The main reason for the biological regression of many plant species. Lecture: Progress and regress

The objectives of the lesson: to form in students the concept of the main directions of evolution, to show the relationship between the paths of evolution; introduce the types of evolutionary changes, with the concepts of biological progress and biological regression.

Equipment: tables, diagrams illustrating convergence, aromorphosis, physiological and behavioral adaptations of organisms, disk “Virtual School of Cyril and Methodius. General biology. Grade 11, lesson number 19. Biological progress and biological regress.

During the classes

1. Checking knowledge.

Frontal discussion on:

Who laid the foundations of scientific systematics? (Carl Linnaeus.)
List the main systematic groups used in the classification of plants? (Species, genus, family, order, division, kingdom.)
List the main systematic groups used in the classification of animals? (Species, genus, family, order, class, type, kingdom.)
What is binary nomenclature? (Double specific name.)
Why do we classify organisms as one species? (Organisms must be similar in external and internal features, live in the same territory, freely interbreed with each other with the formation of fertile offspring.)
Why is the system of Carl Linnaeus called artificial? (Because he did not take into account the relationships between organisms.)
Why is the modern classification called natural? (The modern classification system takes into account the relationship of species to both living and extinct species.)

2. Learning new material.

Natural selection determines the path of evolution. How did the formation of modern systematic groups proceed? Why, in some cases, the organization of living beings became more complicated, while in others, on the contrary, it became simpler? You can find out the answers to these questions by getting acquainted with the main types of evolutionary changes and the main directions of evolution.

2.1. Types of evolutionary changes.

Parallelism is the process of evolutionary development in a similar direction of two or more initially divergent species. For example, among mammals, cetaceans and pinnipeds, independently of each other, switched to living in the aquatic environment and acquired the corresponding adaptations - flippers.

Convergence is a type of evolutionary change in which unrelated organisms acquire similar traits. A classic example of convergent development is the emergence of similar body shapes in sharks, ichthyosaurs, and dolphins. The similarity between unrelated organisms is only external. Birds and butterflies have wings, but the origin of these organs is different. In the first case, these are altered limbs, in the second, skin folds.

Divergence is the most general type of evolutionary process, the basis for the formation of new systematic groups. Divergence is a divergent evolution. The process of divergence is usually represented as an evolutionary tree with divergent branches. The common ancestor gave rise to two or more forms, which, in turn, became the ancestors of many species and genera. An example of the divergence of forms is the emergence of finches with various morphophysiological features from one or a few ancestral forms on the Galapagos Islands. The divergence of intraspecific forms and species in different habitats is determined by competition in the struggle for the same conditions, the way out of which lies in settling in different ecological niches.

2.3. The main directions of evolution.

The development of living nature went from simple to complex and had a progressive character. Along with this, the adaptation of species to specific living conditions took place, their specialization was carried out. Biological progress is achieved in various ways. A.N. Severtsov called them the main directions of evolutionary progress: aromorphoses, idioadaptation and degeneration.

Aromorphosis - represents such large-scale, evolutionary changes that lead to a general rise in organization, increase the intensity of life, but are not narrow adaptations to sharply limited conditions of existence. Aromorphoses give significant advantages in the struggle for existence, make it possible to move into a new environment. Aromorphoses in animals include the appearance of live birth, the ability to maintain a constant body temperature, the emergence of a closed circulatory system, and in plants - the appearance of a flower, a vascular system, the ability to maintain and regulate gas exchange in leaves. (Lesson “Biological progress and regression”. Slide 3)

By way of aromorphosis, large systematic groups arise in the process of evolution, with a rank higher than the family.

Aromorphoses contribute to increased survival and reduced mortality in populations. The number of organisms increases, their range expands, new populations form, and the formation of new species accelerates. All this is the essence of biological progress. Typical aromorphoses in invertebrates are: sexual differentiation, the appearance of a bilateral organization, the emergence of a tracheal respiratory system, the concentration of the central nervous system, the transition to pulmonary respiration; in mammals - the division of the heart into the right and left halves with the differentiation of the two circles of blood circulation, an increase in the working capacity of the lung volume. The consequence of these aromorphoses is a more perfect oxidation of the blood and an abundant supply of oxygen to the organs, and hence the intensification of the functions of the organs. Differentiation and specialization of the digestive organs leads to a more complete use of nutrients, which contributes to the enhancement of metabolic processes, an increase in general activity, the emergence of warm-bloodedness, increased activity of motor organs and improvement of their design. All these and other aromorphoses are interconnected, and arogenetic traits are useful in a variety of conditions of existence. For example, the possession of animal movable limbs opens up the possibility of their diverse use in the desert, forest, valley, mountains, in water, for digging soil, etc. Or such aromorphoses as the formation of striated muscles, the development of walking limbs and wings in insects. These aromorphoses opened the way for insects to conquer land and partly air. Major aromorphoses in the development of plants were: the appearance of the epidermis, stomata, conductive and mechanical systems, the regular change of generations in the plant cycle, the formation of flowers, fruits, etc.

Idioadaptation - is a small evolutionary change that increases the adaptability of organisms to certain environmental conditions. In contrast to aromorphosis, idioadaptation is not accompanied by a change in the main features of the organization, a general rise in its level and an increase in the intensity of the organism's vital activity. Usually, small systematic groups - species, genera, families - arise in the process of evolution through idioadaptation.

Idioadaptation, as well as aromorphosis, leads to an increase in the number of species, expansion of the range, acceleration of speciation, that is, to biological progress.

Typical idioadaptation in animals are structural features of the limbs (for example, in moles, ungulates, pinnipeds), beak features (in birds of prey, waders, parrots), adaptations of demersal fish (in stingrays, flounders), protective coloration in insects. Examples of idioadaptations in plants are diverse adaptations for pollination, the distribution of fruits and seeds. (Lesson “Biological progress and regression”. Slide 4)

In nature, biological regression is also observed. It is characterized by features that are opposite to biological progress: a decrease in numbers, a narrowing of the range, a decrease in the number of species and populations. As a result, regression often leads to the extinction of the species.

Of the numerous branches of the most ancient amphibians, only those remained that led to the formation of modern classes of amphibians and reptiles. The ancient ferns and many other groups of plants and animals disappeared. (Slide 8)

With the development of human civilization, the causes of biological progress and biological regression are increasingly associated with the changes that man makes to the landscapes of the Earth, breaking the links between living beings and the environment that have developed in the process of evolution.

Human activity is a powerful factor in the progress of some species, often harmful to him, and the biological regression of others, necessary and useful to him. For example, the emergence of insects resistant to pesticides, pathogenic microbes resistant to drugs, the rapid development of blue-green algae in wastewater. When sowing, man invades wildlife, destroys many wild populations over large areas, replacing them with artificial ones. The increased extermination of many species by man leads to their biological regression, which threatens them with extinction. (Slide 9.)

2.4. Correlation of paths of evolution.

Of all the considered ways to achieve biological progress, aromorphoses are the rarest. Aromorphoses can be considered as turning points in the development of life. For groups that have undergone appropriate morphophysiological transformations, new opportunities open up in mastering the external environment.

Each aromorphosis is followed by many idioadaptations that ensure a more complete use of all available resources and the development of new habitats.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

3.1. Questions session.

Do idioadaptations lead to morphological progress? (No. Idio adaptations do not increase the level of organization.)
Do idioadaptations lead to biological progress? (Various idioadaptations lead to the colonization of different habitats and to increased speciation, increase the fitness for specific conditions and abundance, contribute to a wider distribution of this group and, therefore, lead to biological progress.)
Give examples of degenerations in liver fluke and tapeworm. (There is a simplification of the nervous system and sensory organs, the bovine tapeworm completely lacks a digestive system.)
Give examples of degenerations in dodder. (Lack of leaves, roots and chlorophyll.)
Do degenerations lead to biological progress? (Morphophysiological regression can lead to an increase in numbers, an increase in adaptation to special conditions and to a wider distribution of organisms, the emergence of new species and, consequently, to biological progress.)
Which paths of evolution lead to biological progress? (Aromorphoses lead to an increase in the level of organization and the colonization of new habitats. Then a period of idioadaptation begins, and a large number of new species are formed that are well adapted to different specific habitat conditions. After simplification, a period of idioadaptation also begins. Thus, all three paths lead to biological progress .)
What paths of evolution lead to morphophysiological progress? (Only aromorphoses lead to morphophysiological progress.)

3.2. Final testing (on questions for the lesson “Biological progress and regression. Slide 13).

If we analyze the history of the development of the organic world, we can see that many taxonomic groups of organisms have become more perfect and numerous over time. However, individual groups gradually reduced their numbers and disappeared from the arena of life. Therefore, evolution proceeded in two directions. The doctrine of the main directions of evolution - biological progress and biological regression was developed by A. N. Severtsov and supplemented by his student I. I. Shmalgauzen.

biological progress(from lat. progressus- forward movement) - the direction of evolution, characterized by an increase in the adaptability of organisms of a certain systematic group to the environment. The emergence of new adaptations provides organisms with success in the struggle for existence, preservation and reproduction as a result of natural selection. This leads to an outbreak of abundance and, as a result, to the development of new habitats and the formation of numerous populations. Populations that find themselves in different environmental conditions are subject to the action of multidirectional natural selection. As a result, they gradually turn into new species, species into genera, etc. As a result, the systematic group (species, genus, family, etc.) is in a state of prosperity, since it includes many subordinate forms.

Thus, biological progress is the result of the success of a systematic group in the struggle for existence, due to the increase in the fitness of its individuals.

biological regression(from lat. regressus- return, movement back) - the direction of evolution, characterized by a decrease in the adaptability of organisms of a certain systematic group to living conditions. If the rates of evolution (the formation of adaptations) in organisms lag behind changes in the external environment and related forms, then they cannot compete with other groups of organisms. This means that they will be removed by natural selection. There will be a decrease in the number of individuals. As a result, the area of the territory inhabited by them will decrease and, as a result, the number of taxa will decrease. As a result, this group may become extinct.

Thus, biological regression is the gradual extinction of a systematic group (species, genus, family, etc.) due to a decrease in the fitness of its individuals. Human activities can also lead to the biological regression of some species. The reason may be direct extermination (bison, sable, Steller's cow, etc.). But this can also happen as a result of a reduction in habitats during the development of new territories (bustard, white crane, cane toad, etc.). Species that are in a state of biological regression are listed in the Red Book and are subject to protection.

The fourth edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus includes 202 species of animals, 189 species of plants, 34 species of mosses, 21 species of algae, 25 species of lichens and 34 species of fungi. A very important environmental measure is the creation of the so-called red notebooks - lists of rare species of the area, compiled by young ecologists in schools.

Signs characteristic of biological progress and biological regression are presented in the table:

Ways to achieve biological progress

Biological progress can be achieved in three main ways - through arogenesis, allogenesis and catagenesis. Each of the pathways is characterized by the emergence of certain adaptations (adaptations) in organisms.

Arogenesis(from Greek. airo- I lift genesis- development) - the path of development of adaptations that increase the level of organization of individuals and their adaptability to various habitats to such an extent that it allows them to move to a new environment of life (for example, from an aquatic environment to a ground-air one). These adaptations are called aromorphoses(from Greek. airo- I lift morphosis pattern, form). They represent profound changes in the structure and functions of organisms. As a result of the appearance of these adaptations, the level of organization and the intensity of the vital processes of organisms increase significantly. Therefore, Severtsov called aromorphoses morphophysiological progress. Examples of the main aromorphoses are presented in the table:

Basic aromorphoses in animals and plants

Animals	Plants
Bilateral (bilateral) body symmetry	Chlorophyll and chloroplasts (photosynthesis)
Two types of reproductive systems	Tissues (integumentary, mechanical, conductive)
Movable limbs	Organs (root, stem, leaf)
Tracheal respiration in invertebrates	Alternation of generations (sporophyte and gametophyte)
Pulmonary respiration in vertebrates	flower and fruit
Central nervous system, developed parts of the brain	Double fertilization (without water)
Four-chambered heart
Two circles of blood circulation (warm-bloodedness)
Alveolar lungs

Arogenesis leads to the emergence of large systematic groups (classes, departments, types, kingdoms). Examples of arogenesis are the emergence of divisions of holo- and angiosperms, classes of terrestrial vertebrates, etc.

allogenesis(from Greek. allos- different, different genesis- origin, occurrence) - the path of development of particular adaptations that do not change the level of organization of individuals. But they allow individuals to more fully populate their former habitat. These adaptations are called allomorphoses. Allomorphoses arise on the basis of aromorphoses and represent a variety of forms of organs without changing their internal structure. Examples of allomorphoses can be different forms of limbs in vertebrates, beaks and legs in birds, different types of leaves, stems, flowers in plants, etc. Due to allomorphoses, allogenesis leads to an increase in species diversity within large systematic groups. For example, an increase in the species diversity of the class of dicotyledonous plants occurred due to the appearance of different flower shapes.

A. N. Severtsov also noted that in the course of evolution, a regular change in the paths of evolution is observed (Severtsov's law). Any large systematic group begins its development along the path of arogenesis due to the appearance of aromorphoses. This allows her to move into a new habitat. Then the organisms settle in different habitats. On the basis of aromorphoses, allomorphoses arise, and evolution proceeds along the path of allogenesis. As a result, the new environment is completely populated, and so on. Severtsov considered catagenesis as a special case in arogenesis and allogenesis.

The main directions of evolution are biological progress (the prosperity of a taxonomic group) and biological regression (the extinction of a taxonomic group). Biological progress can be achieved in different ways: through arogenesis, allogenesis and catagenesis.

Biological progress has been studied and is being studied by biologists.

Scientists are unanimous in the opinion that the successful results in the struggle for existence are the progression of organisms.

Development has three directions. In addition, it is believed that this is the only evolutionary way for the appearance of man.

biological progress is

The fact that the birth rate in the population is higher than the mortality rate, and the number of organisms increases with settlement in new places, indicates the ecological prosperity of the species. A. Severtsov created and characterized the theory of biological progress:

Organisms adapt to environmental factors.
The number of representatives of the species is increasing.
Subgroups appear.
The habitat area is expanding.
Having gone through a fierce struggle for existence, one systematic unit wins.

Today insects, birds, mammals, nematodes are progressing.

Paths of biological progress

Organisms progress along three paths or directions, acquiring the necessary adaptations.

Arogenesis- the acquisition of major morphophysiological changes - aromorphoses, which increase viability.

At allogenesis organisms do not move to a new level, but adapt to live in special conditions. New species, genera, families appear.

Catagenesis called the general degradation of individuals, a simplification that helps to survive and reproduce.

Biological progress and regression

When a regression occurs, the opposite happens: the number of individuals decreases, the boundaries of the habitat decrease in the same way as the number of population groups. Regress threatens the extinction of a species that is unable to compete and is destroyed in the process of natural selection. Another reason is direct destruction by man. The remaining rare representatives of wildlife are protected and listed in the Red Book.

Achieving biological progress

Biological progress - types

Adaptations of species help not only to survive. Settling in new habitats, organisms are forced to switch to other food. At the same time, competition with relatives is sharply weakened. Representatives quickly multiply and settle, giving rise to the formation of new species. The resulting groups are distinguished by the unequal action of selection and different conditions of life.

Signs of biological progress

Biological progress is determined by three criteria:

An increase in the number of organisms of a species.
Settling in new places, expanding the boundaries of the range.
Formation of new populations, subspecies, species.

Signs form a single relationship with each other.

Examples of biological progress

Animal Kingdom:

acquired bilateral symmetry;
reproductive system of two types;
mobile limbs;
the appearance of tracheal breathing by invertebrates and alveolar breathing by vertebrates;
CNS and developed parts of the brain;
4-chambered heart, large and small circles of blood circulation, warm-blooded animals.

Plant transformations:

chlorophyll use of the energy of the sun;
integumentary, mechanical and conductive tissues;
the roots, stems, leaves were determined, which allowed the plants to reach the land;
fertilization does not depend on water;
the seed is protected by the fruit.

Biological progress is characterized

The main evolutionary direction associated with biological progress improves the external and internal structure of organisms. In another case, it changes secondary organs without complicating the structure. Thus, there is an adaptation of individuals to changing conditions. In the third characteristic, individuals progress, acquiring a complicated organization of life.

Biological progress: aromorphosis

Aromorphosis refers to morphophysiological progress that increases the standard of living:

Biological Progress: Idioadaptation

During telogenesis, genera, species, orders, families appear. Devices are narrowly specialized for specific conditions without changing the level of organization. For example, chameleon, sloth, turtle extras. Mammals have a similar internal structure. Angiosperms are represented by thousands of species and forms. Thanks to aromorphosis, birds acquired a beak, but size and shape depend on nutrition.

Biological progress of animals

With the domestication of the animal, people chose productive pets, created acceptable living conditions, and took care of their health. Having become domesticated, animals have increased productivity, bring healthy offspring, increasing their numbers. There is biological progress.

Which way to achieve biological progress

The problem of biological progress

The theme of the progress of the organic world remains difficult to understand and often causes discussion among biologists. It is considered the key to solving the problem. Scientists Lamarck, Darwin, Huskley put forward scientific hypotheses of the presence of biological progress in nature. As well as Rensch, Severtsov, Simpson, Schmalhausen and others. Some evidence is erroneous. The models of Severtsov and Huskley, which are the center of scientific discussions of biologists, are considered exemplars.

Evidence for biological progress

Biological progress and biological regression are named as the main directions of the development of living nature. As a result, large systematic units are formed, and the process lasts for thousands of years. Evidence of biological progress includes:

Comparative anatomy: similar structure of vertebrates, homologous organs, atavisms and rudiments.
The similarity of embryos, proved by Karl Baer.
Findings of paleontologists.

The ant has the largest brain in relation to the body.
The human brain performs 100,000 chemical reactions.
The tallest grass, 30 m, is bamboo.
The human body is marked by 90 rudiments.
There are 10,000 poisonous plants on the planet today.
Rats go without water longer than camels.
Snakes have two sex organs, and sleep without food for 3 years.
Sea Sunfish is able to lay 5 million eggs at once.

findings

Biological progress and regress are the main ways, directions of evolution in which specific orders and genera survive, develop and improve, or disappear.

The history of the organic world shows that the difference between groups of organisms once appear, then, as a rule, flourish, are transformed in the process of relation, asto-, phylogenesis into other groups of organisms, or completely die out paleontologist A.

Severtsov (1912-1939) proposed to distinguish two states in the history of the development of organisms, which he called biological progress and biological regression.

Biological progress is characterized by the following features:

1) Increase in the number of individuals;

2) Expansion of the distribution area;

3) Strengthening the differentiation of the former group into new ones (species, subspecies);

Biological regression is the opposite of progress and is characterized by:

1) Decrease in the number of individuals;

2) Reducing the distribution area;

3) Reducing the number of systematic groupings;

The transformation of one group of organisms into another occurs in a state of biological progress, when the differentiation of the original group into new systematic groups begins.

Biological regression eventually leads to extinction. An example is the history of the development of ammonoids. They appeared in the Devonian, and died out at the end of the Cretaceous.

Their biological progress lasted 100 million years. Biological regression begins in the middle of the chalk, the duration of the regression is always shorter than the progress.

Biotic events are significant transformations recorded in the history of the development of life. These include a) the emergence of life; b) mass appearances; c) mass extinctions of organisms of a large rank.

1) The emergence of life. The problem of the origin of life is studied by many disciplines: biochemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, geochemistry, etc.

in the fossil record, information about the first life is represented by chemical molecules (chemofossils) and microscopic bodies (ecfossils).

The oldest of them are debatable. Thus, the statement about the discovery of microscopic orange-shaped formations in Greenland at the turn of 3.8 billion years is questioned; the finds of microscopic bodies at the turn of 3.7 billion years may possibly refer to biological objects. Carbohydrates of mixed abiogenic and biogenic origin have been isolated from rocks of this age.

Fassilia finds at the turn of 3.5-3.2 are considered biogenic.

Thus, at present, paleontological data indicate that life arose no earlier than 3.8-3.7 billion years and no later than 3.5 billion years. It is assumed that at the stage of chemical evolution, organic compounds had mirror symmetry, which was later broken due to the transition of chemomolecules into biomolecules. The reason for the symmetry breaking is unclear.

Apparently, both internal (instability of the mirror system) and external (meteorite bombardment, catastrophic disruption of the primary atmosphere from the Earth, etc.) causes were involved here. The first creations of chemical-biological evolution were anaerobic bacteria capable of living in an anoxic environment.

Inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, nitrates, etc., inorganic substances of chemogenic and then biogenic origin served as oxidizers.

2) Mass appearances.

These are the following dates;

1) 3.8-3.5 billion years (AR1). The emergence of life, the emergence of bacteria. The atmosphere begins to be enriched with biogenic rocks.

2) 3.2 billion

years (AR2). The appearance of reliable cyanobionts. The atmosphere acquires biogenic carbonate strata - stromatolites. The atmosphere begins to be enriched with molecular oxygen released by cyanobionts during photosynthesis.

3) 1.8 - 1.7 billion years (PR1-PR2). The appearance of aerobic bacteria, unicellular algae.

4) 1.0-1.7 billion years (R3V). Appearance of reliable multicellular algae and marine acellular invertebrates represented by cnidarians, worms, and arthropods.

5) 600-570 million

years (E1). The first mass appearance of mineral skeletons in the animal kingdom in almost all known types.

6) 415 million years. (S2-D1). Massive appearance of terrestrial vegetation.

7) 360 million years (D). Mass appearance of the first terrestrial invertebrates (insects, arachnids) and vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles).

years (Mz - Kz). Mass appearance of angiosperms and mammals.

9) 2.8 million years (N2) the appearance of man.

The mass appearance of new forms, as well as extinction, proceeded stepwise at different speeds. By the standards of geological time, most biotic events happened fairly quickly.

3) Extinction of organisms.

The paleontological record shows that the development of some forms of organisms is accompanied by the extinction of others. Extinction occurs not only when habitat conditions change, but also when the Earth's regime is fairly stable.

In the history of the organic world, there are several milestones where mass extinction is observed: on the borders between the Ordovician and Silurian, Silurian and Devonian, Devonian and Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene.

Numerous groups became extinct during the Phomerozoic: archaeocyates, rugoses, tabulates, stromatoporates, trilobites, ammonites, etc. extinction and natural selection, according to Darwin, go hand in hand, but the increase in the number of a species is constantly delayed by various reasons. Thus, if a species seizes a place previously occupied by a species of another group, and new forms develop from it, then these new ones can supplant the forms of the old species.

The introduction of new forms into a new territory, which have some advantages over local ones, will lead to the displacement of these local forms, but due to some features, one of the local forms can survive and exist for a long time (relict forms).

Such relics are p.Nautilus, p.Trigonia, Lingula, which have existed for a long time (Nautilus from the Ordovician and still lives). Sooner or later, every phylogenetic branch disappears. Sometimes this extinction coincides with habitat changes. Most often it occurs against the background of a rather calm regime of the Earth.

The disappearance of a group follows three main paths. One path is associated with evolutionary transformations, leading to the emergence of new groups by changing the old ones.

Another way is connected with extinction itself (a blind branch of evolution). The third path is a combination of the first two: for a while there is a transformation, and then part of the group dies out. Scientists suggest that there are internal and external causes of extinction.

Internal causes may be - the exhaustion of the vital reserve of forces, i.e.

aging, a decrease in variability, and hence the impossibility of adapting to new conditions. External causes of extinction are: tectogenesis, which causes periodic changes in the sea-land ratio, volcanic activity, earthquakes, changes in the composition of the atmosphere, climate, ocean level fluctuations, increased radioactivity, and other reasons.

The directions of evolution described above characterize the phenomenon biological progress.

The increase in organization (aromorphoses) and the divergence of interests (idioadaptation), as the main ways of evolution, exclude organisms from excessive competition, reduce it, and at the same time increase their resistance to eliminating factors.

As a rule, these directions of evolution are accompanied by selection for a wide modification adaptability, i.e., for the development of a wide "adaptive fund". Therefore, aromorphoses and allomorphoses (as well as other paths of evolution) entail biological progress.

The main signs of biological progress are:

The increase in numbers.
Saturation of the species population with diverse mixobiotypes (controlled by selection).
Expansion of the area (range) of distribution.
Differentiation into local races (ecological and geographical).
Further divergence, the emergence of new species, genera, families, etc.

Of course, if idioadaptations are of a more special nature, remaining adaptations of a very narrow telomorphic meaning, then the possibilities for expanding the range are limited.

However, even in this case, the path of ecological differentiation is not closed, and if the station is extensive (for example, a large tract of forest), then the further expansion of the range to the limits of the station.

Let's look at two examples of biological progress.

Along with this - a huge euryadaptability in relation to the plants used. The nematode was found on 855 plant species (Steiner, 1938), belonging to more than fifty families, with a variety of biochemical properties, growing conditions, etc.

n. This indicates a wide modification adaptability of the root-knot nematode and the biological progress of the species.

2. Pasyuk (Rattus norvegicus) penetrates European Russia in the 18th century. It appeared in Germany (Prussia) around 1750, in England from 1730, in Paris after 1753, in Switzerland after 1780, in Ireland from 1837.

In the middle of the 19th century, there was no pasyuk in Western Siberia. In 1887, Pasyuk occasionally met near Tyumen. In 1897 met in the southern part of the Tobolsk province and was common in Orenburg and throughout the Urals, from Uralsk to Orsk. According to Kashenko, pasyuk appeared in the Orenburg Territory after the construction of the railway. In 1889, there was no pasyuk up to the eastern borders of the Tomsk province.

However, in Eastern Siberia, its variety has long existed - the Trans-Baikal Pasyuk. Consequently, at the end of the 19th century, around the time of the opening of the Siberian Railway. etc., Western Siberia was free from pasyuk. Movement along the named railway. The village was opened in 1896-97, and on May 29, 1907 (after the Japanese war), the first pasyuk specimen was caught in Omsk.

In 1908, Kashchenko received a large number of West Siberian pasyukov, and in 1910.

pasyuki "have already begun to play the role of a real disaster." Moving east, the European pasyuks eventually occupied the whole of Western Siberia (except for the extreme north) and met with the Transbaikal variety.

“In the middle of the largest of the continents ... the iron ring formed by the Pasyuk around the globe finally closed, and I, writes Kashchenko (1912), had to be present at this last act of his victorious march.”

Highly active, variable and adaptable in its behavior to different climatic zones, Pasyuk everywhere where there is water, food and people, vigorously expands its range.

An example of a biotically progressive plant species is the Canadian plague (Elodea canadensis), which rapidly invades new habitats.

These are the main features of species that are in a state of biological progress.

The expansion of the range, the capture of new habitats is their most important feature, which gives access to intraspecific differentiation and to the formation of new forms due to it.

An excellent illustration of what has been said can be provided by the biologically progressive development of the hare (Folitarek, 1939).

Rusak is adapted to open places, with less deep or more dense snow cover. Therefore, it could not spread to the north, into the forest zone with looser, and therefore deeper snow. However, as the forest was cut down, the conditions of the snow cover changed (it became smaller and denser), and the hare began to quickly spread to the north.

Interestingly, during the years of numerical growth, the pace of advancement to the north also increased. Having penetrated to the north, the hare formed here a new ecological form - somewhat larger, with winter wool, which turned whiter significantly compared to its winter color in the south. There was a selection (and possibly adaptive modification) for size (the greater the body weight, the higher the heat production with a lower return due to the relatively smaller surface) and selection for whitening, under which the hare is less noticeable to the predator (fox).

Thus, the new environmental conditions that caused an increase in numbers opened up the possibility of expanding the range, and the expansion of the range caused the formation of a new form.

biological regression characterized by the opposite:

a decrease in the number
narrowing and splitting of the range into separate spots,
weak or even absent intraspecific differentiation,
extinction of forms, species, entire groups of the latter, genera, families, orders, etc.

As a rule, the "adaptive fund" of species undergoing biological regression is narrower than that of forms experiencing biological progress.

As a result of these features, biologically regressive species can become endemic, with a very limited or even point range, examples of which we have already given.

Such biologically regressive species include (partly under human influence) the European beaver, muskrat, European bison, New Zealand tuatara, and many other forms.

Among the plants, one can point to the already mentioned Ginkgo biloba, which has survived only in some places in East Asia, while in the Mesozoic (especially in the Jurassic) Ginkgoes were widespread.

The reduction in numbers and narrowing of the range leads the species to a state of biological tragedy, since under these conditions the impact of indiscriminate forms of elimination puts the species at risk of complete extermination.

If the reduction in numbers and the narrowing of the range reaches such proportions that the latter is concentrated on a small area, then a single or repeated catastrophic elimination will cut off its existence.

If you find an error, please select a piece of text and press Ctrl+Enter.

In contact with

Classmates

Progress and regression in evolution

If we analyze the history of the development of the organic world, we can see that many taxonomic groups of organisms have become more perfect and numerous over time.

However, individual groups gradually reduced their numbers and disappeared from the arena of life. Therefore, evolution proceeded in two directions. The doctrine of the main directions of evolution - biological progress and biological regression was developed by A. N. Severtsov and supplemented by his student I. I. Shmalgauzen.

biological progress(from lat. progressus - moving forward) - the direction of evolution, characterized by an increase in the adaptability of organisms of a certain systematic group to the environment.

The emergence of new adaptations provides organisms with success in the struggle for existence, preservation and reproduction as a result of natural selection. This leads to an outbreak of abundance and, as a result, to the development of new habitats and the formation of numerous populations. Populations that find themselves in different environmental conditions are subject to the action of multidirectional natural selection.

As a result, they gradually turn into new species, species - into genera, etc. As a result, the systematic group (species, genus, family, etc.) is in a state of prosperity, as it includes many subordinate forms.

Thus, biological progress is the result of the success of a systematic group in the struggle for existence, due to the increase in the fitness of its individuals.

biological regression(from lat.

regressus - return, movement back) - the direction of evolution, characterized by a decrease in the adaptability of organisms of a certain systematic group to living conditions. If the rates of evolution (the formation of adaptations) in organisms lag behind changes in the external environment and related forms, then they cannot compete with other groups of organisms. This means that they will be removed by natural selection. There will be a decrease in the number of individuals.

As a result, the area of the territory inhabited by them will decrease and, as a result, the number of taxa will decrease. As a result, this group may become extinct.

Thus, biological regression is the gradual extinction of a systematic group (species, genus, family, etc.) due to a decrease in the fitness of its individuals.

Human activities can also lead to the biological regression of some species. The reason may be direct extermination (bison, sable, Steller's cow, etc.).

But this can also happen as a result of a reduction in habitats during the development of new territories (bustard, white crane, cane toad, etc.). Species that are in a state of biological regression are listed in the Red Book and are subject to protection.

The fourth edition of the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus includes 202 species of animals, 189 - plants, 34 - mosses, 21 - algae, 25 - lichens and 34 species of mushrooms.

A very important environmental measure is the creation of the so-called red notebooks - lists of rare species of the area, compiled by young ecologists in schools.

Signs characteristic of biological progress and biological regression are presented in the table:

Ways to achieve biological progress

Biological progress can be achieved in three main ways - through arogenesis, allogenesis and catagenesis.

Each of the pathways is characterized by the emergence of certain adaptations (adaptations) in organisms.

Arogenesis(from the Greek airо - I raise, genesis - development) - the path of development of adaptations that increase the level of organization of individuals and their adaptability to different habitats to such an extent that it allows them to move to a new environment of life (for example, from an aquatic environment to a terrestrial air).

These adaptations are called aromorphoses (from the Greek airo - I raise, morphosis - a pattern, form). They represent profound changes in the structure and functions of organisms. As a result of the appearance of these adaptations, the level of organization and the intensity of the vital processes of organisms increase significantly.

Therefore, Severtsov called aromorphoses morphophysiological progress. Examples of the main aromorphoses are presented in the table:

AnimalsPlants

Bilateral (bilateral) body symmetry	Chlorophyll and chloroplasts (photosynthesis)
Two types of reproductive systems	Tissues (integumentary, mechanical, conductive)
Movable limbs	Organs (root, stem, leaf)
Tracheal respiration in invertebrates	Alternation of generations (sporophyte and gametophyte)
Pulmonary respiration in vertebrates	flower and fruit
Central nervous system, developed parts of the brain	Double fertilization (without water)
Four-chambered heart
Two circles of blood circulation (warm-bloodedness)
Alveolar lungs

Arogenesis leads to the emergence of large systematic groups (classes, departments, types, kingdoms).

Examples of arogenesis are the emergence of divisions of holo- and angiosperms, classes of terrestrial vertebrates, etc.

allogenesis(from the Greek allos - another, different, genesis - origin, occurrence) - the path of development of particular adaptations that do not change the level of organization of individuals. But they allow individuals to more fully populate their former habitat.

These adaptations are called allomorphoses. Allomorphoses arise on the basis of aromorphoses and represent a variety of forms of organs without changing their internal structure. Examples of allomorphoses can be different forms of limbs in vertebrates, beaks and legs in birds, different types of leaves, stems, flowers in plants, etc.

Due to allomorphoses, allogenesis leads to an increase in species diversity within large systematic groups. For example, an increase in the species diversity of the class of dicotyledonous plants occurred due to the appearance of different flower shapes.

Catagenesis(from the Greek kata - a prefix meaning movement from top to bottom, genesis - origin, emergence) - a special path of evolution in a simpler environment, accompanied by the reduction of individual organ systems with a simultaneous increase in the efficiency of the reproductive system.

A. N. Severtsov also noted that in the course of evolution, a regular change in the paths of evolution is observed (Severtsov's law).

Any large systematic group begins its development along the path of arogenesis due to the appearance of aromorphoses. This allows her to move into a new habitat. Then the organisms settle in different habitats.

On the basis of aromorphoses, allomorphoses arise, and evolution proceeds along the path of allogenesis. As a result, the new environment is completely populated, and so on. Severtsov considered catagenesis as a special case in arogenesis and allogenesis.

The main directions of evolution are biological progress (the prosperity of a taxonomic group) and biological regression (the extinction of a taxonomic group).

Biological progress can be achieved in different ways: through arogenesis, allogenesis and catagenesis.

How does biological progress manifest itself in modern bony fish?

Signs of biological progress:

an increase in the number of individuals
expansion of the range (distribution area) of this species,
an increase in the number of subordinate systematic units (for example, the number of units increases within a class).

Most modern bony fish are in a state of biological progress.

Provide at least three pieces of evidence to support this statement.

1) Bony fish have a very large range and it is not decreasing.
2) The number of bony fish is very large and continues to increase.
3) Within the class of bony fish, the emergence of new taxa (orders, families, genera) continues.

What are the causes of biological progress?

The reason for biological progress is the good adaptability of the species to environmental conditions.

Fitness is a consequence of the interaction of the driving forces of evolution (primarily natural selection).

Why does diversity of adaptation contribute to the biological progress of a group?

A variety of adaptations allows you to live in different environmental conditions.

Consequently, the range of the species and the number of its individuals increase.

Why is the high abundance of a species an indicator of biological progress?

The high abundance of the species indicates that it is well adapted to environmental conditions.

Why is the expansion of the range of a species considered a sign of biological progress?

Give 3 proofs.

1) the diversity of environmental conditions that ensure the reproduction and development of individuals of the species increases;
2) expanding opportunities for nutrition, improving the food supply;
3) intraspecific competition weakens.

Why can high fecundity of individuals lead to the biological progress of a species?

List at least three reasons.

1) high fecundity leads to a large number of individuals;
2) due to the large number, the range is expanding;
3) the number of mutations and combinations increases, i.e.

material for natural selection; selection becomes more efficient.

Why not only aromorphosis, but also idioadaptation and degeneration can lead to biological progress?

Give at least three pieces of evidence.

Signs of biological progress are an increase in the number of a species, an expansion of its range, and speciation.
1) Having adapted well to specific environmental conditions (idioadaptation), the species will increase its population. By simplifying its organization (degeneration), the species will be able to spend the saved resources on additional protection or reproduction, thereby also increasing its population.
2) By increasing its numbers, the species will be able to spread more widely, i.e.

expand your range.
3) By expanding its range, the species will fall into new ecological niches in which new species will form.

What characterizes biological regression in nature?

A decrease in the number of individuals, a narrowing of the range, a decrease in the number of subordinate systematic units.

Modern lobe-finned fish are in a state of biological regression.

Give at least three pieces of evidence to support this phenomenon.

Signs of biological regression are a decrease in the number of species, a narrowing of the range, and a reduction in the number of systematic units.
1) The number of modern lobe-finned fish is small.
2) Their range is small.
3) Only one species of cross-finned fish (coelacanth) remained on earth.

Why does a decrease in the range of a species lead to biological regression?

1) Reducing the range leads to a decrease in the number of the species.
2) Genetic diversity decreases, closely related crossings begin.
3) The variety of ecological conditions in which the species exists decreases - the number of subspecies and races decreases.

Currently, about 20 subspecies of the hare are known, which are found in Europe and Asia.

Give at least four proofs of the biological progress of the hare species.

1) The hare has a large population.
2) The hare has a large range.
3) The hare has a large number of subordinate systematic units (subspecies).
4) The hare occupies different ecological niches.

5) All this suggests that the hare is well adapted to the environment.

Part A assignments on this topic

A. N. Severtsov showed that historical transformations and the development of new adaptations ( adaptaiogenesis) were carried out in different ways. He singled out the concepts of biological progress and regression.

Biological progress means the victory of a species or other taxonomic group in the struggle for existence. Signs of biological progress are:

1. increase in the number of individuals;

2. expansion of the range;

3. increase in the number of child taxonomic groups.

All three signs of biological progress are related to each other.

An increase in the number of individuals contributes to the expansion of the boundaries of the range of the species, the settlement of new habitats, which leads to the formation of new populations, subspecies, and species. At present, insects, birds, and mammals are in a state of biological progress.

The concept of biological regression is the opposite of biological progress. Biological regression is characterized by:

decrease in numbers due to the excess of mortality over reproduction;

a decrease in intraspecific diversity;

narrowing and expansion of the integrity of the range, which breaks up into separate spots;

4. susceptibility due to the small number of mass catastrophic elimination, which can suddenly end the existence of such a group.

Severtsov showed that biological progress is not the only, but only one of the possible ways of evolutionary transformations.

The most important ways of biological progress according to A.N. Severtsov: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration.

Subsequently, the problem of the paths of biological evolution was developed I.I.

Schmalhausen. He highlighted the following directions of biological progress: aromorphosis, allomorphosis, telomorphosis, hypermorphosis, catamorphosis, hypomorphosis.

Aromorphosis(orogenesis) - morphophysical, morphofunctional progress - the path of evolution, accompanied by an increase in the organization of life and the expansion of the habitat .

Arogeneses are characterized by:

1 strengthening the vital activity of the organism;

2.greater differentiation of its parts;

3.greater integrity of the organism, i.e.

e. its integration;

4. development of more active ways of struggle for existence;

5. improvement of the nervous system and sense organs.

Aromorphosis leads to changes that give a general rise to the organization, always leads to biological progress.

It makes it possible to move to new conditions of existence. An example of arogenesis is a four-chambered heart, two circles of blood circulation, a complication of the nervous system, the occurrence of a live birth, the feeding of young with milk, and a constant body temperature. Aromorphoses of amphibians - lungs, three-chambered heart, two circles of blood circulation, limbs, improvement of the brain and sensory organs.

Examples of aromorphoses of the Archean era are the emergence of the sexual process, photosynthesis, and multicellularity. As a result of aromorphoses, types and classes, i.e., large taxa, arose.

A. N. Severtsov emphasized that aromorphosis is, first of all, a complication of organization, that is, he drew attention to the morphological characteristics of this phenomenon. A. N. Severtsov and then I. I. Shmalgauzen showed a wider meaning of aromorphoses, that is, they gave it an ecological and morphological interpretation.

Allogenesis (allomorphosis, idioadaptation) is the way in which particular adaptations arise when living conditions change.

In contrast to aromorphoses, during allogenesis, the progressive development of the organism occurs without complicating the organization, the general rise in the energy of the organism's vital activity. Allogenesis leads to an increase in species diversity, a rapid increase in the number . For example, the distribution of mammals not only in different geographical areas from the tropics to the Arctic deserts, but also their development of various environmental conditions (land, water, soil) has reduced competition between species for food, habitats, while the level of organization remained the same.

As a result of idioadaptation, species, genera, families, orders arise, i.e. taxa of a lower rank. Divergence, convergence, parallelism are carried out by idioadaptation.

Telogenesis (telomorphosis)- narrow specialization to limited conditions of existence without changing the level of organization. This is a special form of allogenesis. For example, chameleons, sloths, lungfish, turtles, woodpeckers have an adaptation to private living conditions.

A change in the environment during telogenesis makes organisms unviable and leads to their elimination.

Hypermorphosis(hypergenesis)— re-development of organisms in any direction with a violation of relations with the environment. Hypergene evolution proceeds in two phases. The first phase is characterized by the appearance of large forms within this group. This helps to increase the resistance of the animal against predators.

e. promotes survival in the struggle for existence. In the second phase, the advantages of gigantism turn into their opposite. Increase in body size— this is a special case of specialization of telogenesis, which means that even minor changes in the environment lead to the extinction of these forms. For example, gigantism in dinosaurs, mammoths, or the development of individual organs in saber-toothed tigers, giant deer.

Of the modern representatives of the giants, one can name whales, giraffes, elephants, rhinos.

Hypogenesis (hypomorphosis) is a particular form of catagenesis.

During hypogenesis, there is an underdevelopment of the organism or its organs, the reduction of individual parts, and the preservation of larval features.

For example, the axolotl, proteus, and siren living in water reach sexual maturity at the level of larva organization. They never take on the appearance of adult land amphibians. Thus, sirens have permanent gills, underdeveloped eyes, and a reduced number of fingers. The main directions or paths of evolution are characterized by a number of features. At present, there is no consensus in science regarding the regularities of the relationships between the paths of biological progress.

According to the theory of A.N.

Severtsov, after arogenesis, which increases the organization of organisms, there always comes a period of partial adaptations - idioadaptation, sometimes accompanied by simplification - degeneration.

On the basis of the same arogeneses, various "superstructures" can arise, i.e. adaptations to particular conditions (allogenesis, telogenesis).

A new aromorphosis, according to Severtsov, may arise from little specialized forms formed during the initial phases of idioadaptive development;

Change of directions in adaptive evolution occurs according to aromorphosis scheme — idioadaptation (early)— aromorphosis. The pattern of changing phases of the evolutionary process, characteristic of all groups of organisms, is called Ohm's law.

N. Severtsova.

According to Schmalhausen, telogenesis, hypergenesis, catamorphosis, hypomorphosis represent dead-end branches of phylogenesis leading to extinction.

Changing directions of evolution according to Schmalhausen proceeds according to the scheme: orogenesis - allogenesis - orogenesis.

According to this law, a new type or class arises through arogenesis, and then its adaptive radiation occurs - allogenesis with subsequent dead-end directions. A new rise in organization may arise from unspecialized forms that developed along the path of allogenesis.

A.K.Severtsov introduced significant amendments to this law according to the scheme: orogenesis - allogenesis - telogenesis - orogenesis.

For example, the origin of terrestrial vertebrates from lobe-finned fish from shallow drying water bodies, birds - from flying reptiles.

Biological progress means the victory of a species or other taxonomic group in the struggle for existence. Signs of biological progress are:

1. increase in the number of individuals;

2. expansion of the range;

3. increase in the number of child taxonomic groups.

All three signs of biological progress are related to each other. An increase in the number of individuals contributes to the expansion of the boundaries of the range of the species, the settlement of new habitats, which leads to the formation of new populations, subspecies, and species. At present, insects, birds, and mammals are in a state of biological progress.

The concept of biological regression is the opposite of biological progress. Biological regression is characterized by:

decrease in numbers due to the excess of mortality over reproduction;

a decrease in intraspecific diversity;

3. narrowing and expansion of the integrity of the area, which breaks up into separate spots;

4. susceptibility due to the small number of mass catastrophic elimination, which can suddenly end the existence of such a group.

A.N. Severtsov showed that biological progress is not the only, but only one of the possible ways of evolutionary transformations.

The most important ways of biological progress according to A. N. Severtsov: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration.

Subsequently, the problem of the paths of biological evolution was developed I.I. Schmalhausen. He highlighted the following directions of biological progress: aromorphosis, allomorphosis, telomorphosis, hypermorphosis, catamorphosis, hypomorphosis.

Aromorphosis(orogenesis) - morphophysical, morphofunctional progress - the path of evolution, accompanied by an increase in the organization of life and the expansion of the habitat . Arogeneses are characterized by:

1 strengthening the vital activity of the organism;

2.greater differentiation of its parts;

3. greater integrity of the organism, i.e. its integration;

4. development of more active ways of struggle for existence;

5. improvement of the nervous system and sense organs.

Aromorphosis leads to changes that give a general rise to the organization, always leads to biological progress. It makes it possible to move to new conditions of existence. An example of arogenesis is a four-chambered heart, two circles of blood circulation, a complication of the nervous system, the occurrence of a live birth, the feeding of young with milk, and a constant body temperature. Aromorphoses of amphibians - lungs, three-chambered heart, two circles of blood circulation, limbs, improvement of the brain and sensory organs. Examples of aromorphoses of the Archean era are the emergence of the sexual process, photosynthesis, and multicellularity. As a result of aromorphoses, types and classes, i.e., large taxa, arose.

Allogenesis (allomorphosis, idioadaptation) is the way in which particular adaptations arise when living conditions change. Unlike aromorphoses, during allogenesis, the progressive development of the organism occurs without complicating the organization, the general rise in the energy of the organism's vital activity. Allogenesis leads to an increase in species diversity, a rapid increase in the number . For example, the distribution of mammals not only in different geographical areas from the tropics to the Arctic deserts, but also their development of various environmental conditions (land, water, soil) reduced the competition between species for food and habitats, while the level of organization remained the same. As a result of idioadaptation, species, genera, families, orders arise, i.e. taxa of a lower rank. Divergence, convergence, parallelism are carried out by idioadaptation.

Hypermorphosis(hypergenesis) - re-development of organisms in any direction with a violation of relations with the environment. Hypergene evolution proceeds in two phases. The first phase is characterized by the emergence of large forms within a given group. This contributes to an increase in the resistance of the animal against predators, i.e., it contributes to survival in the struggle for existence. In the second phase, the advantages of gigantism turn into their opposite. Increase in body size - this is a special case of specialization of telogenesis, which means that even minor changes in the environment lead to the extinction of these forms. For example, gigantism in dinosaurs, mammoths, or the development of individual organs in saber-toothed tigers, giant deer. Of the modern representatives of the giants, whales, giraffes, elephants, rhinos can be called.

Hypogenesis (hypomorphosis) is a particular form of catagenesis. During hypogenesis, there is an underdevelopment of the organism or its organs, the reduction of individual parts, and the preservation of larval features. For example, the axolotl, proteus, and siren living in water reach sexual maturity at the level of larval organization. They never take on the appearance of adult land amphibians. Thus, sirens have permanent gills, underdeveloped eyes, and a reduced number of fingers. The main directions or paths of evolution are characterized by a number of features. At present, there is no consensus in science regarding the regularities of the relationships between the paths of biological progress.

According to the theory of A. N. Severtsov, after arogenesis, which increases the organization of organisms, there always comes a period of partial adaptations - idioadaptation, sometimes accompanied by simplification - degeneration. On the basis of the same arogeneses, various "superstructures" can arise, i.e. adaptations to particular conditions (allogenesis, telogenesis). A new aromorphosis, according to Severtsov, may arise from little specialized forms formed during the initial phases of idioadaptive development;

Change of directions in adaptive evolution occurs according to aromorphosis scheme - idioadaptation (early) - aromorphosis. The pattern of changing phases of the evolutionary process, characteristic of all groups of organisms, is called the law of A. N. Severtsov.

According to Schmalhausen, telogenesis, hypergenesis, catamorphosis, hypomorphosis represent dead-end branches of phylogenesis leading to extinction.

Changing directions of evolution according to Schmalhausen proceeds according to the scheme: orogenesis - allogenesis - orogenesis. According to this law, a new type or class arises through arogenesis, and then its adaptive radiation occurs - allogenesis with subsequent dead-end directions. A new rise in organization may arise from unspecialized forms that developed along the path of allogenesis.

A.K.Severtsov introduced significant amendments to this law according to the scheme: orogenesis - allogenesis - telogenesis - orogenesis. For example, the origin of terrestrial vertebrates from lobe-finned fish from shallow drying water bodies, birds - from flying reptiles.