The beginning of the war with Poland. The war was caused by a positive decision on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia at the Zemsky Sobor in October 1653. It was declared on October 23, 1653, began in May of the following, 1654, and lasted a total of 13 years (1654-1667).

The war began for the Russian army very successfully. Already in the campaign of 1654, 33 cities were taken, including Nevel (June), Polotsk (July), Smolensk (September), Vitebsk (November), Gomel, and others. By the end of 1654, Russian troops occupied a large territory in upper reaches of the Dnieper and Western Dvina.

In the campaign of 1655, the successes were consolidated. Almost all of Belarus was cleared of the Polish-Lithuanian troops. Minsk (July), Vilna (July 30, the tsar made a solemn entry into the city), Kovno (August), Grodno (August), and others were occupied. The troops approached Lvov. The Polish king Jan II Casimir fled to Silesia and was ready to abdicate.

The defeat of the Commonwealth was used by the Swedish king Charles X Gustav. He invaded Poland and captured a significant part of its territory, including Warsaw (September 1655), Poznan, Krakow. By the autumn of 1655, Poland began to seek peace with the Russian government. Alexei Mikhailovich returned victorious in November 1655 to Moscow.

Negotiations with the Polish government dragged on until the autumn of 1656, when the Vilna Agreement was signed on October 24. The parties agreed that all disputes between the two states remain open, and they begin joint actions against Sweden.

On May 17, 1656 (even before the signing of the Vilna Agreement), Russia declared war on Sweden, and on July 15, the tsar, at the head of the army, set off on a campaign to Livonia.

Russo-Swedish War 1656-1658 The blow was made in three directions: to Riga, to Dorpat and to Karelia (Izhora land). From the very first weeks, the great successes of the Russian army were determined. Nienschanz (at the mouth of the Neva), Noteburg (at the source of the Neva), Dinaburg (middle reaches of the Western Dvina, July 31), Derpt (Yuriev, October 12), Marienburg (the center of Livonia), Kokenhausen (Kokies, August 14) and etc. At the end of August, Russian troops besieged Riga, but failed to capture it due to the lack of a fleet (the siege was lifted in October 1656). After the occupation of Derpt (October 12), the tsar retreated to Polotsk and here he waited for the truce concluded with the Commonwealth on October 24, 1656 (Vilna Agreement) to be formalized.

Further success was hampered by unstable relations with the Commonwealth. Poland did not want to give up the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands.

The Russian government was faced with the acute question of the direction of foreign policy. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin continued to consider access to the Baltic Sea as a priority (for this he was even ready to give up Ukraine). But they did not agree with him.

The complicated situation in Ukraine prevented the continuation of the war with Sweden. July 27, 1657 Bogdan Khmelnitsky died. The new hetman Ivan Yevstafievich Vygovsky (1657-1659) in September 1658 concluded an agreement with Poland on renunciation of Russian citizenship (the Treaty of Gadyach).

In 1658, the Valiesar Truce was signed with Sweden (in the village of Valiesar near Narva) for three years. According to the terms of this document, the territory occupied by Russian troops remains with Russia.

Two and a half years later, on June 21, 1661, the Russian-Swedish Treaty of Cardis was signed on the terms of restoring the pre-war borders (that is, the return of all acquisitions in Livonia to Sweden). The reason for such a difficult and unfavorable peace was the difficult domestic and foreign political situation, in which by the beginning of the 60s. turned out to be Russia.

Continuation of the war with Poland. Hostilities with Poland were resumed in October 1658. In the very first winter campaign of 1658-1659. The Polish-Lithuanian army was utterly defeated near Vilna. In August 1659, the Russian army defeated the army of hetman Ivan Vyhovsky. The Pereyaslav articles of 1659 again confirmed the agreement with Russia of March 1654. Vyhovsky himself was forced to lay down the hetmanate. The son of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, Yuri Khmelnitsky, was proclaimed hetman.

But the international situation was not in favor of Russia. In the spring of 1660, Poland concluded a peace treaty with Sweden (Olive peace). Yuri Khmelnitsky fell under the influence of a pro-Polish Cossack foreman; as a result, the Slobodischensky treaty (1660) was adopted, which again separated Ukraine from Russia and again subordinated it to Poland. At the same time, the Russian troops began to suffer defeats (in particular, near Chudnov in 1660, the Russian army of Governor Sheremetev capitulated).

Poland at the end of 1663 resumed hostilities against Russia. Their pretext was the refusal of the Polish king Jan Casimir to recognize Alexei Mikhailovich as the legitimate heir to the Russian throne. However, the difficult situations that developed at that time in Poland and Russia lead to the fact that military operations acquire a positional character, and the war itself takes on a protracted form. As a result, both sides are looking for ways to a truce. Long and difficult negotiations begin (1664-1667), which ended with the signing of the Andrusovo truce in August 1667 (in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk).

The truce was concluded for 13 and a half years (until June 1680) on the following terms: Smolensk region, Seversk land (with Chernigov), Left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv (the latter only for two years) depart to Russia; the border between the two states is established along the Dnieper; both sides declare mutual (joint) actions against Turkish aggression.

Thus, the most important result of the long Russian-Polish war was the official recognition of the division of Ukraine into two parts and the transfer of its Left Bank to Russia. On the whole, the outcome of the war determined the dominant position of Russia in Eastern Europe. This war practically marked the beginning of the political decline of the Commonwealth, which ended after 128 years with its collapse.

« Eternal Peace” with Poland. After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1677-1681. hostilities resumed between Poland and Turkey (1781-1683). By 1683, the Poles had regained the Right-Bank Ukraine. But the Polish-Turkish relations were very unstable, and the Polish government sought to strengthen the alliance with Russia. As a result, Russia's relations with Poland are getting stronger and stronger.

Even during the Russian-Turkish war of 1677-1681. an agreement was concluded with the Commonwealth (in 1678) on the extension of the Andrusovo truce for another 13 years (its term expired in the middle of 1680). In addition, Poland handed over Kyiv to Russia. As compensation for him, Russia ceded to Poland the cities of Nevel, Sebezh, Velizh with districts and paid 300 thousand rubles.

In 1684, the negotiations of the ambassadors on the conclusion of peace between Russia and Poland began, which were very difficult. Only in May 1686 was the so-called "Eternal Peace" (Moscow Peace Treaty) signed in Moscow. His conditions: Poland finally renounces Kyiv; Zaporozhye is declared a possession of Russia; Russia enters into an alliance against Turkey (Austria, Venice, Poland). This leads to the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689.

Exploration of Siberia in the 17th century.

The 17th century was a time of rapid expansion of Russia's borders to the east through the development of Siberia. The advance to Siberia began in the 16th century. from Yermak's campaign. In the 80-90s, the first cities were created: Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), Tara (1594), Surgut (1594), Narym (1596), Verkhotursk (1598) and others. in. a significant part of Western Siberia was mastered.

From the first years of the XVII century. the advance to Eastern Siberia began, and then to the Amur region. In 1604, Tomsk was founded in the upper reaches of the Ob River, in 1619, Yeniseisk was founded in the upper reaches of the Yenisei River, and in 1628, Krasnoyarsk. At the same time, the development of the polar regions was underway: in 1600, the city of Mangazeya was founded on the Taz River, in 1607, Turukhansk was founded on the Yenisei River.

In the 30-40s. the region of the lake was actively developed. Baikal: Brotherly prison (1630), Verkholensk (1642), Verkhneudinsk (1647), Verkhneangarsk (1647), Barguzin (1648), Irkutsk (1652). At the same time, detachments of service people and industrialists (“eager people”) advanced in a northeasterly direction. Russian settlements arose on the Lena River and its tributaries: Yakutsk (1632), Zhigansk (1632), Vilyuisk (1634), Olekminsk (1635).

This process was especially intensified in the 30-40s of the XVII century. The initiators of the further development of Siberia were industrialists, fur hunters. Most of these people came from the Russian North. The first explorers, as the people who explored the Siberian expanses began to be called, followed in their footsteps detachments of service people who built fortifications (forts), taxed the indigenous population with yasak. Subsequently, many of these prisons became small towns, from which new explorers set off to the east, north and south of the vast Siberian region.

In the 17th century quite clear stages in the development of this region, unprecedented in size, are distinguished. An important role in the advancement of the Russian population was played by the powerful Siberian rivers: the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena. The development of the basins of these rivers with numerous tributaries made it possible to reach Eastern Siberia and the Amur region. The following five stages can be distinguished in the history of the development of Siberia: 1) the development of the Ob basin in its middle and lower reaches (mostly completed in the first decade of the 17th century); 2) development of the Yenisei river basin (10-20s); 3) development of the basins of the Lena, Yana, Indigirka, Kolyma, Anadyr, as well as the Baikal region, the region of Lake. Baikal (30-40s); 4) development of the Amur region (50-80s); 5) the development of Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Alaska (since the 90s).

The development of Eastern Siberia proceeded in two streams, one of which was directed from the Yenisei to the Lena River and further to the northeast with access to Kamchatka by the end of the century, and the other - "southern" - led to the development of the Baikal and Amur regions. In general terms, the process of developing Siberia was completed by the middle of the 17th century, and by the beginning of the next, Russian settlements already existed in the northwestern part of the American continent.

By the end of the 40s, Russian servicemen and industrialists reached the shores of the Sea of ​​​​Okhotsk (Okhotsk was founded in 1649) and reached Chukotka (the Anadyr prison was built in the same 1649). From the middle of the XVII century. At the same time, first the survey began, and then the settlement of Kamchatka and Chukotka. In 1648-1650. S.I. Dezhnev made the famous voyage around Chukotka, during which a previously unknown strait was discovered connecting Asia with America, later called the Bering Strait. Apparently, the first Russian settlements in North America (in Alaska) date back to this time. At the end of the XVII century. The expedition of V.V. Atlasov (1697-1699) began the development of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

In the middle of the century, Russian explorers traveled along the northern rivers along the coast of the Arctic Ocean: the Yane River (Verkhoyansk was founded in 1638), the Indigirka River (Zashiversk was founded in 1639), the Kolyma River (Nizhnekolimsk was founded in 1644) . Many disunited and underdeveloped indigenous peoples of Siberia fell into the sphere of influence of Russian culture and the development of productive forces.

In parallel with the movement to the northeast, the “eager people” were moving southeast: in the Baikal and Amur regions. In 1643-1646. expedition led by V.D.Poyarkov explored the Amur. In 1649-1653. the expedition of E.P. Khabarov explored the Amur region, the Russian agricultural population appeared here. The development of the Amur and penetration into Primorye were stopped by the Manchus and the Chinese. After they destroyed (1685) Albazin, a Russian stronghold in Primorye, built in 1665, and signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), Russia until the middle of the 19th century. abandoned claims to the south of the Far East.

Siberian Tatars lived in the upper reaches of the Tobol, Ishim and Irtysh rivers, as well as the Ob and Tom rivers, the Mansi (Voguls) lived on the left bank of the Tobol River, the Khanty (Ostyaks) occupied the lower reaches of the Ob River. Evenki (Tungus) lived on the right bank of the Yenisei River (the basin of the Nizhnyaya, Srednyaya and Verkhnyaya Tunguska rivers). The basin of the Lena River was occupied by the Yakuts, along the Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma rivers lived the Yukaghirs (oduls). The Chukchi Peninsula (along the Anadyr River) was occupied by the Chukchi. The southern part of Eastern Siberia was inhabited by the Buryats (the region of Lake Baikal), the Daurs (the left bank of the Amur River), and others. All of them had a different way of life, in general, much more backward compared to European Russia.

It cannot be said that the indigenous peoples of Siberia looked indifferently at the settlement of their lands by Russians. The local population repeatedly rose up in revolt against the feudal exploitation that Russian government colonization brought with it. Only for the period from 1590 to 1617, researchers count at least 30 armed clashes between service people and the peoples of Western Siberia. At the same time, it should be noted that the Moscow government, in the event of controversial issues between the “Russian inhabitants” and the local peoples, usually took the side of the latter.

The governmental (central) administration of the newly annexed territories of Siberia was carried out initially through the Posolsky Prikaz, then (since 1599) the Siberian expanses came under the jurisdiction of the Kazan Palace Prikaz, within which (about 1614) a special department was created under the name "Siberian Prikaz" . In 1637, this branch turned into an independent state institution - the Siberian Order, which began to manage the region and carry out its further development and exploitation of natural resources. The Siberian order was the central state institution until the provincial reform of Peter I in 1708. In 1710, the Siberian order was replaced by the provincial office.

Tobolsk becomes the administrative center of Siberia. The highest local administration of all Siberia was originally in the hands of the Tobolsk governors. In 1629, Tomsk received equal rights with Tobolsk. Each district of the region had its own governor, who was an unlimited ruler in it. This made it possible for great abuses, which were very difficult to keep track of in Moscow. How enormous were thefts and illegal operations, shows the government order of 1635 on the inspection of the voivodes and their comrades (deputies and assistants) returning from service in Siberia: property should not exceed 500 rubles for the chief voivode and 300 rubles for the junior; cash should be no more than 500 rubles for the chief governor and 300 for the junior; all surpluses were subject to confiscation.

The development of Siberia led to the fact that the territory of the country increased several times. True, the Siberian expanses, grandiose and very rich in natural resources, were very sparsely populated. By the 60s. 17th century The population of Siberia, according to the estimates of the researcher of Siberia P.A. Slovtsov, did not exceed 350 thousand people, of which about 70 thousand (29%) were Russian residents. By the end of the XVII century. the Russian population of Siberia increased to about 200 thousand people.

Siberia became a source of a huge amount of furs; agriculture and trade developed in many of its places. At the same time, it was a very harsh region of Russia in terms of its climate, and its remoteness from the central regions of the country made economic development difficult and created great difficulties for the life of the people inhabiting it. It is no coincidence that already in the 17th century. Siberia has become a place of political exile.

The history of Poland is closely connected with the history of Russia. Peaceful periods in relations between the two countries were interspersed with frequent armed conflicts.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. Russia and Poland waged numerous wars among themselves. The Livonian War (1558-1583) was fought by Moscow Rus against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic states. In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible hoped to conquer the East Slavic lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For Russian-Polish relations, the unification of Lithuania and Poland during the war into a single state - the Commonwealth (Unia of Lublin in 1569) became important. The confrontation between Russia and Lithuania was replaced by the confrontation between Russia and Poland. King Stefan Batory inflicted a number of defeats on the Russian army and was stopped only under the walls of Pskov. According to the Yam Zapolsky (1582) peace treaty with Poland, Russia renounced its conquests in Lithuania and lost access to the Baltic.

During the Time of Troubles, the Poles invaded Russia three times. For the first time, under the pretext of helping the supposedly legitimate Tsar Dmitry - False Dmitry I. In 1610, the Moscow government, the so-called Seven Boyars, itself called the Polish prince Vladislav IV to the Russian throne and let the Polish troops into the city. AT 1612. Poles were expelled from Moscow by the people's militia under the command of Minin and Pozharsky. In 1617, Prince Vladislav made a campaign against Moscow. After an unsuccessful assault, he entered into negotiations and signed the Deulin truce. The Poles got Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk lands.

In June 1632, after the Deulinsky truce, Russia tried to recapture Smolensk from Poland, but was defeated (Smolensk War, 1632 1634). The Poles failed to build on the success, the borders remained unchanged. However, for the Russian government, the most important condition was the official renunciation of the Polish king Vladislav IV from his claims to the Russian throne.

New Russo-Polish War ( 1654-1667 ) began after the adoption of the Hetmanate of Bohdan Khmelnitsky into Russia under the Pereyaslav agreements. According to the Andrusov peace treaty, the Smolensk and Chernihiv lands and the Left-Bank Ukraine passed to Russia, and Zaporozhye was declared under a joint Russian-Polish protectorate. Kyiv was declared a temporary possession of Russia, but according to the "Eternal Peace" on May 16, 1686, it finally passed to it.

Ukrainian and Belarusian lands became a “bone of contention” for Poland and Russia until the middle of the 20th century.

The end of the Russian-Polish wars was facilitated by the threat to both states from Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate.

In the Northern War against Sweden 1700-1721 Poland was an ally of Russia.

In the 2nd half of the XVIII century. the gentry of the Commonwealth, torn apart by internal contradictions, was in a state of deep crisis and decline, which made it possible for Prussia and Russia to interfere in its affairs. Russia participated in the War of the Polish Succession 1733-1735.

Sections of the Commonwealth in 1772-1795 between Russia, Prussia and Austria took place without major wars, because the state, weakened due to internal turmoil, could no longer offer serious resistance to more powerful neighbors.

As a result of the three divisions of the Commonwealth and the redistribution at the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 Tsarist Russia was transferred to most of the Warsaw principality (formed Kingdom of Poland). Polish national liberation uprisings of 1794 (led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko), 1830-1831, 1846, 1848, 1863-1864 were suppressed.

In 1918 The Soviet government annulled all the treaties of the tsarist government on the divisions of the country.

After the defeat of Germany in the First World War, Poland became an independent state. Its leadership made plans to restore the borders of the Commonwealth in 1772. The Soviet government, on the contrary, intended to establish control over the entire territory of the former Russian Empire, making it, as officially declared, a springboard for world revolution.

Soviet-Polish war 1920 began successfully for Russia, Tukhachevsky's troops stood near Warsaw, but then followed the rout. According to various estimates, from 80 to 165 thousand Red Army soldiers were taken prisoner. Polish researchers consider documented the death of 16,000 of them. Russian and Soviet historians put the number at 80,000. According to the Riga Peace Treaty of 1921, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were ceded to Poland.

August 231939 The Non-Aggression Pact was signed between the USSR and Germany, better known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Attached to the treaty was a secret additional protocol defining the delimitation of Soviet and German spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. On August 28, an explanation was signed to the "secret additional protocol", which delimited the spheres of influence "in the event of a territorial and political reorganization of the regions that are part of the Polish State." The zone of influence of the USSR included the territory of Poland to the east of the line of the rivers Pissa, Narew, Bug, Vistula, San. This line roughly corresponded to the so-called "Curzon Line", along which it was supposed to establish the eastern border of Poland after the First World War.

On September 1, 1939, fascist Germany unleashed World War II by attacking Poland. Having defeated the Polish army within a few weeks, she occupied most of the country. September 17, 1939 In accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Red Army crossed the eastern border of Poland.

Soviet troops captured 240,000 Polish soldiers. More than 14 thousand officers of the Polish army were interned in the fall of 1939 on the territory of the USSR. In 1943, two years after the occupation of the western regions of the USSR by German troops, there were reports that NKVD officers shot Polish officers in the Katyn forest, located 14 kilometers west of Smolensk.

In May 1945 the territory of Poland was completely liberated by units of the Red Army and the Polish Army. Over 600 thousand Soviet soldiers and officers died in the battles for the liberation of Poland.

By the decisions of the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference of 1945, Poland was returned to its western lands, and the border along the Oder-Neisse was established. After the war, the construction of a socialist society was proclaimed in Poland under the leadership of the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP). The Soviet Union rendered great assistance in the restoration and development of the national economy. In 1945-1993. the Soviet Northern Group of Forces was stationed in Poland; in 1955-1991 Poland was a member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization.
By the manifesto of the Polish Committee of National Liberation of July 22, 1944, Poland was proclaimed the Polish Republic. From July 22, 1952 to December 29, 1989 - the Polish People's Republic. Since December 29, 1989 - the Republic of Poland.

Diplomatic relations between the RSFSR and Poland were established in 1921, between the USSR and Poland - from January 5, 1945, the assignee is the Russian Federation.

May 22, 1992 Russia and Poland signed the Treaty of Friendly and Good Neighborly Relations.
The legal foundation of relations forms an array of documents concluded between the former USSR and Poland, as well as over 40 interstate and intergovernmental treaties and agreements signed over the past 18 years.

During the period 2000-2005 political ties between Russia and Poland were maintained quite intensively. President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin had 10 meetings with President of the Republic of Poland Aleksander Kwasniewski. Contacts were regularly made between the heads of government and ministers of foreign affairs, through the parliamentary line. There was a bilateral Committee on the Strategy of Russian-Polish Cooperation, meetings of the Russia-Poland Public Dialogue Forum were held regularly.

After 2005 the intensity and level of political contacts have decreased significantly. This was influenced by the confrontational line of the Polish leadership, expressed in maintaining a socio-political atmosphere unfriendly towards our country.

formed in November 2007 The new government of Poland, headed by Donald Tusk, declares its interest in normalizing Russian-Polish relations, readiness for an open dialogue in order to find solutions to the accumulated problems in bilateral relations.

August 6, 2010 Bronisław Komorowski, the newly elected President of Poland, was inaugurated. In his solemn speech, Komorowski said that he would support the process of rapprochement with Russia that had begun: "I will contribute to the process of rapprochement and Polish-Russian reconciliation that has begun. This is an important challenge facing both Poland and Russia."

(Additional

"History of Russian-Polish Relations in the 17th - 19th Centuries"

Content

1. Troubles and Polish intervention

1.1 Pretenders and Poland

1.1.1 False Dmitry I

1.1.2 False Dmitry II

1.1.2.1 Treaty with King Sigismund (4 February 1610)

1.1.2.2 Moscow treaty with Zholkiewski (August 17, 1610)

1.1.2.3 The first militia against the Poles (zemstvo sentence June 30, 1611)

1.1.2.4 The common people and the impostor (Bolotnikov's uprising)

1.2 Second Home Guard against the Poles

2. Foreign policy of Russia at the end of the XVII century.

2.1 A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin and his dreams of a close union with Poland

2.2 Prince V.V. Golitsyn and the Moscow Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Poland

3. Catherine and relations with Poland

3.2 Union with Prussia and the Polish question

3.3 Contradictions of Russian policy in Poland

3.4 Partitions of Poland

4. Russia and the Kingdom of Poland

4.1 Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland

4.2 Failure of Alexander I's reforms

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Seven years have passed - seven serene years of Boris' reign. But with the death of Tsar Fedor, the suspicious popular rumor revived. Finally, in 1604, the most terrible rumor spread. For three years already in Moscow they were whispering about an unknown person who called himself Tsarevich Dimitri. The news spread that the real prince was alive and was coming from Lithuania to get the ancestral throne. Tsar Boris died in the spring of 1605, shocked by the successes of the impostor, who, having reigned in Moscow, was soon killed. And the Trouble went...

1.1 Pretenders and Poland

So get ready and start Trouble. The violent and mysterious suppression of the dynasty was the first impetus to the Troubles. The suppression of a dynasty is, of course, a misfortune in the history of a monarchical state; nowhere, however, was it accompanied by such devastating consequences as with us. But neither the suppression of the dynasty, nor the appearance of an impostor are sufficient causes of the Troubles ... These real causes of the Troubles must be sought under the external causes that caused it. The boyars began the Troubles.

In the nest of the boyars most persecuted by Boris, with Romanov at the head, the idea of ​​​​an impostor was most likely hatched. They blamed the Poles, but it was only baked in a Polish oven, and fermented in Moscow.

1.1.1 False Dmitry I

This unknown someone who sat on the Moscow throne after Boris arouses great anecdotal interest. His personality still remains mysterious ... For a long time, the opinion, coming from Boris himself, prevailed that he was the son of a Galician petty nobleman Yuri Otrepyev, monastic Grigory. But what is important for us is not the identity of the impostor, but his identity, the role he played. He was an unprecedented phenomenon on the throne of Moscow sovereigns. Richly gifted, with a lively mind, easily resolving the most difficult issues in the Boyar Duma, with a lively, even ardent temperament, he was a master of speech, and discovered quite a variety of knowledge. By his course of action, he gained wide and strong affection among the people, although some in Moscow suspected and openly denounced him of imposture. But False Dmitry himself looked at himself in a completely different way: he behaved like a legitimate, natural king.

Be that as it may, he did not sit on the throne, because he did not live up to boyar expectations. He acted too independently, developed his own special political plans, even very bold and broad ones in foreign policy, tried to raise all the Catholic powers with Orthodox Russia at the head against the Turks and Tatars. Outraged not only boyars, but all Muscovites willful and reckless Poles with which the new tsar flooded Moscow. However, the main reason for his fall was different. It was expressed by the leader of the boyar conspiracy against the impostor, Prince V.I. Shuisky. At a meeting of conspirators on the eve of the uprising, he frankly stated that he recognized False Dmitry only in order to get rid of Godunov. The boyars saw in the impostor their costumed doll, which they held until the time on the throne, then threw it into the backyards.

Most of all, they grumbled at the impostor because of the Poles; On May 17, 1607, the boyars led the people to the Kremlin, shouting: " The Poles beat the boyars and the sovereign". Their goal was to surround False Dmitry as if for protection and kill him.

1.1.2 False Dmitry II

After the impostor tsar, Prince V.I. Shuisky, conspirator tsar. Few people were pleased with Tsar Vasily. The main reasons for dissatisfaction were the incorrect path of V. Shuisky to the throne and his dependence on the circle of boyars who elected him and played him like a child, in the words of a contemporary. If they are dissatisfied with the present tsar, they need an impostor: impostorism has become a stereotypical form of Russian political thinking, into which all public discontent was molded. And rumors about the salvation of False Dmitry I, i.e. about the second impostor, they went from the first minutes of the reign of Vasily, when the second False Dmitry was not yet at the factory.

False Dmitry II was found and reinforced Polish-Lithuanian and Cossack detachments in the summer of 1608 stood in the village of Tushino near Moscow; since the second impostor, although behind the scenes, but quite clearly supported Polish government, then Tsar Vasily turned to Charles IX for help against the Tushinians (enmity between Sweden and Poland). The negotiations ended with the dispatch of an auxiliary Swedish detachment, for which Tsar Basil was forced to conclude eternal alliance with Sweden against Poland and make other heavy concessions. Sigismund responded to such a direct challenge with an open break with Moscow, and in the fall of 1609 he laid siege to Smolensk.

1.1.2.1 Treaty with King Sigismund (4 February 1610)

In the Tushino camp, the impostor had many Poles. Despised and insulted by their own Polish allies, the tsar in a peasant's dress and on a dungeon sleigh barely escaped to Kaluga from the vigilant supervision under which he was kept in Tushino. The Russian Tushians were forced (after the Poles (Tushins) entered into an agreement with the king, who called them to his place near Smolensk) to choose ambassadors for negotiations with Sigismund on the election of his son Vladislav to the throne of Moscow.

Abandoned by personal ambition or general turmoil in the rebellious half-Russian - half-Polish Tushinsky camp, they, however, took on the role of representatives of the Muscovite state, the Russian land. This was a usurpation on their part, which did not give them any right to zemstvo recognition of their fictitious powers. Communication with the Poles, acquaintance with their freedom-loving concepts and customs expanded the political horizons of these Russian adventurers, and they made it a condition for the king to elect his son as king not only to preserve the ancient rights and liberties of the Muscovite people, but also to add new ones, which this people had not yet enjoyed. The Tushino ambassadors tried to protect their fatherland from the power called from the outside, heterodox and foreign (one of the ambassadors, the boyar Saltykov, wept when he spoke to the king about the preservation of Orthodoxy).

This agreement (M. Saltykov and his comrades with King Sigismund), concluded on February 4, 1610 near Smolensk, set out the conditions under which the Tushino representatives recognized Prince Vladislav as Tsar of Moscow.

First of all, the inviolability of the Russian Orthodox faith is ensured, and then the rights of the entire people and its individual classes are determined.

The idea of ​​individual rights, so little noticed among us before, in agreement February 4 appears for the first time with somewhat definite outlines. Everyone is judged according to the law, no one is punished without trial. Completely new two conditions: do not demote high-ranking people without guilt, but raise low-ranking people according to their merits; each of the people of Moscow for the sake of science is free to travel to other Christian states, and the sovereign will not take away property for that. The thought even flashed of religious tolerance, of freedom of conscience. In defining estate rights, the Tushino ambassadors showed less free-thinking and justice. The serfs remain in their former dependence on the masters, and the sovereign will not give them liberties. The sovereign shares his power with two institutions, the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma.

1.1.2.2 Moscow treaty with Zholkiewski (August 17, 1610)

The February 4 treaty was a matter mainly for the metropolitan nobility and deacon (middle classes). But the course of events has given it a broader meaning. The nephew of Tsar Vasily, Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky with a Swedish detachment cleared the northern cities of Tushino and in March 1610 entered Moscow. The young gifted governor was the successor of the old childless uncle, desired by the people. But he suddenly died.

The army of the king, sent against Sigismund to Smolensk, was defeated by the Polish hetman Zolkiewski. Then the nobles, with Zakhar Lyapunov at their head, brought Tsar Vasily down from the throne and tonsured him. Moscow swore allegiance to the Boyar Duma as a provisional government. She had to choose between two applicants for the throne, Vladislav, whose recognition Zholkevsky, who was going to Moscow, demanded, and an impostor, who also approached the capital, counting on the favor of the Moscow common people. Fearing a thief, Moscow boyars entered into an agreement with Zholkevsky on the terms accepted by the king near Smolensk. However, the agreement, on which on August 17, 1610 Moscow swore allegiance to Vladislav, was not a repetition of the act of 4 February. The ruling nobility was at the lowest level of concepts in comparison with the middle service classes. Saltykov and his comrades felt the changes taking place more vividly than the paramount nobility, they suffered more from the lack of a political charter and from the personal arbitrariness of power, and the experienced coups and clashes with foreigners strongly encouraged their thought to seek means against these inconveniences and imparted to their political concepts more breadth and clarity.

1.1.2.3 The first militia against the Poles (zemstvo sentence June 30, 1611)

Following the middle and higher metropolitan nobility, the ordinary, provincial nobility is also drawn into the Time of Troubles.

Having sworn allegiance to Vladislav, the Moscow boyar government sent an embassy to Sigismund to ask his son for the kingdom and, out of fear of the Moscow mob, who sympathized with the second impostor, brought Zholkevsky's detachment into the capital. But the death of the Tushinsky thief at the end of 1610 freed everyone's hands, and a strong popular movement arose against the Poles: the cities united to cleanse the state of foreigners. The first to revolt, of course, was Prokofy Lyapunov with his Ryazan. But, before the assembled militia approached Moscow, the Poles cut themselves with the Muscovites and burned the capital (March 1611). The militia, besieging the surviving Kremlin and Kitay-gorod, where the Poles settled, chose a provisional government of three persons (princes Trubetskoy and Zarutsky, and noble leader P. Lyapunov). The verdict was given to this government on June 30, 1611. Political ideas in the verdict are hardly noticeable, but class claims come out sharply. The militia stood near Moscow for more than two months, had not yet done anything important for its rescue, and was already acting as the all-powerful manager of the land.

1.1.2.4 The common people and the impostor (Bolotnikov's uprising)

Having come out hand in hand with the provincial nobles, the common people then separate from them and act equally hostile both against the boyars and against the nobility. The instigator of a noble uprising in the south, Prince Shakhovskoy, accepts as an employee a businessman of a completely non-noble analysis: it was Bolotnikov, a brave and experienced man, a boyar serf who was captured by the Tatars, who experienced Turkish hard labor and returned to the fatherland as an agent of the second impostor, when he was not yet available, but was only conceived. The movement raised by the nobles, Bolotnikov led into the depths of society, from where he himself emerged, recruited his squads from the layers that lay at the bottom of the social warehouse, and directed them against the governors, gentlemen and all those in power. He and his rabble victoriously reached Moscow itself, more than once beating the tsarist troops (he was supported by the rebellious nobles of the southern districts). From his camp, proclamations were distributed throughout Moscow calling on serfs to beat their masters. Lyapunov and other noble leaders, having looked at who they were dealing with, left the army of Bolotnikov and made it easier for the tsarist army to defeat the rabble detachments. Bolotnikov died, but his attempt resonated everywhere: everywhere peasants, serfs - everything runaway and destitute stood up for an impostor. The action of these classes both prolonged the Time of Troubles and gave it a different character. When the social rank rose, the Troubles turned into a social struggle, into the extermination of the upper classes by the lower ones. Bolotnikov called under his banners everyone who wanted to achieve freedom, honor and wealth. The real king of this people was the thief Tushinsky.

1.2 Second Home Guard against the Poles

At the end of 1611, the Muscovite state presented a spectacle of complete visible destruction. The Poles took Smolensk; the Polish detachment burned Moscow and fortified behind the surviving walls of the Kremlin and Kitay-gorod; the Swedes occupied Novgorod and put forward one of their princes as a candidate for the throne of Moscow; to replace the murdered second False Dmitry in Pskov, a third, some kind of Sidorka, sat down; the first noble militia near Moscow was upset with the death of Lyapunov.

Meanwhile, the country was left without a government. The Boyar Duma, which became its head after the deposition of V. Shuisky, was abolished by itself when the Poles captured the Kremlin, where some of the boyars sat with their chairman, Prince Mstislavsky. The state was transformed into some formless, restless federation. But from the end of 1611, when the political forces were exhausted, religious and national forces began to awaken, which went to the rescue of the perishing land. The inhabitants of Nizhny Novgorod rose up under the leadership of their headman, the butcher Kuzma Minin. At the call of the Nizhny Novgorod city noblemen, the children of the boyars began to flock, to whom Minin found a leader, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. So it was the second noble militia against the Poles. For four months, the militia settled down, for six months it moved towards Moscow, replenished along the way by crowds of service people. Near Moscow stood the Cossack detachment of Prince Trubetskoy, remnant of the first militia. The Cossacks were more terrible for the zemstvo noble rati than the Poles themselves, and to the proposal of Prince Trubetskoy she answered: "We must not stand together with the Cossacks." But it soon became clear that nothing could be done without the support of the Cossacks. In October 1612, the Cossacks stormed Kitay-Gorod. But the Zemstvo militia did not dare to storm the Kremlin; sitting there a handful of Poles surrendered themselves, driven by hunger to cannibalism. The Cossack chieftains, and not the Moscow governors, recaptured King Sigismund from Volokolamsk, who was heading towards Moscow in order to return it to Polish hands, and forced him to return home. The noble militia here once again showed in the Time of Troubles its little suitability for work, which was its class craft and state duty.

The soil for the Time of Troubles was the painful mood of the people, the general feeling of discontent carried by the people from the reign of Ivan the Terrible and strengthened by the reign of B. Godunov. The reason for the Troubles was given by the suppression of the dynasty, followed by attempts to artificially restore it in the person of impostors, who were supported by the ruling circles of the Commonwealth ...

Open aggression under the leadership of Sigismund III into the Russian state at the beginning of the 17th century. ended in failure.

The Troubles were put to an end by the accession to the throne of the king, who became the ancestor of new dynasty: This was the first immediate consequence of the Troubles.

Foreign policy of Russia at the end of the 17th century.

At the end of the XVII century. in Russia there is a general feeling of the severity of the situation! The court, the personnel of the dynasty and foreign policy brought this feeling to a deep popular dissatisfaction with the course of affairs in the state.

Foreign policy most of all created the financial difficulties of the government. The diplomacy of Tsar Michael, especially after the poorly calculated and clumsily executed Smolensk campaign, was still distinguished by the usual caution of the beaten shocks received by his father, began to be forgotten. Against their will, involved in the struggle for Little Russia after a long hesitation, in Moscow they were inspired by the brilliant campaign of 1654-1655, when not only the Smolensk region, but all of Belarus and Lithuania were immediately conquered. The Moscow imagination ran far ahead of prudence: they did not think that such successes were due not to themselves, but to the Swedes, who at the same time attacked the Poles from the west and diverted the best Polish forces.

Moscow policy took an unusually large course: they spared neither people nor money in order to defeat Poland, and put the Moscow Tsar on the Polish throne, and drive the Swedes out of Poland, and repel the Crimeans and the Turks themselves from Little Russia, and capture not only both sides of the Dnieper region , but also Galicia itself, where in 1660 Sheremetev's army was sent. And with all these intertwined plans, they so confused and weakened themselves that after 21 years of exhausting struggle on three fronts and a series of unprecedented defeats, they abandoned Lithuania, and Belarus, and the right-bank Ukraine, content with the Smolensk and Seversk lands and Little Russia on the left bank with Kyiv on the right. Even the Crimean Tatars in the Treaty of Bakhchisaray in 1681 could not draw out either a convenient steppe border, or the abolition of the shameful annual tribute to the khan, or the recognition of Moscow citizenship of Zaporozhye.

2.1 A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin and his dreams of a close union with Poland

The most remarkable of the Moscow statesmen of the XVII century. Tsar Alexei created in the Russian society of the XVII century. transformative mood.

Ordin - Nashchokin - the most brilliant of the employees of Tsar Alexei. He led the double preparation of the reform of Peter the Great. He expressed many transformative ideas and plans, which were later carried out by Peter the Great. Then, Ordin-Nashchokin had to not only act in a new way, but also create the environment for his activities himself. He was perhaps the first provincial nobleman who made his way into the circle of this arrogant nobility (the old well-born boyars). Afanasy Lavrentievich was the son of a very modest Pskov landowner. He became famous even under Tsar Michael: he was repeatedly appointed to the embassy commissions to demarcate the borders with Sweden. In January 1667, in Andrusov, he concluded a truce with Poland, which put an end to the devastating thirteen-year war for both sides.. He pulled from the Poles not only Smolensk and Seversk lands and eastern Little Russia, but also from the west - Kyiv with the district. He was granted a boyar and appointed state chancellor.

The Pskov region, bordering on Livonia, has long been in close relations with neighboring Germans and Swedes. Careful observation of foreign orders and the habit of comparing them with domestic ones made Nashchokin an ardent admirer of Western Europe and a cruel critic of domestic life.

Foreigners liked his attachment to the Western European order and censure of his own, but this same thing made him many enemies among his own.

Nashchokin had his own diplomatic plans, peculiar views on the tasks of Moscow's foreign policy. He saw that in the situation at that time and with the available funds of the Muscovite state, it was impossible for him to fully resolve the question of the reunification of Southwestern Russia with Great Russia. That is why he was inclined towards peace and even towards a close alliance with Poland, and although he knew well "the shaky, soulless and fickle Polish people," he expected various benefits from an alliance with them. By the way, he hoped, the Turkish Christians, Moldavians and Volokhi, having heard about this union, would secede from the Turks, and then all the children of the Eastern Church, living from the Danube right up to the borders of Great Russia and now separated by hostile Poland, would merge into a numerous Christian people, patronized by the Orthodox Tsar of Moscow, and the Swedish intrigues, which are possible only during the Russian-Polish strife, will stop by themselves.

Busy about a close alliance with an age-old enemy and even dreaming of a dynastic union with Poland under the rule of the Muscovite tsar or his son, Nashchokin made an extremely sharp turn in Moscow's foreign policy.

The idea of ​​uniting all the Slavs under the amicable leadership of Moscow and Poland was Nashchokin's political idyll.

As a practical businessman, he was more concerned with interests of a more businesslike nature. He tried to arrange trade relations with Persia and Central Asia, with Khiva and Bukhara, equipped an embassy to India, looked at the Far East, at China, thinking about the arrangement of the Cossack colonization of the Amur region. But in the foreground is the Baltic Sea. He understood the commercial, industrial and cultural significance of this sea for Russia, and therefore Sweden attracted his attention, namely Livonia, which, in his opinion, should be obtained at all costs: from this acquisition he expected enormous benefits for Russian industry and the tsar's treasury . Carried away by the ideas of his businessman, Tsar Alexei looked in the same direction, fussed about the return of the former Russian possessions, about acquiring the harbors of Narva, Ivan-gorod, Oreshka and the entire course of the Neva River with the Swedish fortress Kantsy (Nienschanz), where Petersburg later arose. But Nashchokin took a broader view of the matter: you need to get straight to the sea, acquire Riga, the pier of which opens the nearest direct route to Western Europe. To form a coalition against Sweden in order to take away Livonia from her - this was Nashchokin's cherished thought. To do this, he lobbied for peace with the Crimean Khan, for a close alliance with Poland, sacrificing western Little Russia. This idea was not crowned with success, but Peter the Great completely inherited these thoughts of his father's minister.

Nashchokin did not fully agree with the tsar in his views on the tasks of foreign policy. The culprit of the Andrusov treaty firmly stood for its exact execution, i.e. the possibility of returning Kyiv to Poland. Appointed in 1671 for new negotiations with Poland, in which he was to destroy his own business, violate the agreement with the Poles, Nashchokin refused to fulfill the order.

Ordin-Nashchokin warned Peter in many ways and was the first to express many ideas that the converter implemented.

2.2 Prince V.V. Golitsyn and the Moscow Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Poland

The youngest of Peter's predecessors was Prince V.V. Golitsyn. While still a young man, he was already a prominent person in the government circle under Tsar Fedor and became one of the most influential people under Princess Sophia, when, after the death of her older brother, she became the ruler of the state.

Golitsyn was an ardent admirer of the West. Like Nashchokin, he spoke fluent Latin and Polish. In his vast Moscow house, which foreigners considered one of the most magnificent in Europe, everything was arranged in a European way: mirrors, paintings, portraits, geographical maps; planetary system on ceilings; many clocks and a thermometer of artistic work, a significant and varied library. One of Ordin's successors - Nashchokin in managing the Ambassadorial Order, Prince Golitsyn developed the ideas of his predecessor. With his assistance in 1686, the Moscow Treaty of Eternal Peace with Poland took place, according to which the Muscovite state took part in the coalition struggle with Turkey in alliance with Poland, the German Empire and Venice. Poland forever asserted for Moscow Kyiv and other Moscow acquisitions, temporarily ceded by the Andrusovo truce. Undoubtedly, broad reformative plans swarmed in his head. It is a pity that we know only fragments of them, recorded Polish envoy(Neville), who arrived in Moscow in 1689, shortly before the fall of Sophia and Golitsyn.

3. Catherine and relations with Poland

In the 18th century, during the reign of Catherine, foreign policy towards Poland was dominated by one simple goal, which can be described by the words: "territorial cutting of a hostile neighbor in order to round off its own borders." It was necessary to complete the political unification of the Russian people, reuniting with Russia torn from its western part. This is a Western question or Polish.

3.1 Count Panin N.I. and his system

They were waiting for the imminent death of the Polish king Augustus III. For Russia, it was all the same who would be king, but Catherine had a candidate whom she wanted to hold, no matter what. It was Stanislav Poniatowski, a veil born for the boudoir, not for any throne. This candidacy brought with it a string of temptations and difficulties... Finally, the whole course of foreign policy had to be turned sharply. Until then, Russia had maintained an alliance with Austria, which France had joined in the Seven Years' War.

At first, upon accession, still poorly understanding matters, Catherine asked the opinions of her advisers about the peace with Prussia concluded under Peter III. The advisers did not recognize this peace as useful for Russia and spoke in favor of resuming the alliance with Austria. A.P. also stood for this. Bestuzhev - Ryumin, whose opinion she then especially appreciated. But a diplomat younger than him, a student and opponent of his system, Count N.I., became near him. Panin, tutor of Grand Duke Paul. He was not only for peace, but directly for an alliance with Frederick, proving that without his assistance achieve nothing in Poland. Catherine for some time strengthened herself: she did not want to be an ally of the king, whom she publicly called the villain of Russia in the July manifesto, but Panin overcame and for a long time became Catherine's closest collaborator in foreign policy. The treaty of alliance with Prussia was signed on March 31, 1764, when in Poland, after the death of King August III, there was an election campaign. But this union was only an integral part of the planned complex system of international relations.

Panin became the conductor of an international combination unprecedented in Europe. According to his project, the northern non-Catholic states, however, with the inclusion and Catholic Poland, united for mutual support, for the protection of the weak by the strong. Its "active" members are Russia, Prussia and England. "Passive" - ​​Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Saxony and other small states that had a desire to join the union. The combat purpose of the union is direct opposition to the southern union (Austria-Franco-Spanish). All that was required of the "passive" states was that, in the event of clashes between the two alliances, they should not stick to the southern one, but remain neutral. It was sensational in its time northern system. It is easy to see her inconvenience. It was difficult to act together and amicably for states so diversely organized as autocratic Russia, constitutionally aristocratic England, soldierly monarchist Prussia and republican-anarchist Poland. In addition, the members of the union had too few common interests and the northern system was not clothed in any international act ( died before birth, unborn).

3.2 Union with Prussia and the Polish question

The treaty of March 31, 1764 was not needed by Russia. This alliance, whose aim was to ease Russia's tasks in Poland, only made them more difficult. The new king of Poland wanted to bring his fatherland out of anarchy through reforms. These reforms were not dangerous for Russia; it was even beneficial for her that Poland would grow stronger and become a useful ally in the fight against the common enemy, Turkey. But Frederick did not want to hear about the awakening of Poland from political lethargy, and pushed Catherine to an agreement with Poland (February 13, 1768), according to which Russia guaranteed the inviolability of the Polish constitution, undertook not to allow any changes in it. Thus, the Prussian Union armed its long-time ally Austria against Russia, and Austria, on the one hand, together with France, incited Turkey against Russia (1768), and on the other, sounded the European alarm: a unilateral Russian guarantee threatens the independence and existence of Poland, the interests of neighboring with it the powers and the entire political system of Europe.

So Frederick, relying on an alliance with Russia, pulled the Russian-Polish and Russian-Turkish affairs into one knot and removed both cases from the sphere of Russian politics, making them European issues, thereby depriving Russian politics of the means to resolve them historically correctly - separately and without a third party. participation.

3.3 Contradictions of Russian policy in Poland

Fewer political chimeras were allowed in the Polish question, but there were many diplomatic illusions, self-delusion, and most of all, contradictions. The issue was the reunification of Western Russia with the Russian state; so it stood in the 15th century. and a century and a half resolved in the same direction; so it was understood in Western Russia itself in the middle of the 18th century. The Orthodox expected from Russia, first of all, religious equality, freedom of religion. The political equation was even dangerous for them. In the Commonwealth, only the nobility enjoyed political rights.

The upper strata of the Orthodox Russian nobility became Polonized and Catholicized; what survived was poor and uneducated ... The Russian government achieved its goal, held at the Sejm, along with the Russian guarantee of the constitution and freedom of religion for dissidents, and their political equalization with the Catholic gentry. The dissident equation set all of Poland on fire. It was a kind of Polish - gentry Pugachevism, morals and methods are no better than Russian peasants. Although there is the robbery of the oppressors for the right to oppress, here it is the robbery of the oppressed for liberation from oppression.

The Polish government allowed the Russian Empress to suppress the rebellion, while she herself remained a curious spectator of events. There were up to 16,000 Russian troops in Poland. This division fought with half of Poland, as they said then. The Confederates found support everywhere; small and medium gentry secretly supplied them with everything they needed. Catherine was forced to refuse the admission of dissidents to the Senate and the Ministry, and only in 1775, after the first partition of Poland, they were approved the right to be elected to the Sejm, along with access to all positions. The orders of autocratic-noble Russian rule fell so hard on the lower classes that for a long time thousands of people fled to undressed Poland, where life was more tolerable on the lands of the masterful gentry. Panin therefore considered it harmful to give the Orthodox in the Commonwealth too broad rights (the flight from Russia would intensify). With such ambiguity in Russian policy, the Orthodox dissidents (fugitives) of Western Russia could not understand what Russia wanted to do for them, whether she had come to completely liberate them from Poland or only to equalize, whether she wanted to save them from the priest or from the Polish pan.

3.4 Partitions of Poland

The Russo-Turkish war gave matters a wider course. The idea of ​​dividing Poland has been circulating in diplomatic circles since the 17th century. Under the grandfather and father of Frederick II, Peter I was offered the division of Poland three times. The war between Russia and Turkey gave Frederick II a welcome opportunity. According to his plan, Austria, hostile to both of them, was involved in the alliance of Russia with Prussia, for diplomatic assistance to Russia in the war with Turkey, and all three powers received land rewards not from Turkey, but from Poland, which gave rise to war. Three years of negotiations! In 1772 (July 25), an agreement of three powers followed - shareholders. Russia misused its rights in both Turkey and Poland. The French minister gloatingly warned the Russian plenipotentiary that Russia would eventually regret the strengthening of Prussia, to which she had contributed so much. In Russia, Panin was also blamed for the excessive strengthening of Prussia, and he himself admitted that he had gone further than he wanted, and Grigory Orlov considered the treaty on the partition of Poland, which so strengthened Prussia and Austria, a crime deserving the death penalty. Be that as it may, a rare factor in European history will remain the case when the Slavic-Russian state in the reign with a national direction helped the German electorate with a scattered territory to turn into a great power, a continuous wide strip stretching across the ruins of the Slavic state from the Elbe to the Neman. Through the fault of Friedrich, the victories of 1770 brought Russia more glory than good. Catherine emerged from the first Turkish war and from the first partition of Poland with the independent Tatars, with Belarus, and with a great moral defeat, arousing and not justifying so many hopes in Poland, in Western Russia, in Moldavia and Wallachia, in Montenegro, in the Sea.

It was necessary to reunite Western Russia; instead partitioned Poland. Russia annexed not only Western Russia, but also Lithuania and Courland, but not all of Western Russia, having ceded Galicia into German hands. With the fall of Poland, the clashes between the three powers were not weakened by any international buffer. Moreover, "our regiment has died" - one Slavic state has become less; it became part of two German states; this is a major loss for the Slavs; Russia did not appropriate anything primordially Polish, it took away only its ancient lands and part of Lithuania, which once attached them to Poland. Finally, the destruction of the Polish state did not save us from the fight against the Polish people: 70 years had not passed since the third partition of Poland, and Russia had already fought the Poles three times (1812, 1831, 1863). Perhaps, in order to avoid enmity with the people, its state should have been preserved.

4. Russia and the Kingdom of Poland

According to the definitions of the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), Russia, as if as a reward for all that she had done to liberate the European peoples from the French yoke, received the Duchy of Warsaw. This Duchy of Warsaw, as is known, was formed by Napoleon after the war with Prussia in 1806-1807. from those provinces of the former Polish Republic, which, according to three sections, went to Prussia.

The Duchy of Warsaw formed by Napoleon was now renamed into the Kingdom of Poland with the addition of some parts of the Polish state to it, according to the division inherited by Russia, namely Lithuania.

4.1 Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland

The Kingdom of Poland was given to Russia without any conditions, but Alexander I himself insisted at the Congress of Vienna that a resolution be introduced into the international act of the congress obliging the governments of those states within which the former Polish provinces were located to give these provinces a constitutional structure. Alexander accepted this obligation; under this obligation, the Polish regions that were within the borders of Russia were to receive representation and such institutions as the Russian emperor would find useful and decent to give them. Because of this, it was developed the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, approved by the emperor in 1815

By virtue of this constitution, in 1818 the first Polish Sejm was opened. Poland was ruled under the leadership of the governor, who was Alexander's brother Constantine; Legislative power in Poland belonged to the Sejm, which was divided into two chambers - the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consisted of representatives of the church hierarchy and state administration, i.e., representatives of the gentry, urban and free rural communities. The first Diet was opened by the emperor's speech, in which it was announced that representative institutions were always the subject of the sovereign's caring thoughts and that, applied with good intention and sincerity, they can serve as the basis of true national prosperity. It so happened that the conquered country received institutions freer than those governed by the conquering country. The Warsaw speech of 1818 resonated painfully in the hearts of Russian patriots. There were rumors that a new state system was being developed for the empire; this project was allegedly entrusted to a former employee of the emperor Novosiltsev.

4.2 Failure of Alexander I's reforms

We know the undertakings of Alexander I; they were all unsuccessful. The best of them are those that remained fruitless, others had a worse result, that is, worsened the state of affairs. In fact, dreams of a constitutional order were realized on the western edge of Russia, in the Kingdom of Poland. The operation of this constitution caused incalculable harm to history. This harm had a chance to be felt by the culprit of the Polish constitution himself. The Poles soon repaid the granted constitution with stubborn opposition at the Sejm, which forced them to abolish the publicity of the meetings and establish in Poland, in addition to the constitution, government in a purely Russian spirit.

Conclusion

After the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, Poland disappeared from the political map of Europe and was economically drained. 62% of its lands with 45% of the population went to Russia, laws and courts of the empire were introduced on the seized lands.

Polish national liberation uprisings of 1794, 1830-1831, 1846, 1848, 1863-1864 were suppressed. And since these uprisings broke out already on Russian territory, they were considered as riots, rebellions. The rebels were punished by exile, hard labor in Siberia.

The royal treasury received income from the confiscation of landowners' lands, the transfer to the treasury from administrative exiles. 1600 estates were confiscated in the Kingdom of Poland and 1800 estates in the western provinces. They were distributed, like the lands of churches and monasteries, to Russian landowners and participants in the suppression of the uprising.

After 10 years of exile, the Poles were transferred to the class of state peasants. They paid taxes. The Poles were employed in all sectors of the economy of the province: in gold mining, iron ore, timber industry, they built railways, horse-drawn roads, etc. From the end of the XVIII century. Siberian provinces are constantly replenished with thousands of convicts and exiled settlers from among the participants in the Polish uprisings of 1794, 1830-1831, 1846, 1863-1864.

In 1915-1918 the Kingdom of Poland was occupied by the troops of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The victory of the October Revolution in Russia created the prerequisites for the independence of Poland. The Soviet government annulled in August 1918 the treaties of the tsarist government on the divisions of Poland.

In November 1918, Soviets of Workers' Deputies were formed in many industrial centers of independent Poland; in December 1918, the Communist Party of Poland (KPP) was founded. However, power in Poland was seized by the bourgeoisie and landlords, who unleashed a war with Soviet Russia in 1920. According to the Riga Peace Treaty of 1921, the western part of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands fell under the rule of Poland. The Potsdam Conference of 1945 established the western border of Poland along the river. Odra and Nysa Luzhytska.

Diplomatic relations between Poland and the Soviet state have been established since 1921 (with a break in 1939-1941 and 1943-1945). Poland has been a member of the CMEA since 1949, a member of the Warsaw Pact since 1955.

Relations between Poland and Russia after the collapse of the USSR is a completely different story.

Literature

1. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. M. Soviet encyclopedia. 1985

2. Klyuchevsky V.O. About Russian history, M.: Enlightenment, 1993. Edited by Bulganov.

3. Nelly Laletina, T. Uleiskaya and others. Poles on the Yenisei. Digest of articles. Issue I Krasnoyarsk 2003 180 p. "Polish House"

Polish and Swedish interventions early 17th century to the Russian state ended in failure. Swedish intervention in the early 17th century. had the goal of tearing away Pskov, Novgorod, northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia. It began in the summer of 1610 and developed until 1615. It did not achieve its main goals. It ended by February 1617 (Stolbovsky peace).

In the 1st millennium, the territory of Poland was inhabited by Slavic tribes (Polyany, Vistula, Mazowshan, etc.). At the end of the 10th c. the early feudal Polish state arose. Poland has been a kingdom since 1025. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, Poland formed the state of the Commonwealth with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In the 17th century Poland also fought with Turkey. Polish-Turkish wars 17th century between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire in 1620-21, 1672-76, 1683-99 mainly for the possession of Ukrainian lands. By the decision of the Karlovytsy Congress of 1698-1699, the Commonwealth received the remaining (since 1676) part of the right-bank Ukraine and Podolia from the Ottoman Empire.

Klyuchevsky's "Course of Russian History" depicts the life of Russia in its uninterrupted course without any stereotyped subdivisions. Klyuchevsky establishes the organic growth of Russia and its people, its inevitability, naturalness, consistency and gradualness, despite the cataclysms that Russia had to endure in the form of revolutionary movements from below or the same actions from above.

April to May 1605 Fedor Borisovich (1589 - 1605). Son of Boris Godunov. When approaching Moscow, False Dmitry I was overthrown and killed.

CMay 1605 to 1606 False Dmitry I (? - 1606). Pretender (presumably G. Otrepyev). In 1601 he appeared in Poland (under the name of the son of Ivan IV Demetrius). In 1604, with the Polish-Lithuanian detachments, he crossed the Russian border, was supported by part of the townspeople, Cossacks and peasants. Having become king, he tried to maneuver between the Polish and Russian feudal lords. Killed by boyars - conspirators

1606 - 1610. Vasily IV Shuisky. (1552 - 1612). Son of Prince I. A. Shuisky. Deposed by Muscovites. Died in Polish captivity. 1610 Moscow swore allegiance to the Boyar Duma as a provisional government. It was abolished when the Poles captured the Kremlin (In March 1611, the Poles burned the capital). From the end of 1611. Without a government. October 1612. The Cossacks took Chinatown.

Vladislav is the son of Sigismund III. Pretender for the Russian throne, king of the Commonwealth (1632 - 1648).

Stanislav Zholknevsky- (1547 - 1620) Polish statesman, commander.

Bolotnikov Ivan Isaevich - leader of the army of False Dmitry II, inflicted a number of defeats on the troops of Vasily Shuisky, besieged Moscow, captured in Tula in 1607, killed in 1608 in Kargopol.

From 1613 to 1645. Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1596 - 1645). The first king of the Romanov family. Elected by the Zemsky Sobor (father (Patriarch) Filaret ruled until 1633, then by the boyars).

Russian-Polish (Smolensk) war was conducted 1632-34. was waged by Russia for the return of the Smolensk and Chernigov lands seized during the years of the Polish intervention. It ended with the surrender of the Russian army surrounded near Smolensk and Polyanovsky world.

From 1645 Alexei Mikhailovich (1629-1676). Son of Michael.

In 1654-55. Russian troops defeated the main forces of the Commonwealth, liberated the Smolensk region and most of Belarus. Hostilities resumed in 1658 and went on with varying degrees of success. The Commonwealth returned the Smolensk and Chernihiv lands to Russia, recognized the reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia.

And in February 1672, Athanasius took the vows as a monk under the name of Anthony. He died in 1680.

Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn (1643 - 1714) - statesman and military leader, diplomat, carried out a number of reforms during the reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich and Princess Sophia, died in exile.

From 1762 to 1796 CatherineIIAlekseevna(1729 - 1796). German Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta. She overthrew with the help of the guards of Peter III (husband).

Stanislav Poniatowski (1732 - 1798) - Ambassador of Saxony and the Commonwealth in Russia, lover of Ekaterina Alekseevna, in 1764 - 1795 - King of the Commonwealth, in 1795 abdicated and lived in Russia.

Friedrich Wilhelm II (1744 - 1817) King of Prussia since 1786, patronized mystics and Freemasons.

Joseph II (1741 - 1790) Emperor of Austria and the "Holy Roman Empire" from 1765 to 1790 (from 1765 to 1780 - co-ruler of Maria Theresa, his mother), supporter of an alliance with Russia. He pursued the policy of the so-called. enlightened absolutism.

Petersburg conventions of 1770-90s, the territory of the Commonwealth was divided (three sections - 1772, 1793, 1795) between Prussia, Austria and Russia. In 1807, Napoleon I created the Principality of Warsaw from part of the Polish lands. The Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 repartitioned Poland: the Kingdom of Poland was formed from most of the Principality of Warsaw (transferred to Russia).

With 1801 AlexanderI.(1777 - 1825). Eldest son of Paul I.

Emperor Alexander I was childless; the throne after him, according to the law on April 5, 1797, was supposed to pass to the next brother, Konstantin, and Konstantin was also unhappy in family life, divorced his first wife and married a Pole; since the children of this marriage could not have the right to the throne, Constantine became indifferent to this right and in 1822 he renounced the throne in a letter to his elder brother. The elder brother accepted the refusal and, in a manifesto of 1823, appointed the next brother after Konstantin, Nikolai, heir to the throne.

From the end of the XVIII century. Siberian provinces are constantly replenished with thousands of convicts and exiled settlers from among the participants in the Polish uprisings of 1794, 1830-1831, 1846, 1863-1864.

Under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko. The suppression of this uprising was followed by the 3rd section (1795) of the Commonwealth.

In the history of our country, the 17th century is a very significant milestone, since at that time there were many events that influenced the entire subsequent development of the state. The foreign policy of Russia was especially important in the 17th century, since at that time it was very difficult to fight off numerous enemies, while at the same time preserving strength for domestic work.

First, it was necessary to urgently return all the lands that were lost as a result of the Troubles. Secondly, the rulers of the country were faced with the task of annexing back all those territories that were once part of Kievan Rus. Of course, in many respects they were guided not only by the ideas of reunification of once divided peoples, but also by the desire to increase the share of arable land and the number of taxpayers. Simply put, the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was aimed at restoring the integrity of the country. The turmoil had an extremely hard impact on the country: the treasury was empty, many peasants became so impoverished that it was simply impossible to take taxes from them. The acquisition of new lands, not plundered by the Poles, would not only restore the political prestige of Russia, but also replenish its treasury. In general, this was the main foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century.

At the beginning of the 16th century at the Dnieper rapids, a free Cossack republic was formed - the Zaporizhzhya Sich. There was no feudal dependence in Zaporozhye. The Cossacks had their own self-government, an elected hetman and "ataman".

The Polish government is trying to take control of the Ukrainian Cossacks and recruit them into service. From the 16th century Cossack uprisings against the Poles begin. The strengthening of religious, national and social oppression leads to the beginning of the liberation war.

In 1648 it was headed by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. He expels the Polish garrison from the Sich, is elected hetman and appeals to the Cossacks with a call for an uprising. Having entered into a military alliance with the Crimean Tatars, Khmelnitsky inflicted defeat on the Poles near Zhovti Vody, Korsun and Pylyavtsy.

August 1649, the Cossack-Tatar army won a victory near Zborov. A peace treaty was concluded, according to which Poland recognized the autonomy of the Right-Bank Ukraine.

In 1650, the Polish troops launched a new campaign against Khmelnitsky, and in 1651, as a result of the betrayal of the Crimean Khan Islam Giray (who led the troops away from the battlefield), they managed to win near Berestechko. The Poles restored their power over Ukraine, limiting the number of Cossacks to 20,000.

B. Khmelnitsky, realizing the impossibility of confronting Poland alone, repeatedly raises the question of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. On October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to accept Ukraine into Russian citizenship. The royal ambassadors went to the hetman Khmelnitsky. On January 8, 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada decided to accept citizenship and took an oath of allegiance to the tsar, confirming their consent to the entry of Ukraine into Russia.

This caused the war of 1654-1667. between the Commonwealth and Russia. The war was protracted and ended with the Andrusovo truce of 1667. Smolensk region, Left-Bank Ukraine and Kyiv were ceded to Russia. In 1686, an "eternal peace" was concluded with Poland, which fixed the terms of the Attdrus truce. Belarus remained part of Poland.

The reunification of Ukraine and Russia strengthened the Russian state economically, politically and militarily, preventing the destruction of Ukraine as a result of Polish or Turkish intervention.

At the same time, Russia was at war with Sweden. In 1661, according to the Treaty of Cardis, Russia was forced to return its lands in Livonia to Sweden, and found itself without access to the sea.

In 1677 the war with Turkey for Ukraine began. Turkish troops planned to capture Kyiv and the entire Left-Bank Ukraine. But, faced with the heroic resistance of the Russian-Ukrainian army during the defense of the Chigerin fortress, the exhausted Turks signed an agreement (1681) on a truce for 20 years in Bakhchisarai. Turkey recognized the left bank and Kyiv for Russia. The lands between the Dnieper and Kyiv remained neutral.