it was end measure, and on June 22, 1799, the prototypes of the meter and kilogram were solemnly transferred to the Archives of France, and since then they have been called archival. But it must be said that even in France the metric system was not established immediately, traditions and inertia of thinking had a great effect. Napoleon, who became emperor of France, did not like the metric system, to put it mildly. He believed: “There is nothing more contrary to the mindset, memory and reason than what these scientists offer. The welfare of present generations has been sacrificed to abstractions and empty hopes, for in order to force the old nation to adopt new units of measures and weights, all administrative rules, all the calculations of industry, must be altered. Such work frightens the mind. In 1812, by decree of Napoleon, the metric system in France was abolished, and only in 1840 was it restored again.

Gradually, the metric system was adopted and introduced by Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and a number of republics of South America. The initiators of the introduction of the metric system in Russia were, of course, scientists, engineers, researchers, but tailors, seamstresses and milliners played a significant role - by that time, Parisian fashion had conquered high society, and there, mainly masters who came from abroad worked with their meters . It was from them that the still existing narrow strips of oilcloth matter - "centimeters", which are still in use, came from.

At the Paris Exhibition of 1867, the International Committee for Measures, Weights and Coins was created, which compiled a report on the benefits of the metric system. However, the report compiled in 1869 by academicians O. V. Struve, G. I. Wild and B. S. Jacobi, sent on behalf of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences to the Paris Academy, had a decisive influence on the entire subsequent course of events. The report argued for the need to introduce an international system of weights and measures based on the metric system.

The proposal was supported by the Paris Academy, and the French government turned to all interested states with a request to send scientists to the International Metric Commission to solve practical problems. By that time, it turned out that the shape of the Earth is not a ball, but a three-dimensional spheroid (the average radius of the equator is 6,378,245 meters, the difference between the largest and smallest radii is 213 meters, and the difference between the average radius of the equator and the polar semi-axis is 21,382 meters). In addition, repeated measurements of the arc of the Parisian meridian gave the value of the meter somewhat lower than the value obtained by Delambre and Méchain. In addition, there is always the possibility that with the creation of more advanced measuring instruments and the emergence of new measurement methods, the measurement results will change. Therefore, the commission made an important decision: “The new prototype of the measure of length should be equal in size to the Archival meter,” that is, it should be an artificial standard.

The International Commission also adopted the following decisions.

1) The new prototype of the meter must be a line measure, it must be made of an alloy of platinum (90%) and iridium (10%) and have an X-shaped section.

2) In order to give the metric system an international character and ensure uniformity of measures, standards should be prepared and distributed among the countries concerned.

3) One standard, the closest in value to the Archival one, is accepted as international.

4) To entrust practical work on the creation of standards to the French section of the commission, since the archival prototypes are in Paris.

5) Appoint a permanent international committee of 12 members to direct the work.

6) Establish the International Bureau of Weights and Measures as a neutral scientific institution based in France.

In accordance with the decision of the commission, practical measures were taken and in 1875 an international conference was convened in Paris, at the last meeting of which, on May 20, 1875, the Meter Convention was signed. It was signed by 17 countries: Austria-Hungary, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Venezuela, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, France, Peru, Portugal, Russia, USA, Turkey, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway (as one country). Three more countries (Great Britain, Holland, Greece), although they participated in the conference, did not sign the Convention due to disagreement on the functions of the International Bureau.

For the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the Bretel Pavilion was allocated, located in the Saint-Cloud Park in the suburbs of Paris - Sevres, and soon a laboratory building with equipment was built near this pavilion. The activities of the Bureau are carried out at the expense of funds transferred by the countries - members of the Convention in proportion to the size of their population. At the expense of these funds, standards of the meter and kilogram (36 and 43, respectively) were ordered in England, which were made in 1889.

Meter standards

The meter standard was a platinum-iridium X-shaped rod 1020 mm long. On the neutral plane at 0 °C, three strokes were applied on each side, the distance between the middle strokes was 1 meter (Fig. 1.1). The standards were numbered and compared with the Archival meter. Prototype No. 6 turned out to be closest to the Archival one, and it was approved as an international prototype. Thus, the standard of the meter became artificial and represented dashed measure.

Four more witness standards were added to Standard No. 6 and they were retained by the International Bureau. The remaining standards were distributed by lot among the countries that signed the Convention. Russia got standards No. 11 and No. 28, and No. 28 was closer to the international prototype, so it became the national standard of Russia.

By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of September 11, 1918, prototype No. 28 was approved as the state primary standard of the meter. In 1925, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR adopted a resolution recognizing the Metric Convention of 1875 as valid for the USSR.

In 1957 - 1958 a scale with decimeter divisions was applied to the standard No. 6, the first decimeter was divided into 10 centimeters, and the first centimeter into 10 millimeters. After applying strokes, this standard was re-certified by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

The error in the transmission of a unit of length from the standard to the measuring instruments was 0.1 - 0.2 microns, which becomes clearly insufficient with the development of technology, therefore, in order to reduce the transmission error and obtain a natural indestructible standard, a new standard of the meter was created.

Back in 1829, the French physicist J. Babinet proposed to take the length of a certain line in the spectrum as a unit of length. However, the practical implementation of this idea occurred only when the American physicist A. Michelson invented the interferometer. Together with the chemist Morley E. Babinet J. published the work “On the method of using the wavelength of sodium light as a natural and practical standard of length”, then he moved on to the study of isotopes: mercury - green and cadmium - red lines.

In 1927 it was accepted that 1 m equals 1553164.13 wavelengths of the red line of cadmium-114, this value was accepted as a standard along with the old prototype meter.

In the future, work was continued: in the USA, the spectrum of mercury was studied, in the USSR - cadmium, in the Federal Republic of Germany and France - krypton.

In 1960, the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted the meter as a standard unit of length, expressed in wavelengths of light waves, and specifically, the inert gas Kr-86. Thus, the standard of the meter again became natural.

Meter is a length equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p 10 and 5d 5 of the krypton-86 atom. The old definition of the meter is canceled, but the prototypes of the meter remain and are stored in the same conditions.

In accordance with this decision, the State Primary Standard (GOST 8.020-75) was established in the USSR, which included the following components (Fig. 1.2):

1) source of primary reference radiation of krypton-86;

2) a reference interferometer used to study sources of primary reference radiation;

The accuracy of reproduction and transmission of a meter in light units is 1∙10 -8 m.

In 1983, the XVII General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted a new definition of the meter: 1 meter is a unit of length equal to the path traveled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second, i.e. the standard of the meter remains natural.

The composition of the standard meter:

1) source of primary reference radiation - a highly frequency-stabilized helium-neon laser;

2) a reference interferometer used to study sources of primary and secondary reference measurements;

3) a reference interferometer used to measure the length of line and end measures (secondary standards).

In 1795, the Law on New Weights and Measures was passed in France, which established a single unit of length - meter, equal to ten millionths of a quarter of the arc of the meridian passing through Paris. Hence the name of the system - metric.

A platinum rod one meter long and of a very strange shape was chosen as the standard of the meter. Now the size of all rulers, one meter long, had to correspond to this standard.

Units installed:

- liter as a measure of the capacity of liquid and granular bodies, equal to 1000 cubic meters. centimeters and containing 1 kg of water (at 4 ° heat Celsius),

- gram as a unit of weight (the weight of pure water at a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius in the volume of a cube with an edge of 0.01 m),

- ar as a unit of area (the area of ​​a square with a side of 10 m),

- second as a unit of time (1/86400 of a mean solar day).

Later, the basic unit of mass became kilogram. The prototype of this unit was a platinum weight, which was placed under glass flasks and the air was pumped out - so that dust would not get in and the weight would not increase!

The prototypes of the meter and kilogram are still kept in the National Archives of France and are called the "Archive meter" and "Archive kilogram" respectively.

There were different measures before, but an important advantage of the Metric system of measures was its decimality, since submultiple and multiple units, according to the accepted rules, were formed in accordance with the decimal count using decimal factors, which correspond to the prefixes deci, - centi, - milli, - deca, - hecto- and kilo-.

Currently, the metric system of measures is adopted in Russia and in most countries of the world. But there are other systems as well. For example, the English system of measures, in which the foot, pound and second are taken as the main units.

It is interesting that in all countries there are familiar packaging for different foods and drinks. In Russia, for example, milk and juices are usually packaged in liter bags. And large glass jars - entirely three-liter!

Remember: on professional drawings, the dimensions (dimensions) of products are signed in millimeters. Even if these are very large products, like cars!

Volkswagen Cady.

Citroen Berlingo.

Ferrari 360.