How to find common grammatical meaning. names of a girl or married woman: lady, miss, mrs, madam, fraulein, frau

In those cases where the dependent grammatical meaning causes a modification of the meaning of the form, it is one of the causes of variants of the main grammatical meaning, i.e. e. the so-called invariant. It is possible to determine the main grammatical meaning by examining the form in a very wide context or without any context at all. In other words, an invariant is a grammatical meaning that is not subject to change under the influence of a dependent grammatical meaning or any additional conditions.

1.0.5. Morphological means of conveying grammatical meaning. Morphological means of conveying grammatical meaning are contained in the form of a word, in other words, in the complex of its word forms. For inflectional languages, these are the following means:

1) Flexion, i.e. inflectional formant; inflection can be external, i.e. this is a suffix that carries a grammatical load: street-s, approach-ed; inflection can be internal, it is an alternation of vowels: foot- feet; find- found. In modern English there is a special type of inflection capable of forming units larger than one word form, i.e. e. phrases: that aunt and uncle's arrival. This is the so-called monoflex. Regular inflection joins the basics: that uncle's arrival. Monoflexion forms a combination of words, not bases, which allows us to consider it as a syntactic formant (1.2.6).

2) word forms grammatical series can be suppletive; in modern languages, in particular in English, these are surviving forms, but very persistent: to be- am - was; good- letter- the best.

3) Analytical Forms. Analytic forms arose later than inflection. They include at least one service and one lexically filled, but possibly more service components: is coming, has been asked, is being built.

Analytic forms are outwardly similar to phrases, and therefore it is important to point out some criteria for their recognition:

1) The general grammatical meaning is made up of a combination of all the components that make up this form; the auxiliary verb conveys more particular intra-paradigmatic meanings of the person and number (if these meanings are reflected in the form), but the common tense, voice and modal meaning is added only from all components together. At the same time, each component, taken separately, does not carry information about the general meaning of the form. So, has and given do not inform about the meaning of the perfect, just as had, been, sent.

2) Analytical forms have historically developed from syntactic combinations, mainly from certain types of compound predicate. They turned into analytical forms only when their grammatical association became so close that the syntactic relationship between them disappeared. A very important conclusion follows from this: there can be no syntactic relations between the components of an analytic form.

3) Syntactic relations with the environment in the text are possible only for the entire form as a whole; form components separately cannot have syntactic relations separately. Yes, combined was driving the car element the car is an addition to the entire verb form; in had often remembered element often is a circumstance to the predicate, expressed by the analytical form as a whole.

1. PARTS OF SPEECH
1.1. THEORY OF PARTS OF SPEECH

1.1.1. The theory of classification of parts of speech. The entire vocabulary of English, like all Indo-European languages, is divided into certain lexical and grammatical classes, traditionally called parts of speech. The existence of such classes is not in doubt among any of the linguists, although, as we will see below, their interpretation is not the same for different scientists.

The basic principles of this division into categories, which has existed since ancient times, were explicitly formulated by L.V. Shcherba: this is lexical meaning, morphological form and syntactic functioning. The divisions adopted in different schools do not coincide - both in the number of distinguished parts of speech and in their grouping - but the listed principles really underlie the allocation of word classes. Implicitly, however, in a number of cases (and in the most accepted classifications) the allocation of classes was not based on all of these three features simultaneously.

This is especially clear in relation to English, but it is also true in relation to inflectional languages. Below, when describing the individual parts of speech, we will dwell on this issue each time. Here we only mention those examples that are given in the article on this topic by M. I. Steblin-Kamensky. Numerals are united by their lexical meaning - the value of the exact amount. Otherwise, they behave like nouns or adjectives, with the same paradigm and syntactic positions. Pronouns differ in that, having an extremely generalized meaning, they point to any objects, creatures, abstract concepts, without naming them; otherwise they behave like nouns or adjectives. This kind of crossing, incompatible with strict logic, should not be surprising: not everything in the language fits into logical rules.

In linguistics, there are a number of attempts to build such a classification of parts of speech (lexico-grammatical categories) that would meet the basic requirement of logical classification, namely, would be based on one single principle. As we will see below, these attempts did not justify themselves. The classification of parts of speech continues to be a contentious issue; there are differences among linguists regarding the number and nomenclature of parts of speech.

G. Sweet, the author of the first scientific grammar of the English language, divides parts of speech into two main groups - changeable and unchangeable. Thus, he considers morphological properties to be the main principle of classification. Within the group of declinables, he adhered to the traditional division - nouns, adjectives, verbs. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are combined into a group of invariables ("indeclinables").

Along with this classification, however, Sweet proposes a grouping based on the syntactic functioning of certain classes of words. So, the group of nominal words (noun-words) includes, in addition to nouns, similar in functioning "nominal" pronouns (noun-pronouns), "nominal" numerals (noun-numerals), infinitive and gerund; the group of adjective words includes, in addition to adjectives, "adjective" pronouns (adjective-pronouns), "adjective" numerals (adjective-numerals) participles. The verb group includes personal forms and verbalities; here again the morphological principle turns out to be leading; all impersonal forms, as well as personal ones, have verbal categories of tense and voice.

Thus, verbals - infinitive and gerund - turn out to be classified as nominal words on the basis of their syntactic functioning, and according to their morphological properties, they also appear in the verb group.

As we can see, Sweet saw the inconsistency of the morphological and syntactic properties of parts of speech; but his attempt to create a coherent grouping led to the fact that lexically and morphologically united digits were fragmented according to syntactic features, and, on the other hand, fragments of lexically and morphologically dissimilar digits were combined. As for the “invariable” group, completely heterogeneous elements are combined in it: adverbs that are members of the sentence, and conjunctions, prepositions and interjections that are not; prepositions that function within predicative units, and conjunctions that connect predicative units.

O. Jespersen, a Danish linguist, author of the "Philosophy of Grammar", the multi-volume "Grammar of Modern English" and a number of other works, was fully aware of the difficulty of reconciling two basic principles - form and function, i.e. e. morphology and syntax without even considering the lexical meaning. He rightly notes that if morphology (changeability and immutability) is taken as the basis for classification, then words such as must, the, then, for, enough must be assigned to the same class; as shown above, this is indeed the weakest side of the Sweet classification.

Jespersen proposed a dual system: along with writing down the traditional parts of speech, which he considers in their morphological design and conceptual content, these same classes are analyzed from the point of view of their functioning in syntactic combinations (sentences and phrases). This or that word can be primary (primary), i.e. be the core of a phrase, or the subject of a sentence; secondary (secondary), i.e. directly defining the primary, and tertiary (tertiary), i.e. subordinate to the secondary. Yes, in the phrase a furiously barking dog noun dog- primary, barking, directly defining it is secondary, and the adverb furiously- tertiary. This is the so-called three-rank theory; Jespersen elaborates further on the relations conveyed by these ranks, as discussed below in the syntax section (2.2.6). However, Jespersen does not reject either the traditional division into parts of speech or the traditional syntactic positions. Thus, the theory of three ranks is in a somewhat intermediate position, between morphology and syntax, although, as can be seen from the above, it is closer to syntax. It is probably fair to say that the theory of three ranks is one of the first attempts to give a unified classification based on the position (function) of the word in units larger than the word; however, morphological classification, syntactic functions and three ranks overlap each other all the time, intertwining and creating redundant, unnecessary units of analysis. Among the works whose authors are trying to find a unified principle for classifying parts of speech, the book by Ch. K. Fries “The Structure of English” deserves special attention. Freese rejects the traditional classification and tries to build a class system based on the position of a word in a sentence. By means of substitution tables, Freese identifies four classes of words, traditionally called nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Thus, class 1 includes all words that can occupy the position of a word concert in a sentence The concert was good and words tax in offer The clerk remembered the tax; class 2 words take word position is/was, remembered in the same sentences; class 3 words are in position good in models The (good) concert was good, and left class 4 - in position there in the model

The is/was there

These models are broken down into subtypes, which we do not present here. Freese is consistent with the positional principle, and thus not only nouns belong to class 1, as can be deduced at first glance from the above diagram. Any word that can take a stand concert in the given example, belongs to class 1; as Freeze points out, class 1 includes any words that can take a position before words of class 2, i.e. e. before the verb in the personal form; yes, words man, he, the others, another belong to class 1, since they are able to take a position before the word of the second class came.

Creme of four classes, Freese distinguishes 15 groups. They also use a consistently positional principle, and words of the most diverse types fall into these groups. "Fries calls these groups "function words", and, indeed, some of the words included in these groups are, in general, very close to those categories that we we call the official parts of speech (1.11-15).

Yes, in a group BUT are all words capable of occupying a position the, i.e. to be a definition, or a determinant. Here is a list of words of one group column BUT, given by Freese: the, no, your, their, both, few, much, John "s, our, four, twenty ...

Freese points out that some of these words may appear in the position of class 1 words in other utterances, but this should not confuse the reader; the important thing is that they can all take a position the. We are not we will list here all the groups; we only point out that there are groups that include one or two words (groups C, H, N include words not, there - there is, please respectively). Morphological properties, as we see, are completely ignored, but syntactic functions, strictly speaking, are not taken into account: thus, modal verbs are separated from class 2 (full-valued verbs); group co-modal verbs AT act in the same predicative function, as well as lexically full-valued verbs.

It can be seen from the foregoing that Freese's attempt at classifying, while interesting in concept, does not reach its goal; he does not actually create a classification, and the proposed subdivision turns out to be very confusing, classes and groups mutually overlap, the same word appears in several digits. At the same time, Friz's material contains interesting data on the distribution of word categories and their syntactic valency. The calculation of the relative frequency of classes and groups is also interesting: groups containing mainly service parts of speech have a high frequency.

Freese is the only structuralist who tried to create a classification of lexico-grammatical categories on the basis of one consistently applied feature. J. Trager and G. Smith proposed a double classification - according to morphological paradigmatics and according to syntactic functions. This dual analysis is not absolutely parallel, but that is why it does not create a clear picture.

Below we will focus on the classifications proposed by the structuralists G. Gleason and J. Sledd.

G. Gleason rightly criticizes the usual school definitions of parts of speech based on their semantic content; in doing so, however, he overlooks the fact that the classification itself is implicitly based not on these definitions, but on the three features discussed at the beginning of this section. Gleason proposes a classification based on two formal features - morphological form and word order. He divides the entire vocabulary into two large groups: a group that has formal signs of inflection, and a group that does not have such signs. The first group naturally includes nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. However, strictly following the sign of the presence of a paradigm, Gleason excludes from this group all those words that, for one reason or another, do not have this paradigm. Yes, adjective beautiful does not belong to this group because it has no form *beautifuller, *beautifullest. The second group includes classes distinguished by positional features, but it also includes the words of paradigmatic groups excluded from them, as described above. So, beautiful, which occupies the same positions as the adjective fine, belongs to the second group; it belongs to a wider class called "adjectivals", which includes adjectives proper ("adjectives"). By the same token, "pronominals" is a broader class than "pronouns". Classes that occur in the same positions form "constituent" classes. However, Gleason does not define or list them exactly; it is also unclear whether he includes auxiliary parts of speech in these groups, although, apparently, he considers prepositions to be a special class.

It is easy to see that the classification proposed by Gleason is even less systematized than Frieze's classification: the same word can simultaneously belong to two classes, others to one; classes are not in a system relationship to one another.

J. Sledd's classification is very close to Gleason's principles. He also distinguishes between "inflectional" and "positional" classes. Basic positional classes: nominals, verbals, adjectivals, adverbials; they are joined by eight smaller classes: auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, various categories of pronouns. Here we find the same vague criteria as those of Gleason; some pronouns occupy the same positions as nouns, but are allocated to a special class; interrogative pronouns do not differ positionally from others (for example, demonstratives), but are clearly distinguished into a special class on the basis of their lexical meaning, etc. Sledd's classification is as unconvincing as the previous ones.

At the same time, one cannot ignore two very positive points in the theories of Gleason and Sledd. First, both of them note the importance of derivational affixes as indicators of parts of speech; secondly, and most importantly, both of these linguists drew attention to the heterogeneity of the properties of certain units within certain lexico-grammatical categories. It is on this that their proposed division into narrower groups is based, containing those units that, by all their features, have the right to be attributed to a given part of speech, and wider ones, which include units that have only a part of the necessary features.

Thus, all attempts to create a classification of language units based on a single principle have failed. The traditional classification is as good as (though perhaps not better than) anything that has been tried to replace it, and has the advantage of being widely known. We will therefore continue to proceed from the traditional classification, with one significant modification in the treatment of parts of speech within each group.

1.1.2. The theory of field structure of parts of speech. The complexity of the ratio of units within each part of speech, which was mentioned above and which was noticed by Gleason and Sledd, fits well into the theory of the grammatical field developed by V. G. Admoni on the material of the German language and set out in the book by G. S. Shchur “Field Theory in linguistics” (M., 1974) 1 . The morphological field theory is as follows. In each part of speech there are units that fully possess all the features of this part of speech; it is, so to speak, its core. But there are also units that do not have all the features of a given part of speech, although they belong to it. The field, therefore, includes central and peripheral elements, it is non-uniform in composition. The task of the linguist is to determine the composition of the field, to identify the central and peripheral elements and to determine in what ways they are close to other parts of speech.

1.1.3. Parts of speech significant and official. The largest subdivision of parts of speech is two large groups: significant and auxiliary parts of speech. significant parts

1 Semantic field theory was previously developed by I. Trier, L. Weisgerber and other Western linguists. The theory of the functional lexico-grammatical field is associated mainly with the names of Soviet linguists (E. V. Gulyga and E. I. Shendels, A. V. Bondarko, M. M. Gukhman), V, G, Admoni considers proper morphological fields, speeches include such units that have a lexical meaning, i.e. the concepts are called: table, dog, joy, strength; to bring, to cry, to enumerate; big, difficult; soon, well. In other words, they denote permanent denotations. Having a lexical meaning, the words of significant parts of speech are able to occupy one or another syntactic position in a sentence, i.e. function as members of a sentence, and also be the core of a phrase. Thus, when delimiting significant parts of speech from service ones, lexical and syntactic criteria coincide. Morphological properties also to a certain extent join them: only significant parts of speech have inflection. However, among significant parts of speech, not all have an inflectional paradigm; therefore, the morphological feature is not restrictive in all cases.

Service parts of speech do not have the property of being the subject of thought, i.e. e. do not have independent lexical meaning. Thus, such units as of, and, since, the, for they do not name separate concepts (cf. such words as relation, meaning etc., which name these concepts). The purpose of the service parts of speech in the language is to indicate certain relationships between the words of the significant parts of speech, between sentences or phrases, or to clarify the grammatical meaning of the significant parts of speech: the color of the sky, dogs and cats, the dog, a dog.

The allocation of certain parts of speech, both significant and official, is debatable; there are such “basic” parts of speech, the existence of which no linguist doubts (for example, a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb); among the service parts of speech, there is no doubt the existence of such categories as prepositions, conjunctions. On the other hand, much remains doubtful regarding the legitimacy of singling out words of the category of state and, in part, modal words in significant parts of speech; the boundaries of particles in the group of auxiliary parts of speech are not entirely clear. Not all linguists agree with the allocation of articles as a service part of speech; it may be doubtful to classify the postpositive as a service part of speech.

It is necessary to clearly distinguish between service parts of speech and service words. Functional words belong to significant parts of speech, but under certain conditions they lose their lexical content and retain only their grammatical function. Auxiliary verbs are the most typical case of this kind. These are verbs capable of performing with their own lexical content, for example, the verb have in a sentence I have a new television set. However, in the form of the perfect, the same verb loses its lexical meaning, acting as an auxiliary : I have lost my gloves. At the same time, it does not turn into a service part of speech, but functions as a service word.

NOUN

The grammatical meaning of a noun.

A noun is a significant part of speech that has the meaning of objectivity. Objectivity - a grammatical meaning, due to which verbal units - the names of both objects proper and non-objects (abstract concepts, actions, properties, etc.) - function in the language in a similar way to the names of objects proper. Derivational means of verbal, adjective nouns create an opportunity for the names of states, properties, qualities, etc. to function syntactically along with the names of objects: movement, strangeness, activity. These formations are called syntactic derivatives. Their morphological functioning is in many cases limited: not all syntactic derivatives are able to participate in the morphological categories of the name. This is one of the most important features of the field structure of a noun.

1.2.2. Word formation of a noun. The inflectional apparatus of nouns is very poor. As for its morphemic structure, it should be noted here that a one-syllable structure is very common, in which the root, stem and word coincide in sound design (although they differ functionally). At the same time, the noun has a word-formation apparatus, which is much more diverse than the apparatus of inflection. In grammatical terms, this is important because suffixes, in addition to their semantic function, are indicators that a given word belongs to nouns.

The suffix structure is observed mainly in two large groups: in person nouns and in abstract nouns.

The following face suffixes are most characteristic: -er, -ist, -ess, -her- singer, naturalist, authoress, legatee. Of the suffixes of abstract nouns, the most characteristic are: -ness, -ion, (-ation, -ition), -ity, -ism, -ance, -ment- lateness, rotation, ignition, security, socialism, elegance, movement.

Note: Only the most common suffixes are listed here. The frequency is set according to the book "The structure of the English noun" (M., 1975).

1.2.3. Noun subclasses. Nouns are divided into common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are a generalized name for any object denoted by them: river can refer to any river, dog- to any dog pleasure- to any feeling of pleasure. Proper names, in contrast, do not have a generalizing conceptual content; they are the name, the nickname of individual individual creatures or objects, they are assigned specifically to this individual, but do not apply to other similar phenomena. So, John- most likely the name of a male person, but, in fact, it can also be assigned to a dog, elephant, etc .; spot can be the name of a dog, cat, horse, etc.; the Cutty Sark- the name of the famous English clipper (high-speed ocean vessel), but it does not contain an indication of this reference and could be the name of a cafe, cinema, cottage. Proper names are not devoid of grammatical categories inherent in common nouns; However, grammar is primarily concerned with common nouns that have a generalizing meaning.

Since nouns objectively name any phenomena of linguistic reality, they are represented by a wide variety of lexical groups. Interacting with grammatical categories, these groups create a branched field structure of the noun.

The set of morphological grammatical categories of a noun is very poor. Undoubtedly there is a category of number. The existence of the category of case is extremely controversial. The grammatical category of gender does not exist in English.

1.2.4. The problem of the category of the genus. The category of gender in English disappeared completely by the end of the Middle English period. The designation of biological sex exists in the language, but purely lexical or word-building means are used: boy- girl, cock- hen, bull- cow; waiter- waitress, lion- lioness; he-goat- she-goat. The same is observed in a number of Indo-European languages when denoting gender differences: teacher-nitsa, doctor-sha, tiger-itsa; German Lowe- Lowin, Lehrer- Lehrerin.

B. Strang, author of Modern English Structure, and several other authors argue that English has a category of noun gender on the grounds that it is possible to substitute a name with a pronoun indicating biological sex or inanimateness: he, she, it. This point of view seems completely unacceptable, since we are talking about the substitution of the name by another part of speech and the transfer of the feature of this other part of speech to a noun that does not have this feature. And for pronouns, the indicated meaning is purely lexical and has nothing to do with the grammatical meaning.

1.2.5. Number category. The main meaning of the category of number is the opposition of singleness and plurality of objects. Multiplicity means more than one. The singular number is transmitted in the base form, i.e. e. a form that has no endings and coincides with the stem (1.0.1.) The plural is indicated in writing by the formant -s, which is realized as a series of allomorphs - /z/, /s/, /iz/ depending on the nature of the final sound of the base (dogs/z/, potatoes /z/; books, cats/s/; classes, bushes/iz/). Such is the productive inflectional pattern of the plural form; it can be called an "open model", since new words that appear in the language are formed in the plural in this way.

Authors seeking to maximally formalize the description of the language, in particular structuralists, usually consider the absence of an ending in the singular as the presence of a zero suffix. However, the null suffix is not a morpheme, i.e. e. a linearly distinguishable segment having a sound form (1.0.1). It seems, however, possible to speak of the zero exponent (1.0.1) without writing it as a morpheme.

Along with the open model, there are a number of closed groups; the nouns included in them form plural forms with the help of unproductive means assigned only to these nouns. These are suffixes that function only within these groups: a) suffix -ep, attached to two nouns - oxen, children; b) suffixes of Latin plural forms, borrowed together with those nouns that they formed in Latin : -i (nucleus- nuclei); -a (stratum- strata); -ae (antenna- antennae). The list of these nouns is small, and, what is very important, nouns that are in wide use appear in Proper English forms: along with termini- the form terminuses; as well as antennae- antennas. Descriptivists Harris, Hockett and others consider the suffix -en as an allomorph (variant) of a morpheme s/z based on their same function; Obviously, if we accept this point of view, the above endings of Latin borrowings should also be included here. Such a point of view is possible only if the morpheme is defined as a purely functional element, regardless of its sound design. Meanwhile, the allomorph is established on the basis of the sound and semantic community (1.0.1). On the other hand, the functional commonality of the various plural suffixes cannot be denied. We propose the term "functional synonyms", which will denote certain grammatical means that are functionally similar, but are not allomorphs.

Noun is a part of speech that names an object and answers questions "who what?". Nouns have a number of features with which you can classify all nouns by type.

The main features of the noun.

The grammatical meaning of a noun- the general meaning of the subject, everything that can be said about this subject: this what ? Or who ? This part of speech can mean the following:

1) The name of objects and things ( table, ceiling, pillow, spoon);

2) Names of substances ( gold, water, air, sugar);

3) Names of living beings ( dog, person, child, teacher);

4) Names of actions and states ( murder, laughter, sadness, sleep);

5) The name of the phenomena of nature and life ( rain, wind, war, holiday);

6) Names of features and abstract properties ( white, fresh, blue).

Syntactic sign of a noun is the role it occupies in the sentence. Most often, a noun acts as a subject or object. But in some cases, nouns can also act as other members of the sentence.

Mum cooks delicious borscht (subject).

Borscht is prepared from beets, cabbage, potatoes and others vegetables (addition).

Beet is vegetable red, sometimes purple (nominal predicate).

Beet from the garden- the most useful (definition).

Mum- chef knows how to surprise his household at the table, mom- friend able to listen and comfort (Appendix).

Also, a noun in a sentence can act as appeals:

Mum, I need your help!

By lexical Nouns can be of two types:

1. Common nouns- these are words that mean general concepts or name a class of objects: chair, knife, dog, earth.

2. Proper names- these are words meaning single objects, which include names, surnames, names of cities, countries, rivers, mountains (and other geographical names), animal names, names of books, films, songs, ships, organizations, historical events, and the like: Barsik, Weaver, Titanic, Europe, Sahara and etc.

Features of proper names in Russian:

Proper names are always capitalized.
Proper names have only one number form.
Proper names can consist of one or more words: Alla, Viktor Ivanovich Popov, "Loneliness in the Net", Kamensk-Uralsky.
Titles of books, magazines, ships, films, paintings, etc. written in quotation marks and capitalized: "Girl with Peaches", "Mtsyri", "Aurora", "Science and Technology".
Proper names can become common nouns, and common nouns can move into the category of proper names: Boston - Boston (a type of dance), though - the Pravda newspaper.

By type of item nouns are divided into two categories:

1. Animated nouns- those nouns that denote the names of wildlife (animals, birds, insects, people, fish). This category of nouns answers the question "who?": father, puppy, whale, dragonfly.

2. Inanimate nouns- those nouns that refer to the real and answer the question "what?": wall, board, machine, ship and etc.

By value Nouns can be divided into four types:

Real- kind of nouns naming substances: air, dirt, ink, sawdust etc. This kind of nouns has only one form of number - the one that we know. If a noun is singular, then it cannot be plural, and vice versa. The number, size, volume of these nouns can be adjusted using cardinal numbers: few, many, few, two tons, cubic meter and etc.

Specific- nouns that name specific units of objects of living or inanimate nature: man, pole, worm, door. These nouns change in number and combine with numerals.

Collective- these are nouns that generalize many identical objects into one name: many warriors - an army, a lot of leaves - foliage etc. This category of nouns can exist only in the singular and cannot be combined with cardinal numbers.

Abstract (abstract)- these are nouns that name abstract concepts that do not exist in the material world: suffering, joy, love, grief, fun.

the meaning of the subject. Depending on the specific meaning, several groups of nouns are distinguished: ko and kreg and e (magazine, pine, crow)", material (oil, sugar, water); abstract (reading, courage, kindness, blueness); collective (children, youth, students).
Morphological (or grammatical) features of a noun: gender, number, case, declension.
Syntactic features: can be any member of the sentence.
Indicate1 to which group (concrete, personal, abstract, collective) these1 nouns belong according to ph.tex and co-grammatical meaning.
House, ocean, work, time, beauty, child, silver, dawn. jam, ink, youth, courage, hero, heroism, singing, intelligentsia, collection, powder, water, joy, animal, summer, oil, children, heaven, children, spirits, crocodile. birch, foliage, greenery, berry, raspberry, fish.
Read an excerpt from L. Pushkin's posture. Name her. Determine the syntactic role of nouns in this poetic passage.
Winter! The peasant, triumphant, renews the path on the 11 logs: Where the horse, spending the night in snow, Weaves at a trot somehow; Exploding fluffy reins, A daring wagon flies; In a sled - "Zhuchka®" having planted, Transforming himself into a hoard.
The scamp has already frozen his finger: It hurts and it's funny, And his mother threatens him through the window ...
Distribute nouns according to lexical and grammatical groups.
2. Define the words according to the way they originate.
137. Read a poem by A. Akhmatova. Make a complete morphological analysis of nouns. I asked the cuckoo. How many years will I live... The tops of the pines trembled, A yellow beam fell into the grass.
11o pi sound in the thicket fresh ... I'm going home,
And the cool wind undead My hot forehead. Select from the studied works of literature examples of the use of nouns in the role of various members of the sentence: subject, predicate, secondary members.
Read and write the text, insert the missing punctuation marks. Indicate the author and title of the work.
What artistic details used in the text did you pay attention to? How do they characterize the characters in this text?
Let's see what category of milk. .nourishing .x belongs to ..t this person g..v..ril the next day Arkad ..yu Bazarov, rising with him but, tes? ic .. hotels ... in which Odintsova stayed. my nose is right there (not. pi) well.
I wonder you! - v.khlikknul Arkady, - How? You, you, Bazarov, hold on to that narrow morality... which...
What a freak you are! - (no, nn) interrupted Bazarov carelessly. - Do you (don't, ni) know that in our dialect., and for your brother "not okay" means "okay"? Please..you have, then. (No, pi) yourself (whether) you said since today that she was stra (n, nn) about married (?). Although, in my opinion, marrying a rich old ..ka is (neither, not) a little (not, nor) strange, but, on the contrary, good .. reasonable. I believe in urban rumors (not, not); but I like to think as the educated governor tells us that they are fair.
Arkady (neither, not) answered anything (neither, not) and p.. knocked on the door of the room. A young servant in livery ..1 led both friends ..lei into a large room furnished (n, nn) badly, like all rooms in Russian cities, but tired (n, nn) with flowers. Soon, Odintsova herself appeared in a simple morning (and.! -sh) we "pay, She seemed even younger .. in light .. weight (and, nnkto eo? nza. Arkady pr .. gave her Bazarov and with with secret surprise, he noticed that he seemed (as if) embarrassed, while Odintsova remained perfectly calm (but) yesterday.
D, 1 1- Select from the given text 2-3 words of significant Ifc ^ J parts of speech and make І with their morphological analysis.
2. What types of types can be attributed to the selected ЇЇ text expression? Give your examples.
Write out the nouns in groups depending on their lexicographical magical meaning: real, concrete, abstract, collective.
Prepare to write under the dictation of this text.
The division into animate and inanimate entities does not always coincide with the division of everything that exists in nature into living and non-living things. So. the words doll, dead, thuja, jack, trump card, wood goblin, idol are referred to as animated. And the words people, crowd, children, flock, group, youth, peasantry, company - to the inanimate.
The names of the heavenly bodies are inanimate nouns, but the same words as the names of the gods are animate: to study Jupiter, to honor Jupiter.
140. Determine the gender of nouns. Name the words of the general gender, make phrases or sentences with them in two versions: referring to female and male persons.
Joy, tulle, depot, coffee, name, mouse, teacher, work, little house, insect, rentier, smart girl, chimpanzee, engineer, doctor, hairdresser, attache, master, bully, kangaroo, touchy, professor, ledp, Baku, Kaprp, muddler, jury, popsicle, Sochi, personally, comrade, turkey, Mississippi, university..
G] "! Most of the indeclinable nouns1 th are the words L-LJ of the middle gender, naming inanimate objects (cocoa, cafe, menu). The masculine gender includes words denoting males (maestro, entertainer), the feminine feminine gender (Miss, lady).
The genus of compound words is determined according to the genus of the leading word: AND TA - news and television agency.
74
From these words, write out the nouns that have the form: a) only the plural: b) only the singular.
Money, twilight, honey, youth, twenty-four hours, bills, gates, cold, porcelain, enmity, youth, milk, yeast, games, holidays, glasses, seekers, grief, whitewash, skates, stockings, scissors, psaltery, goats, windows, cabbage soup, abacus, relatives, teachers. humidity, laughter, linen, dream, happiness.
Learn to distinguish between the endings -с, -and v of nouns of different declensions.
The ending -i is written:
in the first declension of the genus. hope: from a song;
in the III declension, genus., dates. and suggestion. cases: from envy, in life;
in noun prepositions. case units hours, if the ending is preceded by the letter and: in a sanatorium, about the army;
in nouns ending in -mya in dates. and suggestion. cases: to the flame, about the flame.
The ending -e is written:
j 1) in the I declension of dates. and suggestion. hopes (except for the noun on j lla): to the hut, about the gallery:
j 2) in the II declension of the preposition. case (except for the noun in -y, -we): j in the house, about the sea.
Write down, explain the spelling of case endings -e, -and for nouns.
On a sandbar .., from a birch grove .., in my notebook .., the name of an interesting book .., in a large building .. conservatory .., call me by name .., was in the library .., served in the army .., went to an overcoat .., ra..skaz..val about ra..vedk... new building.., went to the main square..d.. capitals.., nodosh..l to the site.. , on the cover .. of notebooks .., on the first page., of books .., on the bottom., branches .. green ate .., on the bottom vegv .., unala from branches .., participated in the competition .. vani .. , in the championship ... was in school ... in the theater .., on the streets .., walked on the ox .., in the city .., was in the planetarium .., flew in the sky .., swam in the sea .. , needed bread .., in salt .., you can buy .., in food and .., I thought about interesting places .., I forgot about sadness .., oh no, no .. know .., about sad lime. ., from weeks .. to weeks .., strength in united .., all in position .. lot .., on the native side to ... was on a tree .., stood at the banners .., told about the captain .. .. about his bitterness .., lay on the decks .., drew from pictures .., overjoyed ... was in Romania .., love for Rodin .. .
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f 11 To check the spelling of noun endings L^J, select words of the same declension, but with an accent on the ending, and substitute them in the place of the word being checked. For example: to the height .. - cherry - earth - to the earth - to the cherry; in a notebook .. - notebook - steppe - in the steppe - in a notebook. Masculine and neuter nouns have the same case endings.
Determine the theme of the proverbs. Which one is the most significant for you? Using this rule, check the spelling of the endings.
1. The word source .. penitent .. from the heart
In a smart b..sed.
Kind silence is better than a bad grumble. 5. Where there are many weeds, there is little bread, where there are many words, there is little wisdom. 7. The wound from the saber .. ignites .. and the brine from the tongue bleeds.
Put the nouns in the genitive case m and o gesture in c and o number.
Apricot, apple, contract, tangerine, towel, fable, tomato, poker, saucer, boot, rail, saber, northerner, gram, soldier, Tatar, Minsker, Tajik, sock, son, friend, chicken, kilogram, nobleman, gorge, dress, leaf, prince, husband, log.
145*. Put these nouns in the instrumental case. Find the difference in endings. Formulate a rule.
Poet A. S. Pushkin, city of Pushkin, composer A. P. Borodin, nole Borodino, writer A. P. Chekhov, city of Chekhov, A. I. Herzen, Charles Darwin, stirrup, mother, way, neighbor, time.
Let's name some suffixes of nouns: the meaning of a person by type of activity; tools, devices
abstract value 11 not 3) -ishk(a), -shch(e),
-burn(P).
diminutive
-vnok(?), -ushk(a), -chik(a), -enk(a)
The most common prefixes are listed in the "Word Formation" section.
146. Write down 2-3 nouns with suffixes meaning: a) profession, person; b) diminutive: c) object; d) distracted. Select the stem and all morphemes of the word. Determine the declension of written nouns.
147. Read verse passages from the works of Russian poets. Name their authors. Highlight the noun suffixes. What meaning do they give to words? What do these texts have in common? Find comparisons in the texts of TT and III, open them and expressive meaning will be depicted. I. Girls, beauties,
Darlings, girlfriends2, Play around, girls; Take a walk, darlings! Tighten the song, The cherished song, Lure he mod od i w To our round dance. How do we lure the young man
As we see from afar, Run away, dear, Throw cherries, Cherries, raspberries, Red currants, lie go to eavesdrop Treasured songs, Do not go to peep "Our girlish games. P. In Holy Russia, our mother,
Do not find, do not find such a beauty: Walks smoothly - like a swan; Looks sweet - like a dove; He says a word - the nightingale sings; Her ruddy cheeks are burning, Like the dawn in God's heaven; Fair-haired, golden braids, Braided in bright ribbons, Running over the shoulders, wriggling, Kissing with white breasts. In the family she was born a merchant, Nicknamed Alena Dmitrevna. III. This morning, together with the sun Already out of those dark thickets, A snow-white swan floated out like a dawn.
Near the green coast, Tilting their gentle heads, Lilies whispered With low-pitched brooks.
Behind, a slender band of swans moved,
II the mirror-like surface was crushed into emerald rings.
^ ""Ch 1. Produce phonetic. derivational and mor-
phological analysis of selected words.
2. Find words in which there is a spelling: spelling of vowels after hissing and c. Explain their spelling.
The general grammatical meaning of the adjective is LLJ, the sign of the subject.
Morphological features - change in gender, numbers, cases. Agrees with the noun.
Syntactic signs - in a sentence it can be a definition or a predicate.
Three categories of adjectives are distinguished according to their meaning: qualitative, relative, possessive.
Qualitative ones are called "a sign by size (large), age (old), color (white), weight (light), appearance (beautiful), internal qualities (kind), etc.
Relative ones indicate the material from which the object is made (glass wall), indicate the sign of the object in relation to the place (Moscow streets), to the time (winter morning), to the purpose of the object (sportswear), to the action) (washing machine) .
Possessives designate the sign of an object by its belonging to any person or animal (father's hat, fox tail).
Their suffixes are: -ii (-yn), -ov (-ev), -ig/ (-i).
An adjective can change its meaning. So, the relative adjective bear in the phrase bear coat can become a quality bear walk, possessive - bear lair.
149*. I. Form irrelatives from the indicated words, make phrases with them, using them in the meaning of qualitative, relative, possessive (where possible).
Sample: squirrel - squirrel; squirrel hollow, squirrel coat.
Bird, tree, fox, pearl, silver, apple tree, old man, rain, brother, fog, gold, sailor.
II. Distribute phrases depending on the category of adjectives.
Clay jug, velvet curtain, velvet voice, cordial meeting, heartache, winter evening, steep mountain, steep character, gray dress, gray performance, sports shoes, athletic gait, dense forest, dense man, swan down, swan song, disservice, bear lana, bear fur coat, green hat, blue sky, blue dreams, blue eyes.
fy! Kachssgvennys adjectives have - the bottom of the form - full k "n short (old - old, beautiful - beautiful).
Relative adjectives have only the full form (winter, yesterday).
Possessive adjectives in the nominative have only a short form, in other cases both forms.
In short adjectives, after hissing at the end of the word, the word is not written b: good, odorous, hot.
Short adjectives do not change gyu cases.
150. Read an excerpt from the story of V. Korolenko "The forest is noisy." Write out the phrases “adjective + noun*, indicate the gender, number, case of adjectives. Name the adjectives according to their grammatical categories. Write a miniature essay “Hello, light stars of the fluffy, first snow” (11. Turgenev), use all categories of adjectives.
The forest roared...
There was always noise in this forest - rovit.li. lingering, as otg. dalyg boards. ringing, calmer and embarrassing .. th, how quiet .. I am a song without words, no matter how (ne, ne) yasp .. a memory of the past. "4
There was always a noise in it, because it was an old ... dense .. boron, which (not, np) to .. sit still drinking and so .. since the forest-peak? young lady. Tall, centennial pines from the edge., mighty, about the oxen and stood gloomy;., the army, tightly closing at the top of the green. (B) it was quiet below, it smelled of tar; through the canopy of pine trees. , pi) moveable, (neither, not) move in a leaf. In the damp, the corners stretched tall, green stems, ladders; white, porridge bent over with heavy heads. as (as if) in a quiet, languor. And (in) the top, (without) a koitsa and a break, pulled with a lei., Noise, as if disturbing., Sighs of the old.
Before the suffix -k-, after the consonant (except for й and shi- LU of the sleeping one), a fluent vowel o (low - low) appears, in other cases - e (clear. - clear). Adjectives are sharp, cunning, strong, smart, you need to remember, like adjectives without fluent vowels: brave, kind, cheerful, generous, wise, quick, swarthy, etc.
The form pa -snen is formed by adjectives with a stressed suffix -enn (y) (except for timely - timely and blessed blapsen).
151. Form short forms from the indicated adjectives. Group the adjectives according to the method of forming a short degree. Make a conclusion. Can all adjectives be shortened?
Good, bright, hot, smart, friendly, clear, wise, red, flying, cunning, sonorous, boring, evil, interesting, friendly, sharp, powerful, strong, blessed. red, elegant, small, ordinary, timid, lilac, mysterious, majestic, buckskin, thief .. sing, instant, peppy, soft, useful, unchanged, ancient, native.
152". Read the text from M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin's story "The History of a City". What words and phrases do you consider key here?
Briefly describe that part of the history of the city of Gdunov, which is associated with Alena Osinova. Give your interpretation of the ending of the chapter "Hungry City", where this passage is taken from. Insert missing punctuation marks.
The fact is that at this very time to leave., From the city, in the sl..bod. a tin of that sweet Russian k., beauties., at a glance .. on which a person (not, pi) sunbaths? With an average height, she was plump, white and ruddy; had big .. gray .. bulging eyes. ., cherry., lips, thick .., well-defined (and, and) eyebrows, (dark) blond braid to toe and walked the streets., "gray duck ..y" Her husband, Dmitry Prokofiev, was engaged in a yamshchina6 and was also a match for women ..: he was young, strong and handsome. He went to and foxes ..6 prying on a k..g> and in poyarkov .. "greshnevikov6, blossomed (n, nn) with feather feathers. And Dmitry (no, no) looked for a shower., in Aleik .., and Alenka (no, no) looked for a shower., in Dmitr... spread songs together there. agree, life.
153. Indicate where these passages come from. Write out the phrases “adjective + noun” from the texts. Determine the gender, number, case of adjectives.
Give a description of short adjectives, indicate their stylistic and syntactic role in the sentence.
I. So, she was called Tatyana. Neither by the beauty of her sister, nor by the freshness of her ruddy face, would she attract the eyes. Dika, sad, silent, Like a timid doe in the forest, She seemed to be a stranger in her own family.
P. To tell the truth, young woman Indeed, she was a queen: Tall, slender, white, And with her mind, and took everything; But she is proud and stubborn. Selfish and jealous.
III. How i om but he was silent. How ardently eloquent, How careless in heartfelt letters!
How swift and gentle his gaze was, Bashful and impudent...
The spelling of adjective endings is checked with
The power of the question: you need to find the noun on which it depends, and from this noun ask a question to the adjective. The ending of the question will tell you the ending of the adjective:
what? ym (-im)
(in, about) what? ohm (-em)
to a to o g o? -th (-his)
Adjectives in the masculine gender in them. and wine. cases in an unstressed ending is written -y (-y).
154. Check the endings of adjectives with questions: if the question is what? - define gender.
Not frail .. cricket .. to behind the stove
I would like a transparent river to run through my native land. Bud..t morning will sound like a sedge. The earth will straighten up. I would like to stand high as a mountain .. In the border .. region. Surrounded by .. colorful expanses, Blessed .. thankful .. of human love, I would like a wheat .. field To the horizon pr .. fall cheek ...
(S. Ostr o v o d.)
Form 5 adjectives in the following ways: 1) only by adding a prefix: 2) using suffixes; 3) in a prefixed-suffixal way: 4) by adding the bases. Select all morphemes in words.
gooch When prefixes are added not-, without-, de-, anti- to nri- Li-J adjectives, they get a meaning opposite to the meaning of the original word, as a result antonyms appear.
By adding a prefix, a word with a meaning close to “very” is transformed.
Write down at least 10 phraseological expressions containing adjectives from any phraseological dictionary. Give them a complete morphological description.
157*. Write out from the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language (any edition) phrases with adjectives: golden, wolf, swan, copper, lead, in which these adjectives would be first relative, then qualitative. Choose synonyms for quality adjectives.
Nn is written in adjectives:
LA^ 1) formed from nouns with the help of suffixes -enn-, -oni-, cranberry, artificial, pension:
formed from adjectives with the help of the suffix -enn-: tall, hefty;
formed from nouns with a basis on n + suffmks -k-: length + n - long, true + n - true;
formed from nouns in -mya: time - temporary, flame - fiery (from the indirect case - "/.);
5) formed from prefixed verbs: worn coat, accelerated pace.

It only seems at first glance that a noun is a very simple part of speech. In fact, it has many variants of spelling, pronunciation and use. The general grammatical meaning of the noun and all the most important points will be noted in this article. Everything you need to know about this part of speech will be outlined here so as not to make stupid mistakes in pronunciation and writing. Some do not know what is the role of a noun in a sentence. We will understand in more detail in our article.

What is this part of speech

First of all, you should analyze the general grammatical meaning of the noun. There shouldn't be any problems here. Since everyone knows that a noun refers to independent parts of speech and denotes an object. You can ask him only two questions: who? or what?

It should be remembered that a noun can mean:

things (for example, a computer, wardrobe, telephone);
people (woman, man, child, youth);
substances (tea, borscht, milk);
all living beings (dog, horse, tiger, microbe);
various events and natural phenomena (hurricane, rain, war);
various actions, properties of substances, features (beauty, jump, anger).

Thus, the general grammatical meaning of the noun will not cause difficulties in learning. The rule is easy to remember. All elementary school children know him.

Discharges

If the general grammatical meaning of the noun is clear, then you can proceed to the next section, which will tell you more about this part of speech. The noun is divided into four categories:

Own.
Common nouns.
Animated.
Inanimate.

First of all, you should consider your own and common nouns.

From the first name, we can conclude that proper nouns are specific names that can only denote one object or person and nothing else.

This includes not only the names of people, but also the names of animals, as well as the names of the ancient gods, which students often forget about. Also included in this list are the names of cities and countries, as well as other geographical objects. Further names of planets, galaxies and all other astronomical names. Also, proper nouns include the names of all holidays, the names of enterprises and organizations, public services, etc.

It is important not to lose the boundaries between the names Since the Russian language allows the transition of a common noun into a proper one and vice versa.

Next come animate and inanimate nouns. Here the situation is a little simpler. In this section, the main thing to remember is that only people and animals can be animated. All other nouns are inanimate.

It is also worth remembering that when an animate noun is pluralized, the accusative and genitive forms are the same. And for inanimate in the plural, the form of accusative and nominative is the same.

Case category

This section provides for the division of a noun into inflected and indeclinable. The second group includes a small number of words that have the same form in any case. All other words are declined by cases and change their word form.

Number category

The noun has three groups of numbers:

words that have two forms: both singular and plural: finger - fingers;
words that appear only in the singular: cereals, peas, carrots;
noun only in the plural: day, perfume, rake.

Genus category

The category of gender has nouns that can be put in the singular form. They can be divided into masculine, feminine and neuter. There is a separate group of nouns that belong to the common gender, but there are not so many of them.

To determine the gender of a noun, it is necessary to coordinate it with an adjective, verb, or participle.

An interesting category is the common gender. This includes about 200 words of the Russian language. All of them are in most cases related to colloquial speech. These are words that are in the nominative singular and end in -a. Usually they characterize an object or person on some basis. They give speech some colors and emotions. To make it clearer, these words include: drunkard, glutton, crybaby and others.

In Russian, there are some words, the gender of which is problematic to determine. It is recommended to simply remember such words so as not to make mistakes. One such word is coffee. Many refer to it as neuter, but no. "My coffee" is always masculine.

declination

In Russian, there are three nouns into which nouns are divided. Determining the declension of a noun is quite simple, you just need to remember the gender category and the ending.

So, the first declension includes masculine and feminine nouns, which in the nominative case have the ending -a, -я. The second declension is masculine nouns that do not have endings, or, as Russian language teachers say, they have a zero ending and a neuter gender with the ending -o, -e. And the third declension is nouns of the female gender, which do not have an ending.

The use of nouns in artistic speech

The use of nouns in artistic speech is a very important point. Unfortunately, the school curriculum does not provide for the consideration of such a topic, but it is extremely necessary for students. Often in high school, students begin to make mistakes in essays and find it difficult when the teacher asks to find a metaphor in the text that is expressed by a noun.

In general, in a literary text a noun can be not only a metaphor. It can give the text certain colors, emotions, expression. Teachers need to focus on this to make it easier for children to compose essays and analyze literary texts.

Conclusion

The article described in detail the general grammatical meaning of the noun, its categories, declensions and usage options.

You should pay attention to nouns only in the plural, such words need to be known by heart. Pay special attention to gender and declensions.

If you take the process of learning the language with all responsibility, then you will not have serious problems.