How to distinguish truth from lies if you do not see a person? How to distinguish lies from truth? How to determine truth from lies.

To determine what is true and what is false, pay attention to how people form their stories about the events that happened in their lives. As it turns out, there is a big difference between how we talk about events that actually happened and those that were made up.

Any story can be divided into a prologue, main part and epilogue. Today I will tell you about the experience of Avinoam Sapir, who dealt with the psychology of liars. He is a former Israeli police officer and is an expert on the subject, and he also developed the System for Scientific Content Analysis (SCAN). His system is designed to detect deception in written statements.

Sapir notes that real stories taken from real memories are not usually told in chronological order, but all three parts are bound to be in the narrative.

The more drama in the story, the less chronology in the structure of the story. Why? Because our emotions drive our memories. The more strongly we experience the event, the more likely we are to forget what surrounds us and will only talk about the object of our memory and the emotions that we experienced.

This does not mean that any story that does not start with the main part is a lie. But true stories often break the correct chronology. This is the very first and obvious fact.

The prologue is nothing more than a description of the events that took place before the main part. This part of the story, usually for the police, is the source of all the data. It rarely occupies even a third of the narrative of a true story, but in the case of a lie, the picture is completely different.

In a lie, however, the prologue can be quite detailed, one might even say overly detailed. Often the story of a liar has a lot of information about places and times. The liar outwardly feels absolutely comfortable at this moment. In this zone, he does not touch upon the problem and for him the narrative is not connected with any experiences. For him, this is a fairy tale that he composed for you and for himself. It is in the prologue that the liar will linger for the longest time.

main part

The main part is an event, a crime, and to be more precise, it is everything that happened and what is the basis for a narrative, statement or story. As you probably logically guessed, this part of the liar is the shortest. He tries to kill the memories in himself, he can ask you questions about what happened, but in the end he will not tell you anything worthwhile. He kind of subconsciously pushes that part away

If we are considering a crime, then in a truthful epilogue there will be descriptions of one's own suffering. Often, when we experience scary or amazing events, we are so immersed in what is happening to our emotions that we cannot keep up with what is happening around us. And only after we calm down can we focus, but we can describe the events in the epilogue with difficulty and in fragments. So these emotions are just a transition from the main events.

The liar has practically no epilogue, and it will be included in the main part, or rather, the liar will try to smoothly move from the prologue to the epilogue. He will not describe experiences, there will be only actions, places, faces. At the same time, everything will be described in great detail and in detail.

Liars will do their best to avoid a direct conversation about events, they will be calm and accurate in the situation before and after, and if you ask a question directly, then the liar is likely to take a break or avoid a direct answer.

True stories are often jumbled up and don't have any logic. And also most likely you will not receive any sensory information. Those. times, places, faces with accurate and detailed descriptions.

So be careful. If you have the skill, then people are easy to read ...

Drawing by Olga Sutemyeva

Evgeny Spiritsa, founder of the International Center for Lie Detection and Profiling (ICDS), spoke about lies from a scientific point of view and revealed some of the secrets of its recognition.

Othello missed

- You are engaged in lie detection. Are there any signs by which you can immediately say: is he lying to me?

Only one hero had such a sure sign - Pinocchio: when he lied, his nose grew. In fact, everyone lies differently.

There is not a single obvious sign of a lie, otherwise it would be very easy to expose it.

But our body always reacts to its own lies. And God deprived us of the opportunity to control our autonomic nervous system and our emotions - these manifestations are what verifiers work with.

Neurophysiologists have recently discovered that at the moment when a person lies, his "error detector" turns on - this, quite primitively speaking, is a loop of neurons in the cerebral cortex. If a person who hides information begins to ask stimulus questions, the "error detector" will force his body to function differently: he will begin to breathe differently, move, perceive stimuli from the outside world differently, he will begin to release a large amount of adrenaline.

But after all, a person may not lie, but simply worry during the test, and the same adrenaline will be released from him ...

Adrenaline is the same, but non-verbal behavior and speech manifestations will be different. His error detector will not be activated, the person will worry differently.

Lies always breed fear, but not just fear, but fear of exposure.

Just fear has its own non-verbal signs, the fear of exposure has its own.

Here, for example, is the landing of an uninvolved (not hiding information) person who is simply scared: he is in a snail's position, shrinking, afraid to distance himself. And the person involved, who is afraid of exposure, sits, distancing himself from you, leaning back. He may exhibit bodily asymmetry - the persons involved often sit in a very uncomfortable position.

The verifier must be able to distinguish between these two different fears. In lie detection there is such a thing as Othello's error. Remember, Desdemona was afraid of Othello, he saw the fear on her face and decided that this was a sign of guilt. Since he was not a verifier, he made what is known as a first-order error of not distinguishing one fear from another.

Learn Non-Verbal Signals

Evgeny Spiritsa, founder of the International Center for Lie Detection and Profiling (ICDS). Photo from mozgovoyshturm.ru

We know about lie detection using a special tool - a lie detector, or a polygraph. Do you have any other method?

We are engaged in non-verbal, non-instrumental lie detection. What happens inside a person always manifests itself on his face, in his body.

Any person constantly gives non-verbal signals - microexpressions, gestures. Unfortunately, without special knowledge it is not always possible to say what they mean.

American psychologist Paul Ekman, author of the book "Psychology of Lies", by conducting experiments, studied how people lie, what signs they show, what happens to the muscles of the face, what changes in gestures occur. His research allowed the development of special lie verification models that are now used in the law enforcement agencies of the FBI, CIA, NSA, customs security services, and airport screening services. In the famous series Lie to Me, Paul Ekman was one of the main consultants.

We also conducted similar studies, this was done by the 30th laboratory of the KGB. Amazing people, unique scientists worked there.

We build on these studies. The main thing we do during lie detection is to conduct a survey interview, study the structure of the experience of a person sitting opposite us: how he thinks, how he feels, how he sees the situation. Not what he says, but how he does it, how he processes information.

We understand what kind of person is normal, and, having understood this, we can determine whether a person is telling the truth or not. Because when a person tells a lie, he deviates from the norm. I repeat once again: there is not a single sure sign of a lie, but there is a change in non-verbal behavior.

Where verifiers are required

Drawing by Olga Sutemyeva

- And with whom and how do you work?

We are invited to big thefts. The most common situation is a private company, money has disappeared from the office. Contacting law enforcement agencies is a long legal procedure, money can disappear, it is better to search in hot pursuit. We are invited.

We talk to employees, find out who did it or who was the gunner. We fix our research. Then the owner of the company decides what to do with this person. Sometimes he gives it to law enforcement agencies. It happens that the issue is resolved on the spot, without the police - a person returns the stolen, he is forgiven.

Law enforcement agencies use the results of our research, we are often approached by police officers. But mostly we work with business.

We are invited during personnel checks - when applicants for high positions are interviewed. During commercial transactions, when buying a business. We worked with law enforcement anti-terrorist structures - this is connected with the development of models for the fight against terrorism. For example, they showed them a new technical model of instrumental profiling, which allows identifying a terrorist in a crowd among civilians.

In general, our main task is to separate the people involved from the non-participants. And make sure that innocent people don't get hurt.

- You understand that the person is involved, - then you start to unwind him so that he confesses?

I don't really like the word "unwind". Naturally, it is important for us to receive recognition from this person. Then we can help the customer return the stolen goods and, most importantly, get the person out of the problem in which he found himself.

After all, he was trying to solve some of his problems by stealing. It is often enough for a person that we tell him: if you put the money in place, we will show you how to solve your problem in a different way. And in most cases, people return the money, and we help them find a way out of their difficult situation.

If a person touches himself all the time, he gets worried

Drawing by Olga Sutemyeva

I also want non-professionals to understand when they are being deceived. Here is the same Pinocchio syndrome - I have repeatedly heard that if a person touches his nose during a conversation, then he is lying ...

And I am often asked: “Eugene, I was at the negotiations, and there was a man who touched his nose three times. What's this?" I say: “It's just touched my nose three times. It's nothing. Maybe his nose is itchy."

Yes, the higher the level of stress, the more touches a person makes, that's right.

But this only indicates the level of stress, that information is significant for a person. Touches are so-called adapter gestures. We resort to these gestures when we are trying to regain our calmness. Remember, when in childhood young children feel bad, they hit or they are scared, what do they do? They run to mom and dad, they take them in their arms, hug them.

We are growing up, mom and dad are not around. And touching the skin (the skin is a very important receptor!) Blocks the release of adrenaline, soothes.

- Are there any changes in speech that can be used to suspect the speaker of a lie?

Well, for example, when a person lies, he pauses before answering. Why? Our right hemisphere is responsible for images, for emotions, for experience. If I ask you now to remember an event, you will do it with the help of your right hemisphere. But if I ask you to describe this event scientifically, you will move to the left hemisphere, which is responsible for analysis, for logic, for evaluating information.

A lie is always a manifestation of the left hemisphere, because without analyzing the situation you cannot lie, you must analyze what the interlocutor knows, how you can not give yourself away, etc. Therefore, when a person tells a lie, he switches to the left hemisphere. And speech at this moment becomes logical, structured, not emotional, more verbs appear in it: I got up, called, etc.

But for images, for experience, a person is forced to turn to his right hemisphere! And when moving from one hemisphere to another, there is a pause.

By the way, a lying person often after what has been said carefully looks at the interlocutor - in order to understand whether they believe him or not.

There is also such a thing as fake emotions. A lot of research has been done - which muscles of the face are involved in which emotions. When verifying a lie, the so-called signs of false emotions help.

For example, if you see knitted eyebrows and pursed lips, and a person speaks of love for you, you should doubt the sincerity of his words.

Or a person expresses surprise, but if his lips are tense, his lips are closed or pulled back, most likely his surprise is fake.

Also, if, when expressing joy, the muscles around the eyes and eyebrows are tense, the cheekbones and muscles of the lower jaw are tense, then perhaps the person is not at all happy. But, I repeat, we verify lies by cumulative signs, and it is better for a non-specialist not to take the liberty of asserting that this or that person is lying.

Vanity is the verifier's favorite sin

Drawing by Olga Sutemyeva

- Do all people experience the fear of exposure?

Majority. But there are exceptions. Once I was testing a young man. He behaved amazingly, behaved superbly. Our conversation lasted an hour and a half, and there was nothing to catch on.

At the end of the conversation, I told him: "You know, I believe you." And then a smile of contempt appeared on his face for a moment. And I noticed it when I looked through the recording of the conversation.

And this allowed me to draw a conclusion about his involvement. You see, an uninvolved person in this situation would experience relief and joy. And here it was written: well, I made you. He couldn't contain his emotions. Vanity is the verifier's favorite sin.

Some people, when they lie, do not experience pangs of conscience, not fear of exposure - but the delight of deception. Such people can only be caught on vanity.

- Are there perfect liars who cannot be exposed?

Yes, they are good actors. The best way to counter a polygraph is the Stanislavsky system. But most people can't do it. Even if it seems to you that you believe what you are saying, you have no experience of this situation, and if you ask the right questions, you will give an error.

What is the difference between a fantasy and a lie?

There is no destructive intent in fantasy. Remember Nosov's story "Dreamers", there is a clear criterion: the boys were fantasizing, and now another boy comes to them and says: why are you just fantasizing here, so I did it with benefit - I stole a jar of jam, ate it, and lips to my sleeping sister smeared, and everyone thought it was her. And they said to him: oh no, you are not a dreamer, you are a deceiver.

Children often come up with something without any destructive intent - this is a game, this is a form of activity, this is a way of developing the brain, which is very important and necessary.

The polygraph "may" be wrong

Photo courtesy liedetectortest.uk

Now lie detector tests, or polygraph tests, have become common: during the judicial investigation, and even in everyday situations. How does a polygraph tell truth from lies?

A polygraph is a device that captures not lies and truth, but the reactions of the body. In contrast to non-verbal detection, when testing on a polygraph, the main thing is changes in physiological reactions.

When a person experiences stress, his breathing becomes deeper, his heart starts to beat differently, his sweating changes, the light transmission of the skin changes, there is a change in the galvanic skin reaction - all this is recorded by the polygraph.

But again, the state of stress is not yet an indicator of lies. Scientists have noticed that if you create a security installation, a person who did not commit a crime, a person who is not involved, adapts to the polygraph test procedure in ten minutes. Even if this person is anxious and suspicious, even if he is very scared at first.

And the “error detector” works for the person involved, and with the right question, he will still give a certain reaction.

The whole problem is that the professional work of a polygraph examiner is very important here, who must be able to ask questions correctly and recognize these reactions - and this is not so easy!

Unfortunately, now there are very few competent polygraph examiners.

- It turns out that errors are possible when checking on a lie detector?

Yes. Firstly, because of the low level of training of specialists. I once spoke with a man who conducts a polygraph test for 20 minutes - this violates all the requirements of the procedure! And the second - the "commercial component": if you pay money - I will give the necessary conclusion - some polygraph examiners (I am not generalizing in any way!) Can use such methods.

So in court, I would personally refuse to take a lie detector test.

The main state of the verifier is empathy

Drawing by Olga Sutemyeva

- You said that you can not engage in lie detection and not be a believer. Why?

You can't do lie detection without accepting the person.

You have no right to judge. Otherwise, if you want to see a lie, you will always see it. And you have to be an observer. The main state of the verifier is empathy. You are not judging a person, you are studying the structure of his experience. And at this moment you should not have any pejorative attitude.

At our university, we tell each of our students: our main principle, as in the famous song All you need is love. We all need love, and the people involved need it even more.

If you do not sympathize with the person involved, you will not receive from him the most important thing - recognition.

We teach people the observational position. Positions that the universe is in front of you, and you just have to convince a person to tell the truth.

- Does it bother you in your personal life that you see a lie?

No. Let's imagine a situation: I see that my loved one is deceiving me in some way. But I live by the principle: there is no defeat, there is feedback. And this is a reason for me to understand what I did wrong, why does he need to deceive me? How can I fix the situation?

I don't listen to the words. I listen to the reason the person said them.

For example, a woman in her ninth month of pregnancy asks her husband: am I beautiful? Let's put our hand on our heart: in the ninth month of pregnancy, a woman is not a fashion model, not Klava Schiffer. But her husband loves her, for him she is the most beautiful woman in the world, and if he says “of course!” Is he lying here or not? He endows his words with the main meaning - "ol yu nid from lava." And from here it is no longer a lie. This is his truth. And this is her truth.

I can describe a lie, structure it, understand how it manifests itself in a person. But I can't describe the truth. This theme, in my opinion, has divine mechanisms.

- If everyone learns to easily recognize a lie, will it not be dangerous for humanity?

I want to say again: such a concept as empathy, acceptance of another person, is very important here.

Not everyone can be a verifier. You can't get by with technology alone.

I have a friend who has been trained by us. And he began to use this knowledge on his staff. And suddenly the staff ran away from him. He comes to me: what to do? And I say to him: think about it, is it pleasant for people when they are constantly undressed?

You began to see subtle things: for example, that a man is embarrassed or a woman does something wrong because she has personal motives, or this person only needs money from you - but you do not forgive them, but pull out their vices. What is the outcome? They leave you. This would not have happened if you, seeing everything, accepted them and forgave them.

- Aren't you afraid to own such effective tools?

Our main task is to understand whether the person sitting opposite you is hiding information. We study lies scientifically, we are scientists.

At the same time, I remember well that "vanity is my favorite sin." If I say: oh, I found one, the second, the third - I am great! ..

I had such an experience. When it seemed to me that I already saw through everyone, the Lord put me in my place very well.

I understand that this is a very dangerous thing. That's why I try to do everything possible so that the people who contact us are protected, protected by the fact that "we all need love." Only then will you be effective.

According to statistics, each person manages to lie at least 4 times a day, since the truth often contradicts generally accepted standards of decency, ethics and even morality. How to recognize a lie, if not a single modern detector is able to give a 100% guarantee that what a person said is not a deception? Let's determine the external signs of untruth, which will betray the interlocutor.

What is the untruth

Often deception is harmless when a person tells a lie out of politeness or out of a desire to please ("You look great!", "Very nice to meet you!"). Sometimes people have to withhold the whole truth or remain silent in response to uncomfortable questions out of unwillingness to escalate the situation, and this is also considered insincerity.

However, psychologists say that even seemingly harmless lies can seriously harm relationships, especially when it comes to understatement between family members: husband and wife, parents and children. Achieving mutual trust and maintaining strong family ties in such circumstances is difficult, so it is important to know how to recognize the lies of a man, woman or child.

The observations of specialists in the field of psychology have shown certain results that relate to deception in the family:

1. despite their external openness to the interlocutor, extroverts are more prone to lies than introverts;
2. children quickly learn to lie in authoritarian families, while doing it often and masterfully;
3. parents who behave gently towards the child notice the lie immediately, because he rarely deceives and lies uncertainly;
4. the female gender is prone to deceit when it comes to household items - they hide the price of purchased goods, do not talk about a broken cup or a burnt dish, etc.;
5. men tend to be understated in matters of relationships, they hide their dissatisfaction with a partner, have mistresses and confidently lie about their fidelity.

How to learn to recognize a lie?

To prevent the development of complex family relationships built on deceit, infidelity and understatement, it is important to learn to understand sincerity. Often the ability to bring a deceiver to clean water is a natural talent of a person who intuitively knows how to recognize a lie by facial expressions, gestures or intonation of the interlocutor. In this he is helped by the life experience of communicating with liars, or by natural observation.

This is not to say that anyone can't spot cheating without the right experience or talent. Currently, psychology has established some verbal and non-verbal signs of information distortion, which are typical for most people. Thanks to a well-established methodology based on the understanding of such signals, each person will be able to develop the ability to recognize insincerity. Let's find out what can betray a liar.

In our life it is very important to be able to distinguish truth from lies. This is part of the sixth sense of people: to be able to distinguish between negative and positive flows. It exists in children and therefore it is very difficult to deceive them. But over the years, under the influence of constant lies from the environment, this feeling becomes dull and may disappear altogether.

In order to restore it (the sixth sense), you need to: remember your childhood and stretch your palm to the image of something or someone (it doesn’t matter where this image is located - a computer, a photo or a TV box).

And if it is a lie or a deceitful person, then your palm will feel a slight repulsion, and if it is true or an honest person, a slight attraction. If a person is very dangerous, then in addition to repulsion, you can feel a chill from his image, his recordings or from his voice.

It may not work the first time, do not despair, a long training will lead to the restoration of the ability to sense lies or truth.

This will indicate that your sixth sense is being restored, and in the future you will feel negative flows from people, food and things, as well as positive flows from kind people, from good clean products and things, and even from the planets and the Sun.

How to determine the lie of the interlocutor?

According to experts, there are ten ways to detect lies in the words of your interlocutor.

Here they are:
1. Notice inconsistencies in words. For example, a person has a certain reaction to a loud sound, but it will be untruthful if it appears a few seconds before the sound itself. The same can be seen in speech.

2. Ask a clarifying question out of the blue. Only 4 percent of people can accurately remember all the little things they lied about, all the rest will not be able to immediately figure out and answer the question of time or money.

3. Notice changes in behavior. If a person began to behave differently (for example, he was always calm, and now he is clearly nervous), then this may mean a lie in his words.

4. Look at emotions - they can be insincere. Few people are good at fake a smile, in most attempts it will have an unnatural look.

5. Look at the hands of the interlocutor. When lying, too active movements of the hands and wiggling of the fingers can be noted.

6. Learn to see micro-emotions. This is a bit like the twenty-fifth frame - if a person is lying that he is happy and happy, anyway, at some point, negative emotions can be noted on his face.

7. Watch for contradictions in the behavior and words of the interlocutor. A liar may not give out his face and gestures, but reservations are possible in his words when he contradicts himself (for example, he will first say that he was at the dentist, and later in the conversation, perhaps not even on the same day, but much later, you will find out that at this time he was still at work).

8. Watch your eyes. If your interlocutor cannot withstand direct contact, but constantly looks away, then he is probably lying.

9. Understand the essence of his words. A large abundance of details in the story can indicate a lie, especially if the interlocutor knows well that you are not interested, but still stubbornly continues to talk in detail, say, about the carburetor.

10. Try to learn to recognize the truth. Then you will be able to determine the lie in the words of any liar easily and simply.

In case of disagreement between the words and gestures of your interlocutor, trust your eyesight more than your hearing. It is easier to hide the truth or the true attitude towards you through words, facial expressions, voice, and more difficult with the help of other means of communication: gestures, movements, postures.

Probably, every person at least once in his life asked himself the question of how to catch a liar or lie so as not to be caught. The complexity and versatility of the phenomenon of lies is evidenced by the fact that over the millennia of the existence of human civilization, people have invented thousands of ways to deceive and have come up with dozens of names for it. One has only to open the dictionaries, and one can be amazed at the number of synonyms for the verb "deceive": mislead, outwit, fool, deceive to fool, to fool, to fool, to fool, to furnish, to cheat, to fool, to cheat, to cheat, to cheat, to darn, to put on, ...

How to distinguish lies from truth?

How to distinguish lies from truth? How is it that you can be easily deceived? Almost every second hangs noodles on your ears - you can be called a victim. In such situations, the victims themselves are to blame, they simply do not want to know the truth. They are so intrigued by what is happening that they consider the truth to be a colossal mistake.

How to recognize a liar?

First of all, pay attention to the words, voice, intonation and gestures. If a person says one thing, and gestures “say” another, then most likely the person is lying. This is one of the easiest ways to tell lies from the truth. For example, a person says “no” and at the same time nods his head (nodding his head means “yes”) - a clear contradiction appears on the face. Conclusion: the person is probably lying. His voice says no, but subconsciously he says yes through gestures.

It happens that a person himself begins to believe in his own lies. In this case, it is even more difficult to distinguish lies from the truth. There is only one way out: again, look for contradictions ....

Gentle Truth walked in beautiful clothes,
Dressed up for the orphans, the blessed, the crippled.
Rough Lies lured this Truth to itself, -
Like, stay with me for the night.

And the gullible Truth calmly fell asleep,
She drooled and smiled in her sleep.
The cunning Lie pulled the blanket over itself,
I drank into Truth and was completely satisfied.

And she got up and cut her face like a bulldog, -
A woman is like a woman, and why please her?
There is no difference between Truth and Falsehood,
Unless, of course, both the one and the other undress.

She deftly wove golden ribbons from her braids
And she grabbed clothes, trying on by eye,
I took the money, and the watch, and more documents,
She spat, swore dirtyly and leaned out.

Only in the morning I discovered the Truth was lost
And she wondered, looking at herself businesslike, -
Someone already, having obtained black soot somewhere,
He smeared the pure Truth, but nothing.

Truth laughed when stones were thrown at her:
- It's all lies, and on Lies - ...

How to distinguish lies from truth

Observing, analyzing, summarizing information, drawing conclusions about a person’s honesty, deciding whether to accept his information as true or false in a given situation, people are based on their own standards of truth and lies, sincere and insincere behavior. However, not all characteristics of the behavior of a lying person are equally indicative, and therefore different people, with varying degrees of success, recognize a lie among the information that the interlocutor conveys to them.

The following words, phrases, answers and features of speech can indicate the insincerity of the interlocutor (but in no case are they unambiguous evidence of this):

an insistent belief in his own sincerity, in which he overemphasizes his honesty, invariably insisting that he speaks only the truth - in cases where no distrust of his words is expressed in any way. For example: “Honestly, I don’t know”; “I swear by health”; "...

Liar, liar, liar. We all sometimes hide the truth from others, embellishing or directly distorting the facts. Often we deceive ourselves, convincing and justifying our own actions and deeds. What is a lie? What is this phenomenon? And who is prone to deception (self-deception) and how to distinguish truth from lies?

Lies and truth, truth and lies. Two edges. Everything is relative in this world, gentlemen. Understatement or outright distortion of facts - each liar pursues his own goals, guided by certain desires. Let's try to disassemble the system.

In general, a pathological liar, of course, is a person with an oral vector. That's really who is much to poison the tales of the most diverse sense, so it's him. The most interesting thing is that his lies are almost impossible to distinguish from the truth. Oralnik induces with his word, you believe him.

A particularly striking and revealing example is how an oral liar defends himself in court, accurately pronouncing the doubts of others and confusing them even more. How can this be caught? Enough…

How to know the Truth? How can you distinguish truth from lies?

Hello dear Friends and dear Readers of our site! Why do we need to know the truth at all? To make less mistakes, to be disappointed, to fail and collapse, to suffer and experience less pain. After all, lies, deceit - always ultimately leads to suffering, pain and destruction. Always! No matter how sweet they may seem at first.

The one who knows the Truth can act effectively, making the right choice - what to study, whom to believe, with whom to deal, and who can never, under any circumstances, be trusted in anything.

Revealing truth and lies, feeling truth and deceit is more of an art. But this art is based on the abilities and qualities that each person can develop. Especially thanks to esoteric knowledge and techniques!

There are, of course, techniques for reading emotions and micro expressions by faces, gestures, voice and facial expressions, but we do not consider these methods in this article.