Social Psychology.
Ed. A.L. Zhuravleva.
M., 2002.

CHAPTER 1. SUBJECT, HISTORY AND METHODS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1.4. Formation of modern social psychology abroad

In a broad sense, Western experts define social psychology as a science that studies the (mutual) dependence of people's behavior, determined by the fact of their relationships and interactions. Behavioral interdependence means that the behavior of an individual is studied both as a cause and as a result of the behavior of other people. Moreover, other people can be in real contact with this individual, exist in his imagination, or simply be assumed by a specific situation.

In historical terms, the process of development of any scientific discipline, including social psychology, is approximately the same - the emergence of socio-psychological ideas within the framework of philosophy and their gradual separation from the system of philosophical knowledge. In our case, through the initial spin off of two other disciplines - psychology and sociology, which directly gave life to social psychology.

Modern social psychology arose at the beginning of the 20th century as a reaction to the "asocial" nature of general psychology: as if it, social psychology, was charged with the task of socializing psychology and personalization in the study of society.

The year of her birth can be considered 1908, when the first two books on social psychology were published: "Introduction to Social Psychology" by the English psychologist W. McDougall and the work of the American sociologist E. Ross "Social Psychology". However, it is known that research interest in the study of people's social behavior arose and took shape in the second half of the 19th century and was marked by the appearance of works on the conditionally called “folk psychology”, which analyzes the ways in which the individual and society interact (recognition of the primacy of the individual or the primacy of society): 1) psychology peoples as one of the first forms of psychological theory developed in the middle of the 19th century in Germany and is associated with the names of M. Lazarus, G. Steinthal and W. Wundt; 2) mass psychology, another form of the first socio-psychological theory, was born in France in the second half of the 19th century and is associated with the names of S. Siguelet and G. Lebon,

The beginning of scientific social psychology in the West is usually associated with the work of V. Mede in Europe and F. Allport in the USA in the 1920s. They formulated the requirements for the transformation of social psychology into an experimental discipline and moved on to a systematic experimental study of socio-psychological phenomena in groups. In the development of psychology, three theoretical schools stood out - psychoanalysis, behaviorism and Gestalt psychology, on the provisions and ideas of which social psychology began to rely. Particularly attractive were the ideas of the behaviorist approach, which most corresponded to the ideal of building a strictly experimental discipline. Influenced by the experimental methodology that social psychology began to use intensively in the period between the two world wars, the original integrative task of "socializing" psychology was largely reduced to studying the influence of a controlled social environment on individual behavior in the laboratory.

The price social psychology paid for its experimental rigidity was the loss of relevance of its results. The liberation from the spell of the experimental approach led to the crisis of the 1960s and 1970s, when many alternative options for the development of this discipline were proposed. The main effect of this crisis is the liberalization of social psychology and its liberation from the artificiality of the laboratory experiment. In recent years, much more attention has been paid to the study of social behavior in natural conditions, as well as the study of the social and cultural context using observational methods and modern correlation techniques.

The theoretical and methodological development of Western social psychology took place both in line with general psychological trends - behaviorism and Freudianism, and new socio-psychological schools and trends proper - neobehaviorism(E. Bogardus, G. Allport, V. Lambert, R. Bales, G. Houmens, E. Mayo, etc.), neo-Freudianism(K. Horney, E. Fromm, A. Kardiner; E. Shils, A. Adler); field theory and group dynamics(K. Levin, R. Lippit, R. White, L. Festinger, G. Kelly); sociometry(J. Moreno, E. Jenning, J. Criswell, N. Brondenbrenner and others); transactive psychology(E. Kentril, F. Kilpatrick, V. Ittelson, A. Aymes and others); humanistic psychology(K. Rogers and others); cognitivist theories, as well as interactionism(G. Mead, G. Bloomer, M. Kuhn, T. Sarbin, R. Merton and others). which represents a sociological source in the development of social psychology.

As modern foreign reviews show, social psychology studies a wide range of problems. Among the most actively developed in modern research are:

attribution processes;

group processes;

Giving help;

attraction and affiliation;

aggression;

crimes;

installations and their study;

social cognition;

social development of the individual (socialization);

cross-cultural research.

Traditionally, social psychology is divided into three or four areas of study - the study individual social behavior, study dyadic social interaction and estate processes, study small groups and psychological study social problems.

In the study of individual social behavior, both cognitive and motivational factors are important. Cognitive Factors were studied in social psychology in two different ways: as a study of the influence of various social factors on the processes of perception of any objects and as a study of the direct perception of a person by a person (social perception), which received much more attention.

When perceiving and evaluating other people, we usually tend to believe that the observed behavior is the result of the action of more or less invariant latent (hidden) characteristics of the person and / or situation that we consider the cause of this behavior. In general, we draw conclusions about the emotional states of other people on the basis of subtle non-verbal signals that manifest themselves in facial facial reactions. In order to interpret and explain the behavior of both other people and our own, we rely mainly on those behaviors that we observe or presuppose.

Attribute theories propose and explore various ways in which such behaviors are used to draw conclusions about the person and/or situation itself.

An additional problem of social perception is the question of how all available information is integrated into the overall impression (representation, opinion) and judgment. In general, we probably integrate information about other people in a relatively simple way, using cognitive heuristics, and perhaps also prototypes.

When comparison with an objective judgment (prototype) is possible, it is likely that social judgment may often be less than optimal due to shortcomings that arise from simplified empirical definitions (approximate methods).

Closely related to the study of social perception is the study of attitudes. In general, attitudes are considered as acquired behavioral dispositions (readiness) that have an evaluative nature.

To what extent attitudes actually influence behavior is still a matter of debate. However, studies have convincingly shown that, under certain conditions, attitudes measured by traditional attitude scales have some predictive value.

Attitude change research has long been one of the most popular and significant areas of research in foreign social psychology. Most theories of attitude change are based on the assumption that the change occurs because of a perceived discrepancy between the original attitude and the attitude that arises from a new source of information. This source can be either a stimulus, or the installation object itself, or an external communicator (another person), or the behavior of the information recipient. The studies of the French school on social representations (S. Moscovici) suggest that attitudes can be fruitfully studied and considered as part of social representations and belief systems.

Applied attitudinal research is largely concerned with prejudice and discrimination. In early theories, the emphasis is on personality factors (T. Adorno et al., "The Authoritarian Personality", 1950), in later studies it is shown that evaluative differentiation is associated with social categorization and the general tendency (need) of group members for social identity (X. Tezhfel and others).

Motivational aspects of individual social behavior more often studied in connection with the processes of dyadic interaction. Analysis of daily interactions reveals two basic variables: a variable of dominance, status, or power versus submissive behavior, and a variable of positive social behavior (attraction, affection, love, helping) versus negative social behavior (aggression).

Factors that have been shown to influence initial attraction to another person include similarity, repetitive mutual social presence in a situation, emotional state, need for affection, other person's physical attractiveness, and similarity of attitudes. In subsequent studies, there was a shift from the study of artificial contacts to the study of longer-term relationships (friendship, marriage).

Altruism and helping as another form of (pro)social behavior is another of the most active areas of research in foreign social psychology. Apparently, helping other people becomes less likely in situations where the person does not accept responsibility for the situation (responsibility diffusion, outsider effect), and also when the "costs" greatly exceed the possible "benefits" of such behavior. Sociobiological theories of altruism are based on the latter principle, also emphasizing the evolutionary importance of altruistic behavior and its relationship with the degree of kinship.

The problem of aggression was also an area of ​​research in which both biological and socio-psychological theories contributed significantly. learning and approaches based on the frustration-aggression hypothesis of Dollard and Miller. Modern ideas consider aggression mainly as any other form of social behavior, which is determined by motivational factors and factors acquired by a person as a result of social learning (socialization).

Much effort has been made to develop and formulate general theories of social interaction. Most of these theories view social interaction as a form of social exchange (Homans et al.) in which participants seek to maximize their own "acquisitions" ("benefits") and minimize "costs". This may be correct, corresponding to the norm in an absolute sense in a situation of negotiations, in a relative sense in a situation of competition and cooperation, or in relation to ordinary justice, as suggested by the theory of equivalence - equality (Adamé).

Study of group influence on individual social behavior and the study of small groups themselves as social formations of a supra-individual nature was a subject of special interest to Western social psychology at the turn and during the Second World War. In addition to work dealing with the problems of communication and interaction in small groups, research has uncovered the social influence of the (unanimous) majority opinion in such groups, which leads to strict uniformity and unity of group opinions.

Subsequent studies have shown that even a minority in a group can have a strong influence on the behavior of group members and group behavior as a whole.

Strict obedience to authority is another phenomenon that has attracted a lot of attention from researchers.

In subsequent years, interest in the study of small groups declined, in part due to the fact that many of the studied groups were formed from strangers on a laboratory basis. The generalization of the results of the study of such groups to real groups is risky and dangerous, as shown, for example, by the effects of group polarization (Moscovici). In the laboratory, groups have been found to tend to make more extreme decisions than individuals; however, it turned out that this effect is very difficult to replicate (isolate) in natural groups.

Applying Social Psychology to Solving Social Problems yavpyalos long and constant tradition of social psychologists. (For example, the study of prejudice and discrimination has already been mentioned above.) Its application to the study of medical, organizational and educational problems has also been and is constantly in the field of attention of social psychologists up to the present. Socio-psychological issues in the field of legal claims, ecology, interethnic and cross-cultural dynamics are intensively studied.

1.5. Program and methods of socio-psychological research

Socio-psychological research- a type of scientific research with the aim of establishing psychological patterns in the behavior and activities of people, due to the fact of inclusion in social (large and small) groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves. Specificity of S.p.i. compared with other social sciences is characterized by:

using both data on the open behavior and activities of individuals in groups, and the characteristics of consciousness (representations, opinions, attitudes, values, etc.) of these individuals as full-fledged;

the social context of the study, influencing the selection, interpretation and presentation of facts;

instability and constant change in socio-psychological phenomena;

culturally conditioned relativity of socio-psychological patterns;

work with real concrete objects of research (individuals and groups).

In social psychology, there are three levels of research: empirical, theoretical and methodological. The empirical level is the collection of primary information that fixes socio-psychological facts, and the description of the data obtained, usually within the framework of certain theoretical concepts. The theoretical level of research provides an explanation of empirical data by correlating them with the results of other works. This is the level of constructing conceptual, theoretical models of socio-psychological processes and phenomena. The methodological level, from the content side, considers the multilevel, systemic organization of socio-psychological phenomena and their constituent elements, the correlation of principles and categories, determines the initial principles for studying these phenomena. On the formal side, the methodology defines the operations by which the collection and analysis of empirical data takes place. Sometimes a fourth level is distinguished - procedural (G. M. Andreeva, 1972). This is a system of knowledge about the methods, techniques of research, which ensures the reliability and stability of psychological information. Together, these levels create the conditions for developing a research program.

Research program, research stages. Any research begins with the preparation of a research program. The effectiveness of the study, the significance of its theoretical and practical results largely depend on its scientific validity. The program is a theoretical and methodological basis of psychological research procedures: data collection, processing and analysis. The program sets a certain logic (stages) of the study. Usually it includes: definition of the problem, object and subject of research; preliminary theoretical analysis of the object of study; description of the goals and objectives of the study; interpretation and operationalization of basic concepts; formulation of working hypotheses; determination of the research plan (exploratory, descriptive, experimental); drawing up a sampling plan; description of methods for collecting and processing data, schemes for their analysis and interpretation (G, M. Andreeva, 1972; V. A. Yadov, 1995; V. E. Semenov, 1977). Sometimes there are theoretical (methodological) and methodological (procedural) sections in the program. The first includes the components of the program, which begin with the formulation of the problem and end with the compilation of a sample plan, the second - a description of the methods of collecting, processing and analyzing data. An important element of the program is considered to be a pilot study. Its purpose is to assess the quality and reliability of methodological tools and procedures for organizing research, as well as the possibility of making adjustments and changes to the final versions of methods and data collection techniques. The results of the study are usually drawn up in the form of a report, which is drawn up according to a specific plan, contains a description of all sections of the program, as well as a description of the analysis of the results obtained.

The sources of information in social psychology are considered to be:

characteristics of the real behavior and activities of people and groups;

characteristics of individual and group consciousness (opinions, assessments, ideas, attitudes, values, etc.);

characteristics of the products of human activity - material and spiritual;

individual events, states of social interaction.

The methods used in social psychology to collect empirical data are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used not only in social psychology, but also in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The development and improvement of socio-psychological methods is uneven, which determines the difficulties of their systematization. The entire set of methods is usually divided into two groups: methods for collecting information and processing it (G. M. Andreeva, 1972, 1995; V. A. Yadov, 1995). There are other classifications of methods. There are, for example, such methods as observation, experiment and survey (including questionnaires, interviews, sociometry and tests) (E. S. Kuzmin, 1973). documents, survey, group personality assessment, sociometry, tests, instrumental methods, experiment); modeling methods; methods of managerial and educational influence (A. L. Sventsitsky, 1977).

It is especially important for the methodology of social psychology to identify and classify the methods of socio-psychological influence. The significance of the latter is associated with the strengthening of the role of social psychology in solving social problems. Usually this group of methods is divided according to such dichotomous grounds as the degree of activity (active, passive), the level of organization (organized, spontaneous), orientation (direct, indirect). I single out other grounds, for example, the purpose of the impact (A.L. Zhuravlev, 1990).

Classification of methods of socio-psychological influence

(according to A.L. Zhuravlev, 1990)

The purpose of the impact	Group name methods	Methods
Optimization	Optimizing	Formation of a favorable psychological climate, communication training, acquisition of compatible groups
Intensification (stimulation, activation)	Intensifying	Techniques of rational organization of labor, recruitment of well-organized groups
Control	Managers	Psychological selection, personnel placement, group life planning
Development, formation	Educational	Group training, education and upbringing
A warning	Preventive	Methods for correcting the psychological properties of an individual and a group
Grade	Diagnostic	Certification, self-certification
Informing	informing	Psychological counseling

The main trends in the development of socio-psychological research methods:

increasing the reliability of the methods used to collect empirical information by formalizing the measurement procedure (improving the quality of the operationalization of concepts that characterize the empirical properties of the object under study, using procedures for scaling the object’s features, standardizing the rules for collecting primary information and processing it), as well as by algorithmizing the study itself;

"computerization" of methods - the development of computer variants (analogues) of existing research methods, the creation of computer technologies for collecting empirical information, including computer network options;

complex use of methods for collecting empirical information, a combination of various measurement methods, as well as sources of information (tests, questionnaires, expert assessments, etc.)

strengthening the importance of methods that minimize the subjective influence of the researcher and the subject (s) on the process of collecting empirical information (the use of technical means of fixing information, conducting research in natural conditions, fixing objective indicators, characteristics of behavior and activity, their products, states of social interaction);

development of "provocative methods" of information collection, "active strategy" of research, i.e. purposeful creation in natural conditions of situations of social interaction in order to cause (actualize) a certain socio-psychological phenomenon (for example, situations of conflict, social mutual assistance, etc.).

observation method. Observation in social psychology is a method of collecting information through direct, purposeful and systematic perception and registration of socio-psychological phenomena (facts of behavior and activity) in natural or laboratory conditions. The observation method can be used as one of the central, independent research methods. Classical examples are N. Anderson's study of the life of vagabonds, Wu, White's work on the study of the life of emigrants. V, B. Olshansky on the study of value orientations among young workers (G, M. Andreeva, 1972). The method of observation is also carried out in order to collect preliminary research material, as well as to control the empirical data obtained. The classification of observation is made on various grounds. Depending on the degree of standardization of the observation technique, it is customary to distinguish two main varieties of this method: standardized and non-standardized observation. The standardized technique assumes the presence of a developed list of signs to be observed, the definition of conditions and situations of observation, instructions for the observer, uniform codifiers for registering observed phenomena. Data collection in this case involves their subsequent processing and analysis by means of mathematical statistics. The most famous observation schemes are the methods of IPA, R. Bales' SYMLOG (M. A. Rober, F. Tilman, 1988), L. Carter's leadership observation scheme, P. Ekman's non-verbal behavior fixation, etc. The non-standardized observation technique determines only general directions observations, where the result is recorded in a free form, directly at the moment of perception or from memory. The data of this technique are usually presented in a free form, it is also possible to systematize them using formal procedures.

Depending on the role of the observer in the situation under study, included (participating) and non-included (simple) observation are distinguished. Participant observation involves the interaction of the observer with the group being studied as a full member of it. The researcher imitates his entry into the social environment, adapts to it and observes the events in it as if "from the inside". There are different types of participant observation depending on the degree of awareness of the members of the study group about the goals and objectives of the researcher (V. E. Semenov, 1987; A. A. Ershov, 1977; G. M. Andreeva, 1972). Non-participant observation registers events "from the outside", without interaction and establishing relationships with the person or group being studied. Observation can be carried out in an open way and incognito, when the observer masks his actions (L. A. Petrovskaya, 1977). The main disadvantage of participant observation is related to the impact on the observer (his perception and analysis) of the values ​​and norms of the group under study. The researcher risks losing the necessary neutrality and objectivity in the selection, evaluation and interpretation of data. Typical mistakes are: shortening of impressions and their simplification, their banal interpretation, reconstruction of events to the average, loss of the "middle" of events, etc. In addition, the laboriousness and organizational complexity of this method cause serious problems. According to the organization condition, observations are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) and laboratory (observations under experimental conditions). The object of observation are individuals, small groups and large social communities (for example, a crowd) and the social processes taking place in them, for example, panic. The subject of observation is usually the verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior of an individual or a group as a whole in a particular social situation. The most typical verbal and non-verbal characteristics include: speech acts (their content, direction and sequence, frequency, duration and intensity, as well as expressiveness); expressive movements (expression of the eyes, face, body, etc.); physical actions, i.e. touches, pushes, blows, joint actions, etc. (V.A. Labunskaya, 1986). Sometimes the observer captures the events taking place using generalized traits, qualities of a person or the most typical tendencies of his behavior, for example, dominance, submission, friendliness, analyticity, expressiveness, etc. (R. Bales, 1979). The question of the content of an observation is always specific and depends on the purpose of the observation and the theoretical position of the researcher regarding the phenomenon under study. The main task of the researcher at the stage of organization of observation is to determine in which acts of behavior that are accessible to observation and fixation, the psychological phenomenon or property of interest to him is manifested, and to choose the most significant, most fully and reliably characterizing its features. Selected characteristics of behavior ( units of observation) and their codifiers constitute the so-called "scheme of observation"(see R. Bales' diagram). The complexity or simplicity of the observation scheme affects the reliability of the method. The reliability of the scheme depends on the number of observation units (the fewer there are, the more reliable it is); their specificity (the more abstract the attribute, the more difficult it is to fix it); the complexity of the conclusions that the observer comes to when classifying the identified features. The reliability of the observation scheme is usually tested by data control by other observers, as well as other methods (eg, use of similar observation schemes, peer review) and repeated observation. The results of the observation are recorded in accordance with a specially prepared observation protocol. The most common ways to record surveillance data are: descriptive(factual), involving the fixation of all cases of manifestation of units of observation; estimated- when the manifestation of signs is not only recorded, but also evaluated using an intensity scale and a time scale (for example, the duration of an act of behavior). The results of observation should be subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis and interpretation. Methods for processing observation data include methods of classification and grouping, content analysis, etc.

There are several directions in changing the classical procedures for using the method:

rejection of the passivity of the researcher and modification of natural situations of observation (provocative observation);

development of "non-reactive" research methods - elimination of the influence of the observer, fixing the phenomenon only by its objective signs (for example, the degree of deterioration of the object, various traces, prints, the number of cigarette butts, etc.);

analysis of social situations - the study of behavior (styles, norms and their violations) in typical social situations (for example, altruistic behavior on the roads);

the study of non-verbal aspects of behavior, etc. (V. E. Semenov, 1987).

The main disadvantages of the method are:

high subjectivity in data collection, introduced by the observer (effects of halo, contrast, condescension, modeling, etc.) and observed (the effect of the presence of the observer);

predominantly qualitative nature of the conclusions of the observation;

relative limitations in generalizing the results of the study.

Ways to improve the reliability of observation results are associated with the use of reliable observation schemes, technical means of data recording, observer training, minimizing the effect of the observer's presence (V.E. Semenov. 1987; A.A. Ershov, 1977).

Document analysis method. This method is a kind of methods for analyzing the products of human activity. A document is any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic or photo media (V. A, Yadov, 1995). For the first time in social psychology, it was used as the main method of research by W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky in the study of the phenomenon of social attitude (G. M. Andreeva, 1972; V. A, Yadov, 1995). Documents differ in the way information is recorded (handwritten, printed, film, photo, video documents), by intended purpose (targeted, natural), by the degree of personification (personal and impersonal), depending on the status of the document (official and unofficial). Sometimes they are also divided according to the source of information into primary (documents based on direct registration of events) and secondary documents. The preference for one or another type of document as a carrier of socio-psychological information is determined based on the purpose of the study and the place of documents in the overall research program. All methods of document analysis are divided into traditional (qualitative) and formalized (qualitative-quantitative). At the heart of any method are the mechanisms of the process of understanding the text, i.e., the interpretation by the researcher of the information contained in the document. Quantitative methods for analyzing textual materials became widespread in the 1930s and 1940s in connection with the development of a special procedure called content analysis (literally, the term means content analysis). Content analysis is a method of converting textual information into quantitative indicators with its subsequent statistical processing (A. N. Alekseev, 1973; V. E. Semenov, 1983; N. N. Bogomolova, 1979, 1991). The quantitative characteristics of the text obtained with the help of content analysis make it possible to draw conclusions about the qualitative, including the latent (not explicit) content of the text. In this regard, the method of content analysis is often referred to as a qualitative-quantitative analysis of documents. Its main procedures were developed by X. Lasswell, B. Berelson, C. Stone, C. Osgood and others. (A. Rybnikov, I. N. Shpilrein, etc.).

Basic units and procedures of content analysis. The content analysis procedure involves several stages: the selection of units of analysis (qualitative and quantitative), the preparation of a coding instruction, the pilot text coding, the coding of the entire array of texts under study and the calculation of the quantitative ratio of units of analysis in the studied text, as well as the interpretation of the data obtained. Qualitative (semantic) units:

indicators - forms of expression of semantic units of analysis in the language of the text being studied.

For example, as semantic units for analyzing information (texts) about a political election campaign (programs, appeals, publications in the press, leaflets, etc.), events, subjects of events (political leaders, parties, officials, voters, etc.) etc.), their attitude to events (for-against, beneficial-unprofitable, good-bad), interests, positions, programs, goals and ways to achieve them, attitudes, value orientations, business and personal qualities of candidates, etc. The founder of this method, G. Lasswell, used a four-dimensional scheme for analyzing the text of newspapers: for himself (pro-x) - against himself (contra-x), for the enemy (pro-y) - against the enemy (contra-y).

The quantitative units of analysis include:

context units - parts of the text (sentence, answer to a question, paragraph of text), in which the frequency and volume of the use of categories are considered;

units of account and volume - spatial, frequency, temporal characteristics of representation in the text of semantic units of analysis.

The procedure for conducting content analysis requires the development of a coding instruction - a description of text coding techniques, methods for fixing and processing data (N. N. Bogomolova, 1991; V. E. Semenov, 1977; V. A. Yadov, 1995). It contains a brief justification of the categories of analysis, the corresponding dictionary of indicators of categories and subcategories of content analysis in terms of the text under study, and also defines their codes (numerical or alphabetic designations) and the selected units of quantitative analysis. As a rule, it describes the forms (specially prepared tables) of the working registration of the frequency and volume of mentioning the categories of content analysis. See below for an example of a form for recording content analysis data.

The form of working fixation of the frequency and volume of content analysis categories

(according to N.N. Bogomolova, 1991)

Quantitative processing of information involves the use of typical methods of statistical data analysis: distribution and frequency of occurrence of categories of analysis, correlation coefficients, etc. Special techniques have been developed for quantitative processing of content analysis data. The most famous are the coefficients of "joint occurrence" of categories, "associations", "favorability of assessment", "share" of the category, etc. The main methodological difficulty of content analysis is finding in the text the appropriate semantic units of analysis of the phenomenon under study, as well as their adequate description. Procedures have been developed to justify the completeness of the identified units of analysis: the "snowball" method, the method of experts (judges), the method of independent criterion, etc. (V. A. Yadov, 1995). K.-a. applies:

if necessary, the accuracy and objectivity of the analysis of documents;

the presence of a large volume of unsystematized material;

Content analysis can be used as an independent method, for example, in the study of the social attitudes of the audience of a particular body or subject of communication. However, more often and most successfully it is used in combination with other methods, such as observation, questioning, etc. The scope of k.-a. in social psychology: the study of the socio-psychological characteristics of communicators and recipients; study of socio-psychological phenomena reflected in the content of the document; study of the specifics of means of communication, forms and methods of organizing their content; study of socio-psychological aspects of communication impact. The specifics of the application of content analysis in each specific case is largely determined by the initial theoretical basis of the study. No other method in social psychology is as directly related to the purpose and theoretical concept of research as content analysis. This is explained by the fact that the basic concepts of the study are at the same time the categories of content analysis, with which the studied content of the text is correlated. The main task of content analysis is not only to reveal the real facts, events referred to in the text, but also moods, attitudes, feelings, and other socio-psychological phenomena. The content analysis technique is also used for auxiliary purposes as a data processing technique in a number of personality tests (TAT, achievement motivation tests, etc.), for processing and clarifying data obtained by other methods, such as questionnaires. The main disadvantage of the method is the complexity and laboriousness of the procedure and technique, which requires highly qualified coder-analysts,

polling method. A very common method in socio-psychological research. The essence of the method is to obtain information about objective or subjective (opinions, moods, motives, attitudes, etc.) facts from the words of the respondents. Among the many types of surveys, two main types are most common: a) a face-to-face survey - an interview, a face-to-face survey conducted by a researcher in the form of questions and answers with the respondent (respondent); b) correspondence survey - questioning with the help of a questionnaire (questionnaire) intended for self-completion by the respondents themselves. F. Galton was the first to use the survey method in psychology in order to study the origin of mental qualities and the conditions for the development of scientists. The pioneers of its application in psychology are also S. Hall, A. Binet, G. M. Andreeva, E. Noel. Scope of the survey in social psychology:

in the early stages of the study, to collect preliminary information or pilot testing of methodological tools;

survey as a means of clarifying, expanding and controlling data;

as the main method of collecting empirical information.

The specifics of the use of a survey in social psychology is related to the following:

in social psychology, the survey is not the main methodological tool, for example, in comparison with sociology;

the survey is generally not used for sample surveys;

applied as a continuous survey on real social groups;

most often carried out in person;

in a socio-psychological study, the questionnaire is not just a questionnaire, but a complex of special techniques and methods (scales, associative techniques, tests, etc.) for studying an object, etc. (A. L. Zhuravlev, 1995).

The source of information during the survey is the verbal or written judgment of the interviewed person. The depth, completeness of the answers, their reliability depend on the ability of the researcher to correctly build the design of the questionnaire. There are special techniques and rules for conducting a survey aimed at ensuring the reliability and reliability of information: determining the representativeness of the sample and motivation for participating in the survey; construction of questions and composition of the questionnaire; conducting a survey (V. A. Yadov, 1995; G. M. Andreeva, 1972; A. L. Sventsitsky, 1977; E. Noel, 1978).

The literature describes typical errors that occur when questions are illiterately constructed. The most frequently mentioned external signs associated with shortcomings in the preparation of the questionnaire, such as: lack of order in the answers (omissions of questions) due to the unsuccessful formulation of questions, the use of special terms that make it difficult to understand them; the predominance of uniform responses such as “all or nothing”, i.e. the lack of differences in the answers of the respondents is the result of a high stereotype of the question; a large number of answers “I don’t know, I find it difficult to answer” - vagueness, uncertainty of questions; a large number of inappropriate comments of the respondents - an incomplete list of possible alternatives to the answer; a significant percentage of refusals - poor composition of the questionnaire, unsatisfactory instructions for the questionnaire, etc. There is a specificity in compiling an interview questionnaire that takes into account the characteristics of the personal interaction of the survey participants, as well as the stage (phase) of its implementation.

The main types of interviews in socio-psychological research are standardized and non-standardized interviews. In the first case, the interview assumes the existence of standard wording of questions and their sequence, determined in advance. In this case, the researcher does not have the opportunity to change them. The non-standardized interview methodology is characterized by flexibility and wide variation. In this case, the interviewer is guided only by the general plan of the survey, formulating questions in accordance with the specific situation and the answers of the respondent. Conversational technique is essential to successful interviewing. It requires the interviewer to be able to establish close contact with the respondent, to interest him in a sincere conversation, to “actively” listen, to master the skills of setting and registering answers, to overcome the “resistance” of the interviewee. At the same time, the interviewer should avoid imposing (“prompting”) a possible answer option on the interviewee, excluding the subjective interpretation of his statement. The difficulty of conducting an interview is related to the task of maintaining the necessary depth of contact with the respondent throughout the conversation. The literature describes various methods of stimulating the activity (answers) of the respondent, among them the most frequently mentioned are: expression of agreement (attentive look, nod, smile, assent), the use of short pauses, partial disagreement, clarification by incorrect repetition of what was said, an indication of contradictions in the answers, repetition of the last words, the requirement for explanations, additional information, etc. There are also other types of interviews, for example, focused, therapeutic, etc. Each of the listed types of interviews is characterized by certain restrictions on the purposes of application and the nature of the information received (G. M. Andreeva, 1972; V. A. Yadov, 1995; A. L. Sventsitsky, 1977). It is customary to single out the key phases: establishing contact, the main and completing the interview. Criteria for the effectiveness of the interview: completeness (breadth) - it should allow the interviewee to cover various aspects of the problem under discussion as fully as possible; specificity (concreteness) - it should provide accurate answers for each aspect of the problem that is significant for the questioned aspect; depth (personal meaning) - it must reveal the emotional, cognitive and value aspects of the respondent's attitude to the situation under discussion; personal context - the interview is designed to reveal the characteristics of the personality of the respondent and his life experience (R. Merton, 1986).

The types of surveys are divided according to the number of respondents (individual and group), according to the place of conducting, according to the method of distribution of questionnaires (handout, mail, press). Among the most significant shortcomings of the distribution, and especially mail and press surveys, are the low percentage of return of questionnaires, the lack of control over the quality of filling out the questionnaires, the use of only questionnaires that are very simple in structure and volume.

The preference for the type of survey is determined by the objectives of the study, its program, and the level of knowledge of the issue. The main advantage of the survey is associated with the possibility of mass coverage of a large number of respondents and its professional accessibility. The information received in the interview is more meaningful and deep in comparison with the questionnaire. However, the disadvantage is, first of all, the difficultly controlled influence of the personality and professional level of the interviewer on the interviewee, which can lead to a distortion of the objectivity and reliability of information.

Method of sociometry. Refers to the tools of socio-psychological research of the structure of small groups, as well as the individual as a member of the group. The area of ​​measurement by sociometric technique is the diagnostics of interpersonal and intragroup relations. Using the sociometric method, they study the typology of social behavior in a group activity, evaluate the cohesion, compatibility of group members (SE Poddubny, 1995). The method was developed by J. Moreno as a way to study emotionally direct relationships within a small group (J. Moreno, 1958). Measurement involves a survey of each member of a small group in order to identify those members of the group with whom he would prefer (choose) or, on the contrary, did not want to participate in a certain type of activity or situation. The measurement procedure includes the following elements:

determination of the variant (number) of elections (deviations);

selection of survey criteria (questions);

organizing and conducting a survey;

processing and interpretation of the results using quantitative (sociometric indices) and graphic (sociogram) methods of analysis.

Sociometric procedure is carried out in two forms. The non-parametric procedure involves answering survey questions without limiting the number of choices or rejections. Their maximum number is N - 1 (sociometric constant), where N is the number of group members. The advantage of this option is associated with the identification of the so-called emotional expansiveness in each member of the group. As the group size increases to 12-16 people, the probability of getting a random selection increases. Parametric procedure - limiting the number of choices. The subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number of persons from all members of the group, i.e., the so-called sociometric restriction (d) is introduced. This form increases the reliability of the measurement, allows you to standardize the conditions for elections in groups of different sizes. Its disadvantage is associated with the impossibility of revealing the fullness of relations in the group (I. P. Volkov, 1970, 1977; Ya. L. Kolominsky, 1971, 1984; I. G. Kokurina, 1981). There are different types of sociometric criteria: communicative (reveal real relationships, gnostic (determine the degree of awareness of real relationships), double and single, role-playing, etc. The choice of criteria is associated with the problem of determining their number and specialization in a sociometric questionnaire. It is recommended to specialize and select criteria based on from a preliminary analysis of the life of the group, highlighting situations that are especially significant for the group, i.e. mediated by the tasks and goals facing the group, use a general, fundamental criterion to identify the "deep" connection of group members. The latter involves the use of questions related to assessing the overall emotional the state of the subjects under the condition of the breakup of the group in the future, for example, in the event of a reorganization of the team, its movement, reorganization, etc. - “Which of the members of your team would you like to stay in if it is reorganized?”.

The results of the study can be presented in the form of a sociometric matrix (table), which includes all the choices and (or) deviations made or assumed by the members of the group, in the form of a sociogram graphically depicting the results obtained, or in the form of various sociometric indices that give a quantitative idea of ​​the position of the individual. in the group, as well as the assessment of the group as a whole (I.P. Volkov, 1970, 1977; I.G. Kokurina, 1981; V.I. Paniotto, 1975). Sociometric indices are divided into two groups: individual and group. Individual indicators include: sociometric status - the value of the positive or negative attitude of the group towards its individual member, which is determined by the ratio of the number of choices and deviations that the individual received to their maximum possible number. The index of emotional (psychological) expansiveness is the degree of activity of an individual in interaction with other members of the group, the need to make contacts with them. It is calculated as the ratio of the number of choices and deviations made by an individual regarding group members to their maximum possible number. To characterize the position of an individual in a group, other indices are also calculated, for example, the “prescribed role” (S.E. Poddubny, 2001), the acceptability of an individual by a group (N.V. Bakhareva, 1970), etc. However, the main difficulty lies in their interpretation, comparing them with known socio-psychological concepts. The most popular group indices include: indicators of group expansiveness (intensity of group interaction), group integration (the degree of involvement in communication of group members in a particular type of activity or situation), cohesion, and a number of others. Graphical data analysis is carried out by constructing sociograms. The latter makes it possible to visually single out subgroups (groups) in the composition of the group under study, positive, conflict or tense “areas” within group relations, its “popular” members (individuals with the maximum number of choices) or “rejected” (individuals who received the maximum number of deviations) , determine the leader of the group. There are two types of sociograms: collective and individual. Most often, a target sociogram is used to display the structure of relations in a group (Northway, 1952). It consists of several concentric circles (Fig. 2), in the center of which are placed "popular individuals", in the outer ring - "rejected", in the inner ring - "averagely popular".

Rice. 2. An example of a target sociogram (first two choices).

Usually they make up several collective sociograms for one group: mutual elections, mutual deviations, the first two (five) elections, and some others. Individual sociograms make it possible to make a more subtle analysis of the position of a particular member in the group: to distinguish the position of the leader from the position of the "popular" members of the group. A clear leadership position is often determined by which member of the group predominantly prefers its "popular" members in their elections.

The reliability of measurement in sociometry depends on the "strength" of the sociometric criterion, the age of the subjects, the type of indices (personal or group). In a sociometric test, the possibility of distorting the answers of the subject, hiding his true feelings is not ruled out. The “guarantee” of the subject’s frankness can be: personally significant motivation for participating in the study, the choice of survey criteria that are significant for the members of the group, trust in the researcher, the voluntary nature of testing, etc. The stability of the sociometric measurement is usually confirmed by the parallel test method and cross-correlation of the results. It has been established that the stability of sociometric results is determined by the dynamic nature of socio-psychological phenomena, in general, interpersonal relations, in particular, and decreases over time. To determine the validity of the sociometric method, a comparison of the measurement results with an external criterion, usually with the opinion of experts, is used. The sociometric method should be supplemented with other techniques aimed at a deeper analysis of the bases of interpersonal preferences: the motives for interpersonal choices made by group members; their value orientations, content and type of ongoing joint activities. There are varieties of the sociometric method.

Among the most famous are the acceptability scale (N. V. Bakhareva, 1970), autosociometric technique (K. E. Danilin, 1981; Ya. L. Kolominsky, 1984), referentometry (E. V. Shchedrina, 1978), communicometry (Ya. L. Kolominsky, 1971), The most significant disadvantages of the method are considered to be:

the impossibility of identifying the motives of interpersonal choices;

the possibility of distortion of the measurement results due to the insincerity of the subjects or due to the influence of psychological protection;

sociometric measurement becomes important only in the study of small groups that have experience of group interaction.

Method of group personality assessment (GOL). The group assessment method is a method of obtaining the characteristics of a person in a particular group on the basis of a mutual survey of its members about each other. The development of the method is associated with applied research in industrial and organizational psychology, where on its basis they try to solve the issues of selection and placement of personnel (E. S. Chugunova, 1986). This method allows you to assess the presence and degree of severity (development) of the psychological qualities of a person, which are manifested in behavior and activities, in interaction with other people. The widespread use of GOL for applied and research purposes is due to its simplicity and accessibility for users, the ability to diagnose those qualities of a person for which there is no reliable toolkit (tests, questionnaires), etc. The psychological basis of GOL is the socio-psychological phenomenon of group ideas about each of the members groups as a result of mutual knowledge of people by each other in the process of communication. At the methodological level, GOL is a statistical set of individual ideas (images), fixed in the form of assessments. The psychological essence of the method determines the boundaries of its practical application as a method of fixing some reflected personality traits, the level of manifestation of personality traits of the person being evaluated in a particular group. The procedure of the GOL method involves assessing a person according to a certain list of characteristics (qualities) using direct scoring, ranking, pairwise comparison, etc. The content of the assessment, i.e., the totality of the assessed qualities, depends on the purpose of using the data obtained. The number of qualities varies among different researchers in a wide range from 20 to 180. Qualities can be grouped into separate semantic groups (for example, business and personal qualities). Other grounds for separation are also used (A. L. Zhuravlev, 1990; E. S. Chugunova, 1986). To obtain reliable results, the number of subjects of assessment in the range of 7-12 people is recommended. The adequacy of measurement with the help of GOL depends on three points: the cognitive abilities of the subjects of assessment (experts); on the characteristics of the object of assessment; from the position (level, situation) of the interaction between the subject and the object of assessment (E. S. Chugunova, 1977, 1986).

Tests. The test is a short, standardized, usually time-limited test. With the help of tests in social psychology, interindividual, intergroup differences are determined. On the one hand, it is believed that tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, and all methodological standards adopted in general psychology are also valid for social psychology (G. M. Andreeva, 1995). On the other hand, a wide range of socio-psychological methods used for diagnosing an individual and a group, intergroup interaction allows us to speak of tests as an independent means of empirical research (V. E. Semenov, 1977: M. V. Kroz, 1991). Areas of application of tests in social psychology: diagnostics of groups, study of interpersonal and intergroup relations and social perception, socio-psychological properties of a person (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc.). The testing procedure involves the performance by the subject (group of subjects) of a special task or obtaining answers to a number of questions that are indirect in tests. The point of post-processing is to use a "key" to correlate the received data with certain evaluation parameters, for example, with personality characteristics. The final result of the measurement is expressed in the test index. Test scores are relative. Their diagnostic value is usually determined by correlation with the normative indicator obtained statistically on a significant number of subjects. The main methodological problem of measurement in social psychology with the help of tests is the definition of a normative (basic) assessment scale in the diagnosis of groups. It is associated with the systemic, multifactorial nature of socio-psychological phenomena and their dynamism. The classification of tests can be based on several grounds: according to the main object of research (intergroup, interpersonal, personal), according to the subject of research (tests of compatibility, group cohesion, etc.), according to the structural features of the methods (questionnaires, instrumental, projective tests), according to the starting point of the assessment (methods of peer review, preferences, subjective reflection of interpersonal relationships) (G. T. Khomentauskas, 1987; V. A. Yadov, 1995).

Among the most well-known tests of socio-psychological diagnostics, it is worth mentioning the test of interpersonal diagnostics by T. Leary (L. N. Sobchik, 1981), the V. Schutz compatibility scale (A. A. Rukavishnikov, 1992), the method of evaluative bipolarization by F. Fidler (I. P, Volkov, 1977) and others.

Among the tests used in social psychology, a special place is occupied by methods (scales) for measuring social attitudes, which are an important tool for studying and predicting the social behavior of an individual (A. Anastazi, 1984). They are designed to quantify the direction and intensity of human behavioral responses to various categories of social stimuli. Setting scales are used for various purposes. The following areas of their application are best known: the study of public opinion, the consumer market, the choice of effective advertising, the measurement of attitudes towards work, towards other people, towards political, social, economic problems, etc. Attitude is often defined as the willingness to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain social stimuli. A feature of the manifestation of attitudes is that they cannot be observed directly, but can be derived from the characteristics of external behavior, primarily verbal, in particular from a person’s responses to a specially selected set of judgments, statements (setting scale), in which an opinion is fixed regarding a certain social object or stimulus, for example, attitudes towards religion, war, place of work, etc. The scale of attitudes (unlike opinion polling) allows you to measure the attitude as a one-dimensional variable, determine a special procedure for its construction and assumes a single, summary indicator. The most famous scales for measuring and building installations include:

1. Scales of different intervals (L. Thurstone). The features of the scale are the equality of distances between scale units and one-dimensionality, or homogeneity of questions, judgments. The rating scale is based on categorical judgments, selected and classified based on the results of a preliminary survey of competent persons (experts). The task of experts is to sort judgments in a certain order in accordance with the degree of favorable or unfavorable attitude towards a certain social object expressed in them. The scale value of an utterance is the median position assigned by a group of experts. Thus, a Thurstone-type scale is a set of statements that are evenly distributed in a continuum of attitudes. Statements on the scale are also selected based on their uniqueness and their internal consistency. The responder to the scales of attitudes chooses all the statements with which he agrees. The final indicator is the median scale score of marked statements. The disadvantage of the method is the influence of the expert's attitudes in the classification of judgments (Anastasi, 1984; Yadov, 1995).

2. Scales of summary assessments (R. Likert). In contrast to the equal distance procedure, statements are selected not on the basis of the judgments of a group of experts, but on the basis of the answers of the subjects, which are presented to them in the process of developing the test. The allocation of categories of statements is carried out according to the degree of their intensity. The criterion for selecting judgments is their internal consistency (correlation coefficient with the final indicator), although sometimes an external criterion is also used - real behavior. The number of judgments that make up the preliminary scale is related to their number in the final scale approximately as 4:1. Attitude measurement involves evaluating a set of judgments on a five-point scale that includes five response categories: strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, strongly disagree. The final indicator - the total score for all types of judgments is interpreted in accordance with established empirical norms. The advantages of Likert-type attitude scales are that they are relatively reliable even with a small number of utterances, and that they do not require large labor costs. Disadvantage - usually the level of the scale reaches only the ordinal type of scales, although the construction procedure claims to be an interval scale.

3. Cumulative scales (L. Gutman). The scale has the properties of cumulative and reproductive. When constructing it, the technique of scalogram analysis is used, which represents the procedure for selecting and ordering statements into a rank scale according to the degree of increase of the attribute (each item corresponds to an evaluation score). According to the response of the subject to a certain statement, it is possible to reproduce the reactions to the previous points of the scale. Only such statements are suitable for scaling, which give a monotonous sequence of reactions. Based on this technique, well-known tests have been developed: the scale of social distance by E. Bogardus, the 20-answer test by M. Kuhn, and others. Critical remarks are made primarily on the instability of Gutman-type scales, as well as the complexity of the construction.

The methodological problems of measuring attitudes are related to the problem of the discrepancy between attitude and external behavior, i.e. inconsistency of the individual's actions with his verbal statements. Most of the scales of attitudes are quite reliable, however, little information has been accumulated about the validity and normativity of data, so most of them should be considered as research methods (Anastasi, 1984).

hardware method. This group of methods is the development of experimental procedures for studying the socio-psychological characteristics of an individual, a small group and various social communities (audiences) (N. N. Obozov, 1977; V. A. Terekhin, 1988; R. B. Gitelmakher, V, N. Kulikov, 1985). The most well-known and widely used in social psychology are instrumental methods for studying various socio-psychological phenomena that manifest themselves in conditions of group work. The design of instrumental methods and their classification are based on the following principles: technical (design features, functionality of the model, the ability to register various components of activity), general psychological and (involvement of various mental processes in the simulated activity), socio-psychological (character, type, level interconnectedness of actions when performing tasks). Based on these criteria, it is customary to single out the following groups of hardware models:

models for the comparative evaluation of individual contributions (Arch, Labyrinth, Overpass);

models of the total impact (Rhythmograph, Voluntograph);

models of multiply connected control of equilibrium in the system (Homeostat);

models of multi-connected control of a moving object (Kibernometer, Group sensorimotor integrator) (L. I. Umansky, 1977, A. S. Chernyshev, 1980, 1985; N. N. Obozov, 1977; V. Terekhin, 1988).

Despite the fact that all methods are constructively very conditional, they are considered quite adequate to the nature of the studied socio-psychological phenomena. Usually, the degree of efficiency and reliability of these methods is determined by the coincidence of the data obtained in the experiment with practice, with the results of applying other methods. These methods are used in applied research in solving problems of diagnostics, recruitment and training of groups of small numbers,

Experiment. The term "experiment" has two meanings in social psychology: experience and testing, as is customary in the natural sciences; research in the logic of identifying cause-and-effect relationships. One of the existing definitions of the experimental method indicates that it involves the interaction organized by the researcher between the subject (or group) and the experimental situation in order to establish the patterns of this interaction. However, it is believed that the presence of only the logic of experimental analysis is not sufficient and does not indicate the specifics of the experiment (Yu. M, Zhukov, 1977). Among the specific features of the experiment are: modeling of phenomena and research conditions (experimental situation); active influence of the researcher on the phenomena (variation of variables); measuring the reactions of the subjects to this impact; reproducibility of results (V. N. Panferov, V. P. Trusov, 1977). The emergence of social psychology as a science is due to the penetration of experiment into the study of human relations: the classic studies of V. Mede, F. Allport, V. M. Bekhterev, A. F. Lazursky and others laid the experimental foundations for studying the "group effect", social psychology of personality . With the development of social psychology, this method has become increasingly important in theoretical applied research, its technique has been improved (Yu. M. Zhukov, 1977). As a rule, the experiment involves the following stages of its implementation. Theoretical stage - determination of the initial conceptual scheme for the analysis of the phenomenon under study (definition of the subject and object of research, formulation of the research hypothesis). It should be noted the importance of this stage, since the experiment has the highest mediation by theory. The methodological stage of the study involves the choice of the general plan of the experiment, the choice of the object and methods of research, the definition of independent and dependent variables, the definition of the experimental procedure, as well as methods for processing the results (D. Campbell, 1980: V. N. Panferov, V, P. Trusov, 1977 ). Experimental stage - conducting an experiment: creating an experimental situation, managing the course of the experiment, measuring the reactions of the subjects, controlling variables that are unorganized, i.e. among the studied factors. Analytical stage - quantitative processing and interpretation of the obtained facts in accordance with the initial theoretical provisions. Depending on the basis of classification, different types of experiment are distinguished:

according to the specifics of the task - scientific and practical;

by the nature of the experimental plan - parallel (presence of control and experimental groups) and sequential (experiment "before and after");

by the nature of the experimental situation - field and laboratory; according to the number of variables studied - single-factor and multi-factor experiments.

Sometimes a natural science experiment (A.F. Lazursky) and an “ex-post-facto” experiment (E. Christiansen) ((. M. Andreeva, 1972) are distinguished. It is generally accepted that the experimental method is the most rigorous and reliable method of collecting empirical data. However, the use experiment as the main method of collecting empirical data led to a crisis in experimental social psychology in the 70s. The experiment is criticized primarily for its low ecological validity, i.e. the impossibility of transferring the conclusions obtained in the experimental situation beyond its limits (to natural conditions) Nevertheless, there is a point of view that the problem of the validity of the experiment lies not in the fact that the facts obtained in the experiment have no scientific value, but in their adequate theoretical interpretation (Yu. M. Zhukov, 1977). This method, experiment remains an important means of obtaining reliable information.

Review questions

1. What ideas about the subject have developed in modern social psychology?

2. Give examples of various socio-psychological phenomena: processes, states, properties of an individual or group.

3. List the main objects of research in social psychology.

4. Into what constituent parts (sections) did social psychology differentiate?

5. What are the external and internal contours of the integration of social psychology?

6. What periods stand out in the history of domestic social psychology?

7. What is the contribution of N. K. Mikhailovsky to the emergence of social psychology in Russia?

9. What are the main merits of V. M. Bekhterev in the development of social psychology?

10. What is the role of A. S. Makarenko in the research of the psychology of the collective and the individual?

11. What is the main reason for the formation of social psychology into an independent scientific discipline?

12. Name the first publications on social psychology, formally marking the birth of social psychology in the West.

13 What was the main cause of the crisis in Western social psychology in the 1960s and 1970s?

14. Name the main theoretical and methodological orientations in foreign social psychology.

15. List the problems most actively developed in modern socio-psychological research.

16. What are the features of socio-psychological research in comparison with other social sciences, such as sociology?

17. What are the main sources of information in socio-psychological research?

18 Describe the main stages of socio-psychological research.

19 What are the main methods of socio-psychological research.

20 What are the advantages and disadvantages of participant and non-participant observation?

21 What are the features of using the method of content analysis of textual information?

22 What are the advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face and remote interviews?

23 For what tasks is the sociometric method used?

24 List the main procedures for conducting a sociometric survey and data analysis.

25 For what tasks is the method of group personality assessment used?

26 What are the main difficulties in applying the experiment in social psychology?

27 What are the advantages and disadvantages of instrumental research methods"?

Literature

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. M., Aspect-Press, 2000.

2. Bekhterev V. M. Selected works on social psychology. M., Nauka, 1994.

3. Budkova E.A. Socio-psychological problems in Russian science. M., Nauka, 1983.

4. Introduction to practical social psychology. / Ed. Yu.M. Zhukova, L.A. Petrovskaya, O.V. Solovieva. M., Nauka, 1994.

5. Campbell D. Models of experiments in social psychology and applied research. SPb., Socio-Psychological Center, 1996.

6. Lectures on the methodology of concrete social research. / Ed. G.M. Andreeva. M.. Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1972.

7. Methods of socio-psychological research of personality and small groups. //Answer. ed. A.L. Zhuravlev, E.V. Zhuravlev. M., IP RAN, 1995.

8. Methods of socio-psychological diagnosis of personality and group.//Otv. ed. A.L. Zhuravlev, V.A. Khashchenko. M., IPAN USSR, 1990.

9. Methodology and methods of social psychology. // Answer. ed. E.V. Shorokhov. M., Nauka, 1977.

10. Methods of social psychology. // Ed. E.S. Kuzmina, V.E. Semenov. L.,. Publishing house of Leningrad State University, 1977.

11. Pines E., Maslach K. Workshop on social psychology. SPb., Publishing House "Peter", 2000.

12. Parygin B.D. Social Psychology. Problems of methodology, history and theory. SPb., IGUP, 1999.

13. Modern psychology. Reference guide. // Answer. ed. V.N. Druzhinin. M., INFRA-M, 1999,. pp. 466-484.

14. Social psychology in the works of domestic psychologists. SPb., Publishing House "Peter", 2000.

15. Special workshop on social psychology survey, family and individual counseling. // Ed. Yu.E. Aleshina, K.E. Danilina, E.M. Dubovskoy. Moscow, Moscow State University, 1989.

16. Chernyshev A.S. Laboratory experiment in the socio-psychological study of the organization of the team. // Psihol zhurn. T. 1, 1980, No. 4, S. 84-94

17. Chugunova E.S. Socio-psychological features of the creative activity of engineers. L., Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1986.

18. Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology. M., Publishing House "Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences", 1999.

19. Encyclopedia of psychological tests. Communication, leadership, interpersonal relationships. M., AST, 1997.

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The methods of social psychology are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The development and improvement of socio-psychological methods are uneven, which determines the difficulties of their systematization. The whole set of methods is usually divided into two groups: information collection methods and processing methods(Andreeva, 1972, 2000; Yadov, 1995). However, there are other classifications of methods. For example, in one of the well-known classifications, three groups of methods are distinguished, namely: empirical research methods(observation, document analysis, survey, group personality assessment, sociometry, tests, instrumental methods, experiment); modeling methods; methods of managerial and educational influence(Sventsitsky, 1977). Moreover, the selection and classification of methods of socio-psychological influence are especially important for the methodology of social psychology. The significance of the latter is associated with the strengthening of the role of social psychology in solving social problems.

The following methods of collecting empirical data are most often used in social psychology.

Observation method- this is a method of collecting information by direct, purposeful and systematic perception and registration of socio-psychological phenomena (facts of behavior and activity) in natural or laboratory conditions. The observation method can be used as one of the central, independent research methods.

The classification of observation is made on various grounds. Depending on the degree of standardization of the observation technique, it is customary to distinguish two main varieties of this method: standardized and non-standardized observation. The standardized technique assumes the presence of a developed list of signs to be observed, the definition of conditions and situations of observation, instructions for observation, uniform codifiers for registering observed phenomena. Data collection in this case involves their subsequent processing and analysis through the methods of mathematical statistics. A non-standardized observation technique determines only general directions of observation, where the result is recorded in a free form, directly at the moment of perception or from memory. The data of this technique are usually presented in a free form, it is also possible to systematize them using formal procedures.

Depending on the role of the observer in the situation under study, there are included (participating) and unincluded (simple) observations. Participant observation involves the interaction of the observer with the group being studied as a full member of it. The researcher imitates his entry into the social environment, adapts to it and observes the events in it as if "from the inside". There are different types of participant observation depending on the degree of awareness of the members of the study group about the goals and objectives of the researcher (Andreeva, 1972; Ershov, 1977; Semenov, 1987). Non-participant observation registers events "from the outside", without interaction and establishing relationships with the person or group being studied. Observation can be carried out in an open way and incognito, when the observer masks his actions (Petrovskaya, 1977).

The main disadvantage of participant observation is related to the impact on the observer (his perception and analysis) of the values ​​and norms of the group under study. The researcher risks losing the necessary neutrality and objectivity in the selection, evaluation and interpretation of data. Typical mistakes are: reduction of impressions and their simplification, their banal interpretation, reconstruction of events to the average, loss of the “middle” of events, etc. In addition, the laboriousness and organizational complexity of this method cause serious difficulties.

According to the condition of organization, the methods of observation are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) and laboratory (observations under experimental conditions). The object of observation are individuals, small groups and large social communities (for example, a crowd) and the social processes occurring in them, such as panic. The subject of observation is usually the verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior of an individual or a group as a whole in a particular social situation. The most typical verbal and non-verbal characteristics include: speech acts (their content, direction and sequence, frequency, duration and intensity, as well as expressiveness); expressive movements (expression of the eyes, face, body, etc.); physical actions, i.e. touches, pushes, blows, joint actions, etc. (Labunskaya, 1986). Sometimes the observer captures the events taking place using generalized traits, qualities of a person, or the most typical tendencies of his behavior, such as dominance, submission, friendliness, analyticity, expressiveness, etc. (Bailes, 1979).

The question of the content of an observation is always specific and depends on the purpose of the observation and the theoretical position of the researcher regarding the phenomenon under study. The main task of the researcher at the stage of organization of observation is to determine in which acts of behavior that are accessible to observation and fixation, the psychological phenomenon or property of interest to him is manifested, and to choose the most significant, most fully and reliably characterizing its features. Selected characteristics of behavior ( units of observation) and their codifiers constitute the so-called "Scheme of observation".

The complexity or simplicity of the observation scheme affects the reliability of the method. The reliability of the scheme depends on the number of observation units (the fewer there are, the more reliable it is); their specificity (the more abstract the attribute, the more difficult it is to fix it); the complexity of the conclusions that the observer comes to when classifying the identified features. The reliability of the observation scheme is usually tested by data control by other observers, as well as other methods (eg, use of similar observation schemes, peer review) and repeated observation.

The results of the observation are recorded in accordance with a specially prepared observation protocol. The most common ways to record surveillance data are: factual, involving the fixation of all cases of manifestation of units of observation; appraisal, when the manifestation of signs is not only recorded, but also evaluated using an intensity scale and a time scale (for example, the duration of an act of behavior). The results of observation should be subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis and interpretation.

The main disadvantages of the method are: a) high subjectivity in data collection, introduced by the observer (effects of halo, contrast, condescension, modeling, etc.) and observables (the effect of the presence of the observer); b) predominantly qualitative nature of the conclusions of the observation; c) relative limitation in the generalization of the results of the study. Ways to improve the reliability of observation results are associated with the use of reliable observation schemes, technical means of data recording, minimizing the effect of the presence of the observer, and depend on the training and experience of the researcher (Ershov, 1977; Semenov, 1987).

Document analysis method. This method is a variation of the method of analyzing products of human activity. It was first used in social psychology as the main research method by W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky in studying the phenomenon of social attitude (Andreeva, 1972; Yadov, 1995).

A document is any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic or photo media (Yadov, 1995). Documents differ in the way information is recorded (handwritten, printed, film, photo, video documents), by intended purpose (targeted, natural), by the degree of personification (personal and impersonal), depending on the status of the document (official and unofficial). Sometimes they are also divided according to the source of information into primary (documents based on direct registration of events) and secondary documents. The preference for one or another type of document as a carrier of socio-psychological information is determined based on the purpose of the study and the place of documents in the overall research program. All methods of document analysis are divided into traditional (qualitative) and formalized (qualitative-quantitative). At the heart of any method are the mechanisms of the process of understanding the text, i.e., the interpretation by the researcher of the information contained in the document.

polling method. The essence of this method is to obtain information about objective or subjective (opinions, moods, motives, attitudes, etc.) facts from the words of the respondents. Among the many types of surveys, two main types are most common: a) a face-to-face survey - an interview, a face-to-face survey conducted by the researcher in the form of questions and answers with the respondent (respondent); b) correspondence survey - questioning with the help of a questionnaire (questionnaire) intended for self-completion by the respondents themselves. The pioneers of its application in social psychology are S. Hall, G. M. Andreeva, E. Noel. The scope of the survey in social psychology: a) at the early stages of the study to collect preliminary information or pilot testing of methodological tools; b) survey as a means of clarifying, expanding and controlling data; c) as the main method of collecting empirical information. The source of information during the survey is the oral or written judgment of the interviewed person. The depth, completeness of the answers, their reliability depend on the ability of the researcher to correctly build the design of the questionnaire. There are special techniques and rules for conducting a survey aimed at ensuring the reliability and reliability of information. They reflect the algorithms for determining the representativeness of the sample and the motivation for participating in the survey, constructing questions and composing the questionnaire, and survey procedures (Andreeva, 1972; Sventsitsky, 1977; Yadov, 1995).

The main types of interviews in socio-psychological research - standardized and non-standardized interview. In the first case, the interview assumes the existence of standard wording of questions and their sequence, determined in advance. In this case, the researcher does not have the opportunity to change them. The non-standardized interview methodology is characterized by flexibility and wide variation. In this case, the interviewer is guided only by the general plan of the survey, formulating questions in accordance with the specific situation and the answers of the respondent.

Conversational technique is essential to successful interviewing. It requires the interviewer to be able to establish close contact with the respondent, to interest him in a sincere conversation, to “actively” listen, to master the skills of setting and registering answers, to overcome the “resistance” of the interviewee. At the same time, the interviewer must avoid imposing ("prompting") a possible answer to the interviewee, excluding the subjective interpretation of his statement.

The difficulty of conducting an interview is related to the task of maintaining the necessary depth of contact with the respondent throughout the conversation. The literature describes various methods of stimulating the activity (answers) of the respondent, among them the most frequently mentioned are: expression of agreement (attentive look, nod, smile, assent), the use of short pauses, partial disagreement, clarification by incorrect repetition of what was said, an indication of contradictions in the answers, repetition of the last words, the demand for explanations, additional information, etc.

There are also other types of interviews, such as focused and therapeutic. Each of the listed types of interviews is characterized by certain limitations, due to the purposes of its application and the nature of the information received (Andreeva, 1972; Sventsitsky, 1977; Yadov, 1995).

Criteria for the effectiveness of the interview: completeness (breadth) - it should allow the interviewee to cover various aspects of the problem under discussion as fully as possible; specificity (concreteness) - during the interview, accurate answers should be obtained for each aspect of the problem that is significant for the questioned aspect; depth (personal meaning) - the interview must reveal the emotional, cognitive and value aspects of the respondent's attitude to the situation under discussion; personal context - the interview is designed to reveal the characteristics of the personality of the interviewee and his life experience.

The types of surveys are divided according to the number of respondents (individual and group), according to the place of conducting, according to the method of distribution of questionnaires (handout, mail, press). Among the most significant shortcomings of the distribution, and especially postal and press, polls are the low percentage of return of questionnaires, the lack of control over the quality of their filling, the possibility of using only questionnaires that are very simple in structure and volume.

The choice of the type of survey is determined by the objectives of the study, its program, the level of knowledge of the issues. The main advantage of the survey is associated with the possibility of mass coverage of a large number of respondents and its professional accessibility. The information received in the interview is more meaningful and deep in comparison with the questionnaire. However, the disadvantage is, first of all, the difficultly controlled influence of the personality and professional level of the interviewer on the interviewee, which can lead to a distortion of the objectivity and reliability of information.

Method of sociometry refers to the tools of the socio-psychological study of the structure of small groups, as well as the individual as a member of the group. The area of ​​measurement by sociometric technique is the diagnostics of interpersonal and intragroup relations. With the help of the sociometric method, they study the typology of social behavior in a group activity, evaluate the cohesion, compatibility of group members. The method was developed by J. Moreno as a way to study emotionally direct relationships within a small group (Moreno, 1958). Measurement involves a survey of each member of the group in order to identify those members of the group with whom he preferred (chosen) or, on the contrary, would not want to participate in a certain type of activity or situation. The measurement procedure includes the following elements: a) determination of the variant (number) of elections (deviations); b) selection of survey criteria (questions); c) organizing and conducting a survey; d) processing and interpretation of the results using quantitative (sociometric indices) and graphic (sociograms) methods of analysis.

Usually they make up several collective sociograms for one group: mutual elections, mutual deviations, the first two (five) elections, and some others. Individual sociograms make it possible to make a more subtle analysis of the position of a particular member in the group: to distinguish the position of the leader from the position of the "popular" members of the group. The leader is often considered the one who is predominantly preferred in their elections by the "popular" members of the small group.

The reliability of measurement in sociometry depends on the "strength" of the sociometric criterion, the age of the subjects, the type of indices (personal or group). In a sociometric test, the possibility of distorting the answers of the subject, hiding his true feelings is not ruled out. The guarantee of the subject's frankness can be: personally significant motivation for participation in the study, the choice of survey criteria that are significant for the members of the group, trust in the researcher, the voluntary nature of testing, etc.

The stability of the sociometric measurement is confirmed, as a rule, by the method of a parallel test and cross-correlation of the results. It has been established that the stability of sociometric results is determined by the dynamic nature of socio-psychological phenomena, in particular interpersonal relationships, and decreases over time. To determine the validity of the sociometric method, a comparison of the measurement results with an external criterion, usually with the opinion of experts, is used. The sociometric method should be supplemented with other techniques aimed at a deeper analysis of the foundations of interpersonal preferences: the motives for interpersonal choices made by group members, their value orientations, the content and type of joint activities carried out.

The most significant shortcomings of the method are considered to be the difficulty of identifying the motives of interpersonal choices, the possibility of distorting the measurement results due to the insincerity of the subjects or due to the influence of psychological protection, and finally, the sociometric measurement becomes important only when studying small groups that have experience of group interaction.

Method of group personality assessment (GOL). The group assessment method is a method of obtaining the characteristics of a person in a particular group on the basis of a mutual survey of its members about each other. The development of the method is associated with applied research in industrial and organizational psychology, where, on its basis, they try to solve the issues of selection and placement of personnel (Chugunova, 1986). This method allows you to assess the presence and degree of severity (development) of the psychological qualities of a person, which are manifested in behavior and activities, in interaction with other people. The widespread use of GOL for applied and research purposes is due to its simplicity and accessibility for users, the ability to diagnose those qualities of a person for which there is no reliable toolkit (tests, questionnaires), etc.

The psychological basis of GOL is the socio-psychological phenomenon of group ideas about each of the members of the group as a result of mutual knowledge of people in the process of communication. At the methodological level, GOL is a statistical set of individual ideas (images), fixed in the form of assessments. The psychological essence of the method determines the boundaries of its practical application as a method of fixing some of the reflected personality traits, the level of manifestation of personality traits of the person being evaluated in a particular group.

The procedure of the GOL method involves assessing a person according to a certain list of characteristics (qualities) using the methods of direct scoring, ranking, pairwise comparison, etc. The content of the assessment, that is, the totality of the assessed qualities, depends on the purpose of using the data obtained. The number of qualities varies among different researchers in a wide range: from 20 to 180. Qualities can be grouped into separate semantic groups (for example, business and personal qualities). Other grounds for separation are also used (Chugunova, 1986; Zhuravlev, 1990). To obtain reliable results, the number of subjects of assessment in the range of 7-12 people is recommended. The adequacy of measurement with the help of GOL depends on three points: the cognitive abilities of the subjects of assessment (experts); on the characteristics of the object of assessment; from the position (level, situation) of interaction between the subject and the object of assessment.

Tests. The test is a short, standardized, usually time-limited test. With the help of tests in social psychology, interindividual or intergroup differences are determined. On the one hand, it is believed that tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, and all methodological standards adopted in general psychology are also valid for social psychology (Andreeva, 1995). On the other hand, a wide range of used socio-psychological methods for diagnosing an individual and a group, intergroup interaction allows us to speak of tests as an independent means of empirical research (Semenov, 1977; Kroz, 1991). Areas of application of tests in social psychology: diagnostics of groups, study of interpersonal and intergroup relations and social perception, socio-psychological properties of a person (social intelligence, social competence, leadership style, etc.).

The testing procedure involves the performance by the subject (group of subjects) of a special task or obtaining answers to a number of questions that are indirect in tests. The point of post-processing is to use a "key" to correlate the received data with certain evaluation parameters, for example, with personality characteristics. The final result of the measurement is expressed in the test index. Test scores are relative. Their diagnostic value is usually determined by correlation with the normative indicator obtained statistically on a significant number of subjects. The main methodological problem of measurement in social psychology with the help of tests is the definition of a normative (basic) assessment scale in the diagnosis of groups. It is associated with the systemic, multifactorial nature of socio-psychological phenomena and their dynamism.

Classification of tests is possible on several grounds: according to the main object of research (intergroup, interpersonal, personal), according to the subject of research (tests of compatibility, group cohesion, etc.), according to the structural features of the methods (questionnaires, instrumental, projective tests), according to the initial starting point of evaluation (methods of peer review, preferences, subjective reflection of interpersonal relationships) (Yadov, 1995).

Among the tests used in social psychology, a special place is occupied by an important tool for studying and methods (scales) for measuring social attitudes predicting the social behavior of an individual (Anastasi, 1984). They are designed to quantify the direction and intensity of human behavioral responses to various categories of social stimuli. Setting scales are used for various purposes. The following areas of their application are best known: the study of public opinion, the consumer market, the choice of effective advertising, the measurement of attitudes towards work, towards other people, towards political, social, economic problems, etc.

Attitude is often defined as the willingness to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain social stimuli. A feature of the manifestation of attitudes is that they cannot be observed directly, but can be derived from the characteristics of external behavior, in particular from a person’s responses to a specially selected set of judgments, statements (setting scale), in which an opinion is recorded regarding a particular social object or stimulus, for example, attitudes toward religion, war, place of work, etc. An attitude scale, unlike an opinion poll, allows one to measure attitude as a one-dimensional variable, determine a special procedure for its construction, and assumes a single summary indicator.

Experiment. The term "experiment" has two meanings in social psychology: experience and testing, as is customary in the natural sciences; research in the logic of identifying cause-and-effect relationships. One of the existing definitions of the experimental method indicates that it involves the interaction organized by the researcher between the subject (or a group of subjects) and the experimental situation in order to establish the patterns of this interaction. However, it is believed that the presence of only the logic of experimental analysis is not sufficient and does not indicate the specifics of the experiment (Zhukov, 1977).

Among the specific features of the experiment are: modeling of phenomena and research conditions (experimental situation); active influence of the researcher on the phenomena (variation of variables); measuring the reactions of the subjects to this impact; reproducibility of results (Panferov, Trusov, 1977).

We can say that the emergence of social psychology as a science is connected with the penetration of the experiment into the study of human relations. The classic studies of V. Mede, F. Allport, V. M. Bekhterev, A. F. Lazursky and others laid the experimental foundations for studying the “group effect”, the social psychology of the individual. With the development of social psychology, this method has become increasingly important in theoretical applied research, and its technique has been improved (Zhukov, 1977).

As a rule, the experiment involves the following stages of its implementation. Theoretical stage - determination of the initial conceptual scheme for the analysis of the phenomenon under study (definition of the subject and object of research, formulation of the research hypothesis). The importance of this stage should be noted, since the experiment has the highest mediation by theory. The methodological stage of the study involves the choice of the general plan of the experiment, the choice of the object and methods of research, the definition of independent and dependent variables, the definition of the experimental procedure, as well as methods for processing the results (Campbell, 1980; Panferov, Trusov, 1977). Experimental stage - conducting an experiment: creating an experimental situation, managing the course of the experiment, measuring the reactions of the subjects, controlling variables that are unorganized, that is, those that are among the factors being studied. Analytical stage - quantitative processing and interpretation of the obtained facts in accordance with the initial theoretical provisions.

Depending on the basis of the classification, different types of experiment are distinguished: according to the specifics of the task - scientific and practical; by the nature of the experimental plan - parallel (presence of control and experimental groups) and sequential (experiment "before and after"); by the nature of the experimental situation - field and laboratory; according to the number of variables studied - single-factor and multi-factor experiments. Sometimes a natural science experiment and an “ex-post-facto” experiment are distinguished (Andreeva, 1972).

It is generally accepted that the experimental method is the most rigorous and reliable method of collecting empirical data. However, the use of experiment as the main method of collecting empirical data led in the 70s. to the crisis of experimental social psychology. The experiment is criticized primarily for its low ecological validity, i.e., the impossibility of transferring the conclusions obtained in the experimental situation beyond its limits (to natural conditions). Nevertheless, there is a point of view that the problem of the validity of the experiment lies not in the fact that the facts obtained in the experiment have no scientific value, but in their adequate theoretical interpretation (Zhukov, 1977). Despite many critical assessments of this method, experiment remains an important means of obtaining reliable information.

As already noted, along with the methods of collecting and processing psychological information, social psychology has an arsenal of methods of socio-psychological influence. These are the methods of socio-psychological training, and socio-psychological counseling, etc. A very successful classification of methods of socio-psychological influence (Table 1.1), moreover, in a form convenient for using the scheme, was proposed by A. L. Zhuravlev ( 1990).

Table 1.1. Classification of socio-psychological methods of influence

The purpose of the impact	Method group name
Optimization	Optimizing	Formation of a favorable psychological climate, communication training, acquisition of compatible groups
Intensification (stimulation, activation)	Intensifying	Techniques of rational organization of labor, recruitment of well-organized groups
Control	Managers	Psychological selection, personnel placement, group life planning
Development, formation	Educational	Group training, education and upbringing
A warning	Preventive	Methods for correcting the psychological properties of an individual and a group
	Diagnostic	Certification, self-certification
Informing	informing	Psychological counseling

Each science has its own methods of research and collection of information. Social psychology is no exception. Although, as an independent science, it began to be distinguished only by the end of the 19th century. The methods of social psychology are used to study the main psychological phenomena in society and their patterns. The study of the totality of all indicators helps to reveal the essence and depth of the ongoing processes and phenomena in society.

All methods used in social psychology can be divided into two large groups:

1. The method of collecting information (observation, experiment, survey, test, study of documentary sources).

2. Method of information processing (correlation and factor analysis, construction of typologies, etc.).

Observation

This method can rightly be called the most "ancient" and one of the most popular. It does not require special preparations and tools. True, there is a significant drawback - there is no clear plan for recording data and interpreting them. Each subsequent researcher will describe the data through the prism of his perception.

What is the subject of observation in social psychology? First of all, verbal and non-verbal acts in the behavior of one person, small or large group, who are in certain conditions of the social environment or situation. For example, answer the question?

Observation is of several types:

External observation is a method of collecting information that each of us often uses. The researcher, through direct observation from the outside, obtains information about the psychology and behavior of people.

Internal observation or self-observation is when a research psychologist wants to study a phenomenon of interest to him exactly in the form in which it is represented in consciousness. He sets himself a task and conducts internal observation of himself.

Observation considers an object or phenomenon as a whole. This method of social psychology is not limited to a clear program of study. The observer can change the object of his observation at any time if he is interested in something that was not planned in advance. Using this method, it will not be possible to identify the cause of what is happening, and a lot of time will have to be spent.

Experiment

This method of psychological research is quite specific. The researcher, if necessary, can work and create an artificial situation to study a certain property, which "here and now" will be best manifested.

The experiment is natural and laboratory. What distinguishes them is that the psychology and behavior of people can be studied in remote or close to reality conditions.

A natural experiment takes place in a normal life situation. The researcher only fixes the data, without interfering in the course of events.

Laboratory experiment opposite. It takes place in a previously artificially created situation. This is done in order to study a certain property as best as possible.

Poll

One of the frequently used methods of social psychology can be safely called - a survey. This is usually a series of questions that the subjects must answer. Its great advantage is that it is possible to cover a large number of respondents in a short period of time.

Specialists use oral questioning when it is necessary to observe how a person behaves and how he reacts to questions. It, in contrast to the written one, will allow a deeper study of human psychology. However, it requires more special training and time.

In order to cover a large number of subjects, a written survey is used - a questionnaire.

If a written or oral survey is not limited to certain answers to questions, then it is called free. Its plus is that you can get interesting and non-standard answers.

We all know tests - this is also one of the methods of social psychology. With their help, the researcher receives accurate information, both qualitatively and quantitatively.

With the help of tests, it is easy to compare the psychology of different people, give assessments, and study yourself. Probably, everyone at least once answered the questions of the tests?

Tests are divided into two types - task and questionnaire. We often come across questionnaires. They are based on a system of responses that are carefully selected and tested for reliability and validity. The test questionnaire allows you to study the psychological qualities of people.

The test task will help to assess the psychological and behavioral qualities of a person based on what and how he does. This method is based on a series of special tasks presented to the subject. Based on the results of the test, we can talk about whether a person has a certain quality and how developed it is.

Sociometry is widely used in the study of the psychology and behavior of small groups.

Statistical Method

Methods and models of mathematical statistics are widely used in social psychology. They help in the collection of information, as well as its processing, analysis, modeling and comparison of results.

In the article, we have listed the main methods of research in social psychology. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Which method to choose depends on what goal the researcher sets for himself and what process or phenomenon he plans to study.

Historically, the method of observation in psychology is one of the most popular and also one of the simplest methods. In psychology, observation is understood as a systematic and purposeful study of someone's behavior for the purpose of further analysis and explanation. At the same time, interference by the observer is strictly prohibited, as it can cause changes in the behavior of a person or a group of people.

Although everyone uses observation to some extent, scientific observation is different from everyday observation in many ways and is much more difficult to perform. Thus, scientific observation should be carried out on the basis of a clear plan and serve to obtain the most objective picture. It also implies a strict procedure for conducting and fixing the results in a special diary (which is generally typical for psychology or medicine).

Observation in psychology claims not only to describe observed phenomena, but also to their psychological interpretation. This is the main feature of psychological observation: the goal is to reveal the psychological content based on the available facts about the behavior of the object. This means that scientific observation requires special training, which gives the observer special knowledge and qualities that will help in the interpretation of psychological facts.

In psychology, scientific observation can take two forms: self-observation (introspection) and external (objective) observation.

Considering that in modern psychology it is customary to proceed from the unity of the internal and external, we will rather not talk about two methods that complement each other, but about their unity and transition into each other.

Observation helps to study various phenomena under certain conditions, without interfering with their course.

The subject of observation in psychology can be the actions of a person, his speech and the facial expressions and gestures that accompany it.

An observer may be interested in such a manifestation of behavior that is related to a specific research task, therefore, the observer should wait until the observed manifests itself in a certain way. Since the perception of external behavior is only subjective, one should never rush to conclusions. To obtain the correct conclusions, it is necessary to check the results of the study several times and compare them with the results of other observations obtained earlier.

In addition, it is not always enough to observe and fix the manifestations of mental properties. The observer should be convinced of the typicality and repeatability of this or that property. During observation, the analysis of the erroneous actions of the individual acquires great importance. After analyzing the nature of errors and the causes of their occurrence, it is possible to outline effective ways to eliminate them Kamenskaya, E. N. Social psychology: Lecture notes: Textbook / E. N. Kamenskaya [Text] .-- Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2006 .- P. 56. The objectivity of observation (which is the main criterion for its scientific character) is checked either by repeated observation, or by conducting an experiment and using other methods of observation. To increase the objectivity of observation, modern technical means are often used, such as photography, video filming, and audio recording.

The main advantage of this method is the following: since the observation is carried out in a natural setting, the behavior of the observed persons does not change dramatically. This means that you can observe both one person and a group of people. This method is suitable for applying it in a variety of conditions: in a work team or, for example, in a school class. Unfortunately, the observation method has not only undeniable advantages, but also disadvantages. For example, due to the fact that observation does not change the activities of the group under study, situations that are of interest to the observer may not always arise in it. The second significant drawback of the observation method is its laboriousness and complexity of execution.

Types of observations (see Appendix A) Social psychology: Reader: [Text] Textbook for university students / Comp. E. P. Belinskaya, O. A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M: Aspect Press, 2003.- S. 78.:

1) hidden (in the case when the subject is not aware that he is being monitored);

2) internal (introspection - self-observation, observation of one's thoughts and feelings);

3) standardized (occurs within the established program);

4) free (not providing for restrictions within the framework of the program);

5) included (the researcher takes an active part in the process);

6) not included (the researcher becomes an observer from the outside).

Let's start with standardized and free observations.

Standardized observation involves the perception of a situation, which must proceed sequentially and lead the observer to the final goal. Standardized observation is possible under a number of conditions:

There should be a clear surveillance plan;

Putting forward a hypothesis proposed to explain the phenomena that have arisen.

And its further confirmation, refutation.

The results must be recorded.

Free observation, as mentioned earlier, is not limited by the scope of the experiment. Nevertheless, it does not do without a plan, methods of control, and sometimes even a system of methods. Free observation is considered to be the initial stage of the study in order to expand the amount of knowledge about the identified problem.

Enabled surveillance. With the participation of the researcher himself. That is, the psychologist himself is included in the process in its internal component, and conducts observation, creates notes and conclusions. This method is relevant in use in relation to special social groups. Those to which access from outside is organic. (sects, criminal groups, etc.).

The included observation is divided into two variations:

1) full included supervision.

2) simple participant observation.

In the first case, the observation is more secretive, since the motivation of the psychologist's actions is known to the observed. Once in the right environment, the psychologist takes an active part in the process along with everyone else.

At the moment when, with a simple included observation, the researcher takes a neutral side, and is engaged only in observation.

Sometimes such a problem arises: that being involved in the process, the psychologist is faced with a violation of his personal perception of reality. Then the next type of observation comes to replace.

Not included (external) supervision. Such an observation should take into account the fact that the outer shell of the process is only the source, and the main essence is inside. The extent to which, in this case, the participant interacts with the process depends on the initial tasks and the general nature of the experiment.

Now it's time to talk about covert surveillance, which is characterized by the fact that the participant is not aware that he is being watched from the side. The peculiarity of this method is that the psychological state of the person being monitored can change quite radically if he somehow receives this information. And, based on many years of practice, as a rule, the behavior of the subject in such a situation changes quite significantly.

Through this method, one can study well the characteristic features of a person, his mental characteristics and temperament. After all, it is known that from the visible factors of a person’s behavior in a certain situation, it is quite possible to draw up, if not a full-fledged, but rather approximate portrait of his essence, emotional state, inclinations and other points.

But we know that depending on the tasks set, the psychologist's area of ​​interest is aimed at identifying a certain manifestation.

The popular Gesell mirror, transparent on one side (from the side of the observer), but reflecting rays on the other side (from the side of the one who is being monitored), a camera, a tape recorder are the most used means for covert observation of an object. This method is often used in relation to children, their features of interaction in the process of games and direct contact. Internal observation is a purely psychological method, which is characterized as a personal observation of an object for itself, for its emotions, internal manifestations, thoughts. This is necessary so that before allowing oneself to more or less realistically analyze the state of other individuals, the psychologist has the opportunity to conduct a study of personality on his own example. The method of self-observation is also continuously connected with observation. As mentioned above, self-observation is a specific phenomenon of psychology. This method is considered as an independent separate part of the practical identification of the situation, and as an addition to the main actions. Such elementary things as the ability to distinguish colors, rehabilitate in the environment, express emotions - all this is the result of involuntary self-observation. Agree that if a person is not able to study himself, he will not be able to study others, and even more so to bring new knowledge into the field of social psychology. After all, all the knowledge available today is rooted in the results of a person's curiosity about his personality in an internal spiritual sense. In the process of this method, such mental manifestations as working capacity, wakefulness, irritability, professional productivity and much more are observed. For successful work, a psychologist needs to learn how to assess his condition as objectively as possible. Since, in practice, when faced with other individuals, attempts to understand their essence are often based on comparison with their personal reactions to certain things. That is, there is a certain comparison of oneself and others. But! No matter how useful the method of introspection was, it has a number of significant shortcomings. These include factors such as:

It is difficult enough to observe oneself morally. Since the mental influence on oneself can distort the intended reactions of the individual;

It is impossible to perceive the situation completely objectively, since subjectivism is inseparable from the person.

It is not always possible to catch all the nuances of a person's experiences Rudensky, E. V. Social psychology / [text]. -- M.: INFRA-M; Novosibirsk: NGAEiU, Siberian Agreement, 1999. - P. 135 ..