At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was one of the influential world powers, owning significant territories in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, while Japan dominated the eastern part of the Asian continent.

Therefore, the Russo-Japanese War had a significant resonance, long before its end in 1905. There is every reason to believe that the Russo-Japanese War was a harbinger of the First World War, and then, and. Because the causes of the initial conflict between states influenced subsequent events. Some tend to refer to the Russo-Japanese War as "World War Zero" since it took place 10 years before it began.

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War

In 1904, Russia, led by Emperor Nicholas II, was the largest world power with vast territories.

The port of Vladivostok did not have year-round navigation due to difficult climatic conditions. The state needed to have a port in the Pacific Ocean, which would receive and send merchant ships all year round, and also be a fort on the eastern borders of Russia.

He staked on the Korean Peninsula and Liaodong, now located in China. Russia has already entered into a lease agreement with, but the emperor wanted complete sovereignty in this region. The Japanese leadership has not been satisfied with Russia's activity in the region since the Sino-Japanese War of 1895. Russia at that time supported the Qing Dynasty, i.e. was on the side of the conflict.

Initially, the Japanese side offered Russia a deal: Russia gets full control of Manchuria (northeast China), and Japan controls Korea. But Russia was not satisfied with such an outcome of events, it put forward a demand to declare the territory of Korea above the 39th parallel a neutral zone. The negotiations were disrupted by the Japanese side, and she, unilaterally, began military operations against Russia (an attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur on February 8, 1904).

Beginning of the Russo-Japanese War

Japan officially declared war on Russia only on the day of the attack on the ships of the Russian Navy in Port Arthur. Prior to this, the Russian leadership had no information about the military intentions of the land of the rising sun.

The Cabinet assured the emperor that even after unsuccessful negotiations, Japan would not dare to attack Russia, but this was an unfortunate assumption. An interesting fact is that, according to the norms of International law, a declaration of war before the outbreak of hostilities was optional at that time. This rule ceased to operate only 2 years after these events, which was enshrined at the second Hague Peace Conference.

The purpose of the attack of the Japanese fleet on Russian ships was the blockade of the Russian fleet. By order of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the torpedo boats of the Japanese fleet were to disable the three largest cruisers: Tsesarevich, Retvizan and Pallada. The main battle was expected a day later, in Port Arthur.

The Russian fleet in the Far East was well protected in the harbor of Port Arthur, but the exits from it were mined. So on April 12, 1904, the battleships Petropavlovsk and Pobeda were blown up at the exit from the harbor. The first sank, the second returned to the harbor with heavy damage. And, although Russia, in response, damaged 2 Japanese battleships, Japan continued to control and carry out regular bombing of Port Arthur.

At the end of August, Russian troops, deployed from the center to help the sailors of Port Arthur, were driven back by the Japanese and could not get into the harbor. Having settled in the newly conquered positions, the Japanese military continued shelling the ships in the bay.

In early 1905, the garrison commander, Major General Sessel, decided to leave the harbor, believing that the losses among the naval personnel were significant and meaningless. This decision came as a surprise to both the Japanese and the Russian command. The general was later convicted and sentenced to death, but was pardoned.

The Russian fleet continued to suffer losses in the Yellow Sea, forcing the military leadership of the state to mobilize the Baltic Fleet and send it to the combat area.

Military operations in Manchuria and Korea

Seeing the weakness of the Russians, the Japanese gradually moved to complete control of the Korean Peninsula. Landing in its southern part, they gradually advanced and captured Seoul and the rest of the peninsula.

The plans of the Japanese command was to capture Russian-controlled Manchuria. During the first hostilities on land, they successfully attacked Russian shipping in May 1904, forcing them to withdraw to Port Arthur. Further, in February 1905, the Japanese continued to attack the Russian troops in Mukden. These bloody battles also ended in victory for the Japanese. The Russians, suffering heavy losses, were forced to retreat to northern Mukden. The Japanese side also had tangible losses of soldiers and equipment.

In May 1905, the Russian fleet arrived at the place of deployment, sailing about 20 thousand miles - a fairly serious military campaign for that time.

Making the transition at night, the Russian armada was nevertheless discovered by the Japanese. And Togo Heihachiro blocked their path near the Tsushima Strait at the end of May 1905. Russian losses were enormous: eight battleships and over 5,000 men. Only three ships managed to break into the harbor and complete the task. All the above events forced the Russian side to agree to a truce.

Treaty of Portsmouth

The Russo-Japanese War was fierce and could serve as a bad echo of subsequent events. Both sides lost about 150,000 military men in hostilities, and about 20,000 Chinese civilians died.

The peace agreement was concluded in Portsmouth in 1905, through the mediation of Theodore Roosevelt (US President). Russia was represented by Sergei Witte, the minister of his imperial court, and Japan by Baron Komuro. For his peacekeeping activities during the negotiations, Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Results of the Russo-Japanese War

As a result of the agreement, Russia transferred Port Arthur to Japan, retaining half of Sakhalin Island (the island will completely go to Russia only at the end of World War II. Supported Nicholas II's refusal to pay compensation to the victorious side. Russian troops liberated the territory of Manchuria and recognized the control of the Japanese side over the Korean Peninsula.

The humiliating defeats of the Russian army in the Russo-Japanese War added negative consequences to the political unrest in Russia, which ultimately served as the impetus for the overthrow of the government in 1917.

The confrontation between Russia and Japan for control over Manchuria, Korea, the ports of Port Arthur and Dalny was the main reason for the start of the tragic war for Russia.

The fighting began with an attack by the Japanese fleet, which on the night of February 9, 1904, without declaring war, launched a surprise attack on the Russian squadron near the naval base of Port Arthur.

In March 1904, the Japanese army landed in Korea, and in April - in the south of Manchuria. Under the blows of superior enemy forces, the Russian troops left the Jinzhou position in May and blocked Port Arthur 3 by the Japanese army. In the battle of June 14-15 at Vafangou, the Russian army retreated.

In early August, the Japanese landed on the Liaodong Peninsula and laid siege to the fortress of Port Arthur. On August 10, 1904, the Russian squadron made an unsuccessful attempt to break through from Port Arthur, as a result, individual escaped ships were interned in neutral ports, and the Novik cruiser near Kamchatka died in an unequal battle.

The siege of Port Arthur lasted from May 1904 and fell on January 2, 1905. The main goal of Japan was achieved. The battles in Northern Manchuria were of an auxiliary nature, because. the Japanese did not have the strength and means to occupy it and the entire Russian Far East.

The first major battle on land near Liaoyang (August 24 - September 3, 1904) led to the retreat of Russian troops to Mukden. The meeting battle on October 5-17 on the Shahe River and the attempt of the Russian troops to advance on January 24, 1905 in the Sandepu area were unsuccessful.

After the largest Mukden battle (February 19 - March 10, 1905), Russian troops withdrew to Telin, and then to Sypingai positions 175 km north of Mukden. Here they met the end of the war.

Formed after the death of the Russian fleet in Port Arthur, 2 Pacific made a six-month transition to the Far East. However, in the hours-long battle at Fr. Tsushima (May 27, 1905) she was crushed and destroyed by superior enemy forces.

Russian military losses, according to official figures, amounted to 31,630 killed, 5,514 died of wounds and 1,643 died in captivity. Russian sources estimated the losses of Japan as more significant: 47,387 people were killed, 173,425 were wounded, 11,425 died from wounds and 27,192 from diseases.

According to foreign sources, the losses in killed, wounded and sick of Japan and Russia are comparable, and Russian prisoners were several times more than Japanese.

Results of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.

For Russia . She ceded to Japan the Liaodong Peninsula along with a branch of the South Manchurian Railway and the southern half of about. Sakhalin. Russian troops were withdrawn from Manchuria, and Korea was recognized as a sphere of influence of Japan.

Russia's positions in China and throughout the Far East were undermined. The country lost its position as one of the largest maritime powers, abandoned the "oceanic" strategy and returned to the "continental" strategy. Russia has reduced international trade and tightened domestic policy.

The main reason for the defeat of Russia in this war is the weakness of the fleet and poor logistics.

Defeat in the war led to military reforms and a marked improvement in combat training. The troops, especially the command staff, gained combat experience, which later proved itself in the First World War.

Losing the war was the catalyst for the first Russian revolution. Despite its suppression by 1907, the Russian empire did not recover from this blow and ceased to exist.

For Japan . Psychologically and politically, Japan's victory demonstrated to Asia the ability to defeat the Europeans. Japan has become a great power of the European level of development. It began to dominate Korea and coastal China, began active naval construction, and by the end of World War I had become the third maritime power in the world.

Geopolitical. All positions of Russia in the Pacific region were practically lost, it abandoned the eastern (southeastern) direction of expansion and turned its attention to Europe, the Middle East and the Straits zone.

Relations with England improved and an agreement was signed on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Afghanistan. The Anglo-French-Russian alliance "Entente" was finally formed. The balance of power in Europe shifted temporarily in favor of the Central Powers.

Anatoly Sokolov

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 (briefly)

The Russo-Japanese War began on January 26 (or, according to the new style, February 8) 1904. The Japanese fleet unexpectedly, before the official declaration of war, attacked ships located on the outer roadstead of Port Arthur. As a result of this attack, the most powerful ships of the Russian squadron were disabled. The declaration of war took place only on 10 February.

The most important reason for the Russo-Japanese War was the expansion of Russia to the east. However, the immediate reason was the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, previously captured by Japan. This provoked military reform and the militarization of Japan.

About the reaction of Russian society to the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war, one can briefly say this: Japan's actions outraged Russian society. The world community reacted differently. England and the USA took a pro-Japanese position. And the tone of the press reports was distinctly anti-Russian. France, which at that time was an ally of Russia, declared neutrality - an alliance with Russia was necessary for it in order to prevent the strengthening of Germany. But, already on April 12, France concluded an agreement with England, which caused a cooling of Russian-French relations. Germany, on the other hand, declared friendly neutrality towards Russia.

The Japanese failed to capture Port Arthur, despite active actions at the beginning of the war. But, already on August 6, they made another attempt. A 45-strong army under the command of Oyama was thrown to storm the fortress. Having met the strongest resistance and having lost more than half of the soldiers, the Japanese were forced to retreat on August 11. The fortress was surrendered only after the death of General Kondratenko on December 2, 1904. Despite the fact that Port Arthur could have held out for at least another 2 months, Stessel and Reis signed an act on the surrender of the fortress, as a result of which the Russian fleet was destroyed, and 32 thousand soldiers were destroyed. man was taken prisoner.

The most significant events of 1905 were:

The Battle of Mukden (February 5 - 24), which remained the largest land battle in the history of mankind until the start of the First World War. It ended with the withdrawal of the Russian army, which lost 59 thousand killed. Japanese losses amounted to 80 thousand people.

The Battle of Tsushima (May 27-28), in which the Japanese fleet, outnumbering the Russian fleet by 6 times, almost completely destroyed the Russian Baltic squadron.

The course of the war was clearly in favor of Japan. However, its economy was depleted by the war. This forced Japan to enter into peace negotiations. In Portsmouth, on August 9, participants in the Russo-Japanese War began a peace conference. It should be noted that these negotiations were a major success for the Russian diplomatic delegation headed by Witte. The signed peace treaty sparked protests in Tokyo. But, nevertheless, the consequences of the Russo-Japanese war turned out to be very tangible for the country. During the conflict, the Russian Pacific Fleet was practically destroyed. The war claimed more than 100 thousand lives of soldiers heroically defending their country. The expansion of Russia to the East was stopped. Also, the defeat showed the weakness of the tsarist policy, which to a certain extent contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiment and eventually led to the revolution of 1904-1905. Among the reasons for the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. the most important are the following:

diplomatic isolation of the Russian Empire;

unpreparedness of the Russian army for combat operations in difficult conditions;

frank betrayal of the interests of the fatherland or mediocrity of many tsarist generals;

serious superiority of Japan in the military and economic spheres.

Portsmouth Peace

The Treaty of Portsmouth (Portsmouth Peace) is a peace treaty between Japan and the Russian Empire that ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.

The peace treaty was concluded in the city of Portsmouth (USA), thanks to which it got its name, on August 23, 1905. S.Yu. Witte and R.R. participated in the signing of the agreement on the Russian side. Rosen, and from the Japanese side - K. Jutaro and T. Kogoro. The initiator of the negotiations was the American President T. Roosevelt, so the signing of the treaty took place on the territory of the United States.

The treaty canceled the effect of previous agreements between Russia and China regarding Japan and concluded new ones, already with Japan itself.

Russo-Japanese War. Background and reasons

Japan did not pose any threat to the Russian Empire until the middle of the 19th century. However, in the 60s, the country opened its borders to foreign citizens, and began to develop rapidly. Thanks to the frequent trips of Japanese diplomats to Europe, the country adopted foreign experience and was able to create a powerful and modern army and navy in half a century.

It is no coincidence that Japan began to build up its military power. The country experienced an acute shortage of territories, so at the end of the 19th century, the first Japanese military campaigns began in neighboring territories. The first victim was China, which gave Japan a number of islands. Korea and Manchuria were supposed to be next on the list, but Japan clashed with Russia, which also had its own interests in these territories. Negotiations were held throughout the year between diplomats in order to divide the spheres of influence, but they did not achieve success.

In 1904, Japan, which did not want more negotiations, attacked Russia. The Russo-Japanese War began, which lasted two years.

Reasons for signing the Peace of Portsmouth

Despite the fact that Russia was losing the war, Japan was the first to think about the need to make peace. The Japanese government, which had already achieved most of its goals in the war, understood that the continuation of hostilities could hit the economy of Japan, which was already not in the best condition.

The first attempt to make peace took place in 1904, when the Japanese envoy to Great Britain turned to Russia with his version of the treaty. However, the peace provided for the condition that Russia agrees to appear in the documents as the initiator of the negotiations. Russia refused, and the war continued.

The next attempt was made by France, which assisted Japan in the war and was also severely exhausted economically. In 1905, France, which was on the verge of a crisis, offered its mediation to Japan. A new version of the contract was drawn up, which provided for indemnity (payback). Russia refused to pay money to Japan and the treaty was not signed again.

The last attempt to make peace took place with the participation of US President T. Roosevelt. Japan turned to the states that provided it with financial assistance and asked to mediate in the negotiations. This time, Russia agreed, as discontent was growing inside the country.

Terms of the Peace of Portsmouth

Japan, having enlisted the support of the United States and having agreed in advance with the states on the division of influence in the Far East, was determined to sign a speedy and beneficial peace for itself. In particular, Japan planned to take the island of Sakhalin, as well as a number of territories in Korea, and impose a ban on navigation in the waters belonging to the country. However, the peace was not signed, since Russia refused such conditions. At the insistence of S. Yu Witte, the negotiations continued.

Russia managed to defend the right not to pay indemnity. Despite the fact that Japan was in dire need of money and hoped to get a payoff from Russia, Witte's stubbornness forced the Japanese government to refuse money, otherwise the war could continue, and this would hit Japan's finances even more.

Also, according to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia managed to defend the right to own the greater territory of Sakhalin, and Japan was given only the southern part on the condition that the Japanese would not build military fortifications there.

In general, despite the fact that Russia lost the war, it managed to significantly soften the terms of the peace treaty and exit the war with fewer losses. Spheres of influence on the territory of Korea and Manchuria were divided, agreements were signed on movement in the waters of Japan and trade on its territories. The peace treaty was signed by both parties.

The main reason for the outbreak of war between Japan and Russia in 1904 lies on the surface 1 . The geopolitical ambitions of these powers clashed in Northeast Asia. But, as in many other armed conflicts, the immediate causes of war are more confusing.

These are Russia's plans to build a railway in the Russian Far East, and Japan's victory in the war with China in 1895, and the project of some St. Petersburg guards officers to open a logging enterprise on the Yalu River, and Tokyo's fears about St. Petersburg's influence in Korea. Disorderly, inconsistent diplomacy also played a large role.

But, as with the outbreak of the First World War, a clear understanding of how the Russo-Japanese conflict broke out may take us beyond the scope of historical science.

The answer concerns an important but often elusive concept of diplomacy, namely honor 2 . When attempts to encroach on the international authority of a state can be considered as dangerous as a military invasion of its territory. Alexander II once said that in the life of states, as in the life of any person, there are moments when you need to forget everything except protecting your own honor 3 .

CONFUSION ON SINGING BRIDGE

Russia and Japan have been going to war since 1895, from the time the Japanese inflicted a spectacular defeat on the Chinese in a brief conflict over Korea. Russia's attempt to prevent Japan from gaining a foothold on Chinese territory caused extreme indignation in the island empire. And Russian intervention began after the conclusion of the Shimonoseki peace treaty on April 17, 1895, which marked the end of the Sino-Japanese war. Among the requirements of the Japanese side was the possession of the Liaodong Peninsula, located near Beijing, with the strategically important naval base of Port Arthur. The Qing dynasty agreed to cede the rights to the peninsula, but Petersburg enticed Berlin and Paris to jointly demand the cession of Liaodong to Russia.

The Russian demarche was made after heated debates among the dignitaries of Nicholas II, caused primarily by the proximity of Eastern Siberia to the theater of operations of the Sino-Japanese conflict. The main goal of the Romanovs was an ice-free access to the Pacific Ocean. Owning the Pacific port of Vladivostok, surrounded by freezing seas, Russia did not have a convenient harbor washed by warm waters for the terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was being built at that time. Prominent Russian naval commanders believed that the time had come to capture the port in Korea. This idea was enthusiastically shared by Nicholas II. Lacking the necessary backing to make such a move, Foreign Minister Prince Andrei Lobanov-Rostovsky proposed an agreement with Tokyo for a new port in the region.

But there was another point of view. Its most influential proponent was Finance Minister Sergei Witte, who saw good relations with China as essential to the development of the Russian Far East. He had no doubt that in time the Romanovs would dominate China. But the empire must move towards this peacefully and by economic means. Russian and Chinese railways, banks, trading houses and not troops should compete with each other. Among other things, Witte often reminded Nikolai: "...for the general state of affairs inside Russia, it is essential to avoid everything that could cause external complications" 4 .

As a result, after the Peace of Shimonoseki, Russia played more of the role of defender of Beijing. The finance minister quickly drew dividends from the goodwill of the Chinese. He secured the consent of the Zongli Yamen (Chinese Department of Foreign Affairs. - Approx. Per.) to lay the Trans-Siberian Railway through Manchuria, which significantly shortened the eastern segment of the railway. And on June 3, 1896, the two empires concluded a secret agreement on joint confrontation in the event of possible aggression from Japan 5 .

However, after only a year, Emperor Nicholas abruptly changed course. Imitating his cousin Wilhelm, who captured Qingdao, he occupied the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula, which included Port Arthur. Three years later, the Cossacks suddenly entered the hereditary provinces of the Qing dynasty in Manchuria. Although Nicholas's diplomats officially promised to withdraw them, the military did not budge and even plotted a campaign against neighboring Korea.

Such inconsistency reflected deep divisions in the Far Eastern policy of St. Petersburg. Sergei Witte, who was supported by Count Vladimir Lamsdorf, Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1900 to 1906, remained an unshakable supporter of friendly relations with China. A coalition of "hawks" opposed at different times, including naval commanders, Lamsdorf's predecessor Count Mikhail Muravyov, a retired guard captain and the dubious businessman Alexander Bezobrazov and the imperial viceroy in the Russian Far East, Admiral Evgeny Alekseev. However, the differences did not prevent the opponents from agreeing on one thing: Russia should play an active role in Northeast Asia.

"KOREA FOR MANCHURIA"

Japanese dignitaries also agreed on one thing: the main goal of their country's geopolitics was Korea, a hermit state that had long been a tributary of the Qing dynasty. However, by the end of the 19th century, the progressive weakness of China led to the weakening of its rule on the peninsula and made it possible for stronger powers to operate here. The latter included Japan, which during the Meiji Restoration ended its medieval isolation and became a modern state with a Europeanized army and colonial aspirations of its own.

The simple logic of geography pointed to Korea as one of the main targets of the genro, the group of nine statesmen who determined the policy of the empire. At its narrowest point, only 60 kilometers separated Japan from Korea.

Already in 1875, Japanese troops clashed with the Koreans on the island of Ganghwado, and 20 years later, the empire began a war with China, weakening its influence on the hermit country. As the Western powers divided China into spheres of influence, the Genro decided they could fulfill their colonial ambitions by giving Russia a dominant role in Manchuria in exchange for their control of Korea. For the next eight years, the slogan "Man-Kan kokan" ("Korea for Manchuria") became one of the leading imperatives of Japanese foreign policy.

On April 13, 1898, Baron Rosen, the Russian envoy, and Japanese Foreign Minister Tokujiro Nishi signed a joint protocol in Tokyo recognizing Japanese economic dominance in Korea. But at the same time, both sides pledged to defend the country's political sovereignty. Rosen himself called the treaty "incomplete and meaningless", the Japanese were also not in the best opinion about it 7 .

The next four years, when Russia was increasingly moving away from Korean affairs, Japan made repeated attempts to achieve official recognition of its superiority on the peninsula. However, Russian diplomats were unable to obtain permission from the government for such a turn of policy. As Alexander Izvolsky, then envoy to Tokyo, explained, both the tsar and his admirals "were too interested in Korea" 8 . At the same time, Lamsdorf was wary of Japanese hostility, warning in letters to Witte, General Kuropatkin, and Naval Minister Tyrtov that if Russia failed to appease the new serious rival, "the clear danger of an armed clash with Japan" would remain.

When the Japanese government was headed by Marquis Hirobumi Ito, cold heads prevailed in Tokyo. From the time of the Peace of Shimonoseki in 1895, the marquis tended towards a cautious policy towards Russia. One of the most prominent statesmen of the Meiji era, Ito had great authority among both dignitaries and the emperor. But despite this, in May 1901, his cabinet lost the confidence of parliament, and a new prime minister, Prince Taro Katsura, took office. The younger members of his cabinet were much more aggressive towards Russia 10 .

True, the Marquis of Ito, who found himself outside the government, did not give up. During a private visit to St. Petersburg in November 1901, he looked for ways to carry out a policy of reconciliation. An experienced dignitary received a warm welcome in St. Petersburg and was awarded the Order of St. Nicholas II. Alexander Nevsky, and at meetings with Witte and Lamsdorf defended the Korean-Manchurian project. But while the Minister of Finance was sympathetic to this idea, the Minister of Foreign Affairs was still against it.

Most importantly, while Ito was negotiating with the tsar and his officials, the Japanese ambassador in London, Count Tadasu Hayashi, secretly concluded a defensive alliance with Great Britain 12 . Russian diplomats were taken by surprise by this news. The two main adversaries in the Far East have joined forces, changing the political landscape in the Pacific region at once.

PETERSBURG CONFUSION CONTINUES

The ministers of Nicholas II hastily assured the world that the Russian troops would leave Manchuria in the near future. However, even here opinions in St. Petersburg were sharply divided. Count Lamsdorf and Witte believed that Manchuria should be returned as soon as possible. They predicted that the unwillingness to calm the atmosphere in the region would cause new unrest there 13 . This point of view was also supported by many Russians - for the simple reason that there are at least 14 problems at home. In addition, the "Kingdom of Witte" - the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) - flourished, and the military presence in Manchuria posed a serious threat to the plans of the Minister of Finance.

However, the idea of ​​retaining Manchuria for Russia had no less influential defenders. The military believed that Manchuria would become part of the Russian Empire like Khiva, Kokand and Bukhara, which were annexed in the second half of the 19th century 15 . The most prominent "hawk" was Admiral Evgeny Alekseev, who was in Port Arthur. This naval commander had authority not only in the Pacific Fleet, but also among the garrison of the Liaodong Peninsula. His irrepressible temperament and ambitions, together with rumors that Alekseev was the illegitimate son of Alexander II, ensured the enmity of many of his contemporaries. And above all, Sergei Witte, who saw him as a dangerous rival in the Russian Far East.

The pathologically indecisive Nicholas II hesitated. The confused and unstable policy of the empire sharply increased the hostility of other powers. Nevertheless, after a year of difficult negotiations with China, on April 8, 1902, Russia signed an agreement in Beijing, according to which the withdrawal of troops from Manchuria was to take place in three stages within 18 months 16 . On October 8, 1902, the first phase of the evacuation of troops began in the southern part of Fengtian Province, including in the ancient capital of the Qing Dynasty, Mukden (modern Shenyang). But the second stage, scheduled for April 1903, did not take place, the Russian dignitaries could not agree among themselves. Petersburg did not keep its word.

"VAIN NEGOTIATIONS"

In the summer of 1903, Russia and Japan again entered into debate, wanting to resolve their differences in East Asia. Moreover, the intractable Japanese Prime Minister Taro Katsura showed the initiative. By this point, the Russian line had hardened considerably as well, as the influence of Witte, the principled defender of peace in East Asia, had plummeted at court. The tsar called the hard line adopted in the spring of 1903 the "new course" 17 . Its goal was "to prevent the penetration of foreign influence into Manchuria in any form" 18 . Russia will emphasize its decisiveness, he wrote to Alekseev, as he embarks on a military and economic presence in East Asia.

Tired of the endless bickering among the ministers, Nikolai made two important decisions in the summer. On August 12, he appointed Admiral Alekseev as viceroy in the Far East, which in fact made him the personal representative of the tsar in the Pacific region with full power here 20 . And two weeks later, Nikolay removed Alekseev's main opponent, Sergei Witte, from the post of Minister of Finance 21 .

Alekseev's rise provoked a sharp reaction in Tokyo. Baron Roman Rosen, the Russian envoy, reported that in Japan the appearance of the governor of the Far East was perceived as an act of aggression 22 . The Japanese were particularly offended by the fact that the appointment came two weeks after their government had proposed to start a new round of negotiations.

Throughout 1903 European foreign ministers were bewildered, alarmed, and often irritated by the constant reversals of tsarist policy that were exposing Russia to ever greater international isolation. But a compromise was still possible even at this late stage. However, the king and his governor still did not take Japan seriously.

Nikolai, of course, did not consider endless negotiations a worthy reason to interrupt his long autumn trips abroad or hunting. And he believed that "there will be no war, because I don't want it" 24 . As a result of fruitless negotiations until the very winter, the Japanese cabinet finally came to the conclusion that a peaceful resolution of the conflict was impossible. On February 6, 1904, Foreign Minister Komura summoned Baron Rosen to his office to announce that the government had lost patience with all these "vain negotiations." Therefore, it decided to end them and break off diplomatic relations with Russia 25 .

Upon returning to his residence, the Russian envoy learned from the naval attaché that earlier that day, at 6 am local time, two Japanese squadrons had weighed anchor for unknown reasons. Shortly after midnight on February 8, 1904, Japanese destroyer torpedoes hit three Russian ships in the Port Arthur roadstead. Two empires are at war...

CONCLUSION

The Russo-Japanese War is often viewed as a classic imperialist conflict. This is only partly true. While expansionist goals have led Petersburg and Tokyo to disagree over Northeast Asia, such rivalry is not unique in an age of aggressive colonial warfare. In the decades since the 1880s and before the outbreak of the First World War, in Asia and Africa there were repeated clashes between the great states of Europe. However, none of them escalated into open war. Differences were invariably resolved by "diplomacy of imperialism," 27 an instrument for escaping colonial disputes that were gaining momentum at the end of the 19th century.

An unwritten code determined the relationship between the great powers of Europe. Although strictly fixed rules did not exist here, they were quite clear. Based on hard calculation and a sense of fair play, imperialism's diplomacy was effective. Critical to its success was the understanding by the great powers that they all had legitimate interests outside of Europe. And this line successfully saved countries from open struggle on other continents.

But the diplomacy of imperialism itself was not without flaws. Chief among these was the inability of states to recognize new developing non-European countries. Like an old-fashioned gentlemen's club, only European governments received membership. Thus, the tiny Belgian monarchy was considered a colonial power, while the ambitions of the United States or Japan were called into question. It was precisely this inability of a member of this club - Russia - to take seriously the colonial aspirations of an outsider - Japan - that on February 8, 1904, led to the outbreak of war in East Asia.

Tokyo saw how Petersburg trampled on his honor. And statesmen who do not properly respect the interests of other countries have put their own at serious risk. And more than a hundred years later, this conflict has not lost its relevance in international relations.

Translation by Evgenia Galimzyanova

Notes
1. This article is based on the chapter Russia s Relations with Japan before and after the War: An Episode in the Diplomacy of Imperialism from the book: The Treaty of Portsmouth and its Legacies. Steven Ericson and Alan Hockley, eds. Hanover, NH, 2008. P. 11-23, and also in my monograph: Schimmelpenninck van der Oye D. Toward the Rising Sun: Russian Ideologies of Empire and the Path to War with Japan. DeKalb, 2001.
2. Honor Among Nations: Intangible Interests and Foreign Policy. Elliot Abrams, ed. Washington, DC, 1998; Tsygankov A.P. Russia and the West from Alexander to Putin: Honor in International Relations. Cambridge, 2012. P. 13-27.
3. Wohlforth W. Honor as Interest in Russian Decisions for War 1600-1995 // Honor Among Nations...
4. Witte to Nicholas II, memorandum, August 11, 1900 // RGIA. F. 560. Op. 28. D. 218. L. 71.
5. Collection of treaties between Russia and other states in 1856-1917. M., 1952. S. 292-294.
6. Nish I. The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War. London, 1985. P. 45.
7. Rosen R.R. Forty Years of Diplomacy. Vol. 1. London, 1922. P. 159.
8. A.P. Izvolsky L.P. Urusov. Letter dated March 9, 1901 // Bakhmetevsky archive. Box 1.
9. V.N. Lamsdorf S.Yu. Witte, A.N. Kuropatkin and P.P. Tyrtov. Letter dated May 22, 1901 // GARF. F. 568. Op. 1. D. 175. L. 2-3.
10. Okamoto S. The Japanese Oligarchy and the Russo-Japanese War. N.Y., 1970. P. 24-31.
11. V.N. Lamsdorf, reports 11/20/1901 // GARF. F. 568. Op. 1. D. 62. L. 43-45; V.N. Lamsdorf to Nicholas II, memorandum, 11/22/1901 // Red Archive (M.-L.). 1934. T. 63. S. 44-45; V.N. Lamsdorf A.P. Izvolsky, telegram, 11/22/1901 // Ibid. pp. 47-48.
12. Nish I. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires 1894-1907. L., 1966. P. 143-228.
13. V.N. Lamsdorf A.N. Kuropatkin. Letter dated March 31, 1900 // RGVIA. F. 165. Op. 1. D. 759. L. 1-2. See also: A.N. Kuropatkin V.V. Sakharov. Letter dated July 1, 1901 // Ibid. D. 702. L. 2.
14. Suvorin A. Small letters. New time. 1903. February 22. S. 3; Chinese railway // New time. 1902. May 3. S. 2; Kravchenko N. From the Far East. // New time. 1902. October 22. C. 2.
15. For a good example of such opinions, see: I.P. Balashev to Nicholas II, memorandum, March 25, 1902 // GARF. F. 543. Op. 1. D. 180. L. 1-26.
16. Glinsky B.B. Prologue of the Russo-Japanese War: materials from the archive of Count S.Yu. Witte. Pg., 1916. S. 180-183.
17. Although Nikolai coined the term, B.A. Romanov popularized it among historians to describe the growing influence of Bezobrazov.
18. Romanov V.A. Russia in Manchuria. Ann Arbor, 1952. P. 284.
19. Ibidem.
20. Nicholas II E.I. Alekseev, telegram, September 10, 1903 // RGAVMF. F. 417. Op. 1. D. 2865. L. 31.
21. Nicholas II S.Yu. Witte, letter, August 16, 1903 // RGVIA. F. 1622. Op. 1. D. 34. L. 1.
22. Rosen R.R. Op. cit. Vol. 1. R. 219.
23. Gurko V.I. Facts and Features of the Past. Stanford, 1939. P. 281.
24. MacKenzie D. Imperial Dreams/Harsh Realities: Tsarist Russian Foreign Policy, 1815-1917. Fort Worth, 1994. P. 145.
25. Nish I. The Origins... P. 213.
26. Rosen R.R. Op. cit. Vol. 1. R. 231.
27. The phrase is taken from the title of William Langer's classic work on European diplomacy at the turn of the 20th century: Langer W.L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism. N.Y., 1956.

* Mikado is the oldest title of the secular supreme ruler of Japan.

The Russo-Japanese War arose from the ambition to carry out the expansion of Manchuria and Korea. The parties were preparing for war, realizing that sooner or later they would go to battles in order to resolve the “Far Eastern issue” between the countries.

Causes of the war

The main reason for the war was the clash of the colonial interests of Japan, which dominated the region, and Russia, which claimed the role of world power.

After the "Meiji Revolution" in the Empire of the Rising Sun, Westernization proceeded at an accelerated pace, and at the same time, Japan increasingly grew territorially and politically in its region. Having won the war with China in 1894-1895, Japan received part of Manchuria and Taiwan, and also tried to turn economically backward Korea into its colony.

In Russia, in 1894, Nicholas II ascended the throne, whose authority among the people after Khodynka was not at its best. He needed a "small victorious war" to win back the love of the people. There were no states in Europe where he could easily win, and Japan, with its ambitions, was ideally suited for this role.

The Liaodong Peninsula was leased from China, a naval base was built in Port Arthur, and a railway line was built to the city. Attempts through negotiations to delimit spheres of influence with Japan did not produce results. It was clear that it was going to war.

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Plans and tasks of the parties

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia had a powerful land army, but its main forces were stationed west of the Urals. Directly in the proposed theater of operations was a small Pacific Fleet and about 100,000 soldiers.

The Japanese fleet was built with the help of the British, and training was also carried out under the guidance of European specialists. The Japanese army was about 375,000 fighters.

The Russian troops developed a plan for a defensive war before the imminent transfer of additional military units from the European part of Russia. After creating a numerical superiority, the army had to go on the offensive. Admiral E. I. Alekseev was appointed commander-in-chief. The commander of the Manchurian army, General A.N. Kuropatkin, and vice-admiral S.O. Makarov, who assumed the post in February 1904, were subordinate to him.

The Japanese headquarters hoped to use the advantage in manpower to eliminate the Russian naval base in Port Arthur and transfer military operations to Russian territory.

The course of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905.

Hostilities began on January 27, 1904. The Japanese squadron attacked the Russian Pacific Fleet, which was stationed without much protection on the Port Arthur roadstead.

On the same day, the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets were attacked in the port of Chemulpo. The ships refused to surrender and took up battle against 14 Japanese ships. The enemy paid tribute to the heroes who accomplished the feat and refused to give up their ship to the delight of the enemies.

Rice. 1. The death of the cruiser Varyag.

The attack on Russian ships stirred up the broad masses of the people, in which even before that “hat-captive” moods were formed. Processions were held in many cities, even the opposition ceased its activities for the duration of the war.

In February-March 1904, the army of General Kuroka landed in Korea. The Russian army met her in Manchuria with the task of delaying the enemy without accepting a pitched battle. However, on April 18, in the battle of Tyurechen, the eastern part of the army was defeated and there was a threat of encirclement of the Russian army by the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Japanese, having an advantage at sea, carried out the transfer of military forces to the mainland and besieged Port Arthur.

Rice. 2. Poster The enemy is terrible, but God is merciful.

The first Pacific squadron, blockaded in Port Arthur, took the battle three times, but Admiral Togo did not accept the pitched battle. He was probably afraid of Vice Admiral Makarov, who was the first to use the new tactics of waging a naval battle "stick over T".

A great tragedy for Russian sailors was the death of Vice Admiral Makarov. His ship hit a mine. After the death of the commander, the First Pacific Squadron ceased to conduct active operations at sea.

Soon the Japanese managed to pull large artillery under the city and bring up fresh forces in the amount of 50,000 people. The last hope was the Manchurian army, which could lift the siege. In August 1904, she was defeated at the battle of Liaoyang, and it looked quite real. The Kuban Cossacks posed a great threat to the Japanese army. Their constant attacks and fearless participation in battles harmed communications and manpower.

The Japanese command began to talk about the impossibility to continue the war. If the Russian army went on the offensive, then it would have happened, but Commander Kropotkin gave an absolutely stupid order to retreat. The Russian army had many chances to develop the offensive and win the general battle, but Kropotkin retreated every time, giving the enemy time to regroup.

In December 1904, the commander of the fortress, R. I. Kondratenko, died and, contrary to the opinion of soldiers and officers, Port Arthur was surrendered.

In the company of 1905, the Japanese outstripped the Russian offensive, inflicting a defeat on them at Mukden. Public sentiment began to express dissatisfaction with the war, unrest began.

Rice. 3. Battle of Mukden.

In May 1905, the Second and Third Pacific Squadrons formed in St. Petersburg entered the waters of Japan. During the Battle of Tsushima, both squadrons were destroyed. The Japanese used new types of shells filled with "shimosa", melting the side of the ship, and not piercing it.

After this battle, the participants in the war decided to sit down at the negotiating table.

Summing up, we will summarize in the table “Events and dates of the Russo-Japanese War”, noting which battles took place in the Russo-Japanese War.

The last defeats of the Russian troops had grave consequences, resulting in the First Russian Revolution. It is not in the chronological table, but it was this factor that provoked the signing of peace against Japan, exhausted by the war.

Results

During the war years in Russia, a huge amount of money was stolen. Treasury in the Far East flourished, which created problems with the supply of the army. In the American city of Portsmouth, through the mediation of US President T. Roosevelt, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia transferred southern Sakhalin and Port Arthur to Japan. Russia also recognized Japan's dominance in Korea.

The defeat of Russia in the war was of great importance for the future political system in Russia, where the power of the emperor would be limited for the first time in several hundred years.

What have we learned?

Speaking briefly about the Russo-Japanese War, it should be noted that if Nicholas II had recognized Korea for the Japanese, there would have been no war. However, the race for colonies gave rise to a clash between the two countries, although back in the 19th century, the attitude towards the Russians among the Japanese was generally more positive than towards many other Europeans.

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