What science studies the vital functions of a holistic organism. Anatomy and physiology are the most important biological sciences about the structure and functions of the human body

(Answers at the end of the test)

A1. The science that studies the functions of organisms is called

1) ecology

2) morphology

3) anatomy

4) physiology

A2. The essence of the cell theory is more accurately reflected in the position

1) all cells of a multicellular organism perform the same functions

2) all cells of a multicellular organism are the same in structure

3) all organisms are made up of cells

4) cells in the body arise from intercellular substance

A3. The main chemical compounds that determine the individuality of an organism are

1) water and mineral salts

2) fats and carbohydrates

3) compounds of sulfur, phosphorus

4) nucleic acids and proteins

A4. An example of asexual reproduction is

1) parthenogenesis in bees

2) development of a plant from a seed

3) the formation of gametes in birds

4) hydra reproduction by budding

A5. Embryos do not have mesoderm

1) frogs

2) earthworm

3) turtles

A6. The twin research method is carried out by

1) crosses

2) pedigree research

3) observations of the objects of study

4) artificial mutagenesis

A7. Among the plants obtained from crossing individuals with pink flowers, 25% of the plants were with a red flower color and 25% with a white one. That's an example

1) linked inheritance

2) incomplete dominance

3) analyzing cross

4) polyhybrid crossing

A8. Which of the following animals can pass on to offspring a mutation that occurred in the cells of the integumentary tissue?

4) starling

A9. A common property of bacterial, plant, fungal, and animal cells is the ability to

1) metabolism

3) movement

4) contractility

A10. Monocot plants include

1) cabbage

2) potatoes

3) corn

4) gooseberry

A11. Propagated by seeds

1) kelp

3) moss cuckoo flax

A12. The malaria pathogen is carried

1) ticks

3) mosquitoes

4) simple

A13. The most important adaptation of mammals to life in unstable environmental conditions is the ability to

1) seasonal molting

2) protection of offspring

3) thermoregulation

4) high fecundity

A14. Bile is produced in

1) gallbladder

2) duodenum

4) pancreas

A15. Sickle cell anemia is a disease associated with impaired cell function

2) muscle

3) nervous

4) bone

A16. An organism uses mainly energy for its existence.

1) thermal

2) chemical

3) electrical

4) mechanical

A17. Conditioned reflexes are

1) snake molting

2) digging underground passages by a mole

3) feeding babies with milk

A18. Scientists consider the brown bear and the spectacled bear to be different species because

1) they look different

2) they live in different territories

3) there is reproductive isolation between them

4) they eat different foods

A19. Under the influence of natural selection, organisms predominantly survive and reproduce

1) the strongest

2) fittest

3) the most complex

4) the most prolific

A20. When mimicry in animals, there is a similarity

1) genotypes

2) phenotypes

3) behavior

4) nutritional features

A21. Among animals living on Earth, chimpanzees are considered the closest relative of man, as evidenced by

1) the similarity of their genomes

2) similarity in the structure of DNA

3) belonging to the same class

4) the structure of mitochondria

A22. The role of decomposers in the ecosystem is referred to as factors

1) abiotic

2) biotic

3) anthropogenic

4) limiting

A23. An example of the competition of organisms is the relationship

1) dodder with other plants

2) colza and cultivated plants in the wheat field

3) nodule bacteria with legume roots

4) tinder fungus and birch

A24. Living organisms or traces of their activities are present

1) anywhere in the biosphere

2) only in the litho- and hydrosphere

3) only in litho- and atmosphere

4) everywhere except Antarctica and the Arctic

A25. After the advent of the electron microscope, scientists discovered

1) cell nucleus

2) vacuoles

3) chloroplasts

4) ribosomes

A26. Speed ​​up chemical reactions in the cell

1) hormones

2) vitamins

3) enzymes

4) secrets

A27. What gametes are formed in meiosis by an individual with the AABv genotype?

2) AAB and AAv

A28. High heterozygosity in a population leads to

1) increase in its number

2) greater reproduction rate

3) maintaining the same genotypes

4) diversity of genotypes of individuals

A29. The result of strawberry cloning is an organism that has

1) original genotype

2) new phenotype

3) new genotype

4) new genotype and phenotype

A30. belongs to the phylum Flatworms

1) roundworm

2) pinworm

3) planaria

A31. In the human small intestine, the pH of the medium is

2) slightly alkaline

3) highly alkaline

4) neutral

A32. The doctrine of the second signal system created

1) P.K. Anokhin

2) I.M. Sechenov

3) A.A. Ukhtomsky

4) I.P. Pavlov

A33. Modern man lives in a period called

2) Paleogene

3) anthropogen

A34. Information on the state, distribution and protection measures of rare and endangered species of plants and animals in Russia is recorded

1) in the Red Book of Russia

2) in the Law of the Russian Federation on environmental protection

3) in the Rules of hunting and fishing

4) in the Constitution of the Russian Federation

In tasks B1-B3, write down the answers in numbers without spaces.

IN 1. Select the processes occurring in the human small intestine:

1) proteins are digested under the action of pepsin

2) digestion of plant fiber occurs

3) absorption of amino acids and simple carbohydrates into the blood occurs

4) fats are emulsified to small droplets by the action of bile

5) water is reabsorbed

6) proteins and carbohydrates are broken down into monomers

IN 2. Unlike a natural ecosystem, an artificial ecosystem is characterized by

1) a wide variety of species

2) diverse supply chains

3) open circulation of substances

4) the predominance of one or two species

5) the influence of the anthropogenic factor

6) closed circulation of substances

IN 3. The cartilaginous fish include:

3) sterlet

AT 4. Establish a correspondence between the structural features of the simplest animal and its species

AT 5. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of human blood cells and their type

AT 6. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of a plant family and a representative of this family

AT 7. Classify the Himalayan bear in the correct order, starting with the largest systematic group.

A) Himalayan bear

B) bearish

B) mammals

D) predatory

D) animals

E) chordates

AT 8. Establish the sequence of evolutionary processes of a population, starting with the appearance of mutations

A) the formation of adaptability to the environment

B) struggle for existence

B) natural selection of the fittest

D) reproduction of individuals with new genotypes

D) mutation process

E) phenotypic manifestation of mutations

You will learn about what sciences study a person from this article.

What science studies the body?

Human body study science physiology, anatomy, morphology, hygiene.

We will talk about each separately.

• Morphology

The science that studies the structure of organisms is human morphology. She specializes in studying the external structure of the human body, its connection with the functions performed, as well as the patterns of change in its individual parts.

This science is connected with the origin and place of man in the system of the animal world. It consists of two sections. These are somatology and merology. Somatology deals with the study of the patterns of variability of the organism as a whole, the influence of living conditions and age-related changes on it. And merology studies changes in the development and growth of individual parts of the body.

• Anatomy

Anatomy is a science that studies the internal structure of a person, his individual organs. There are several divisions of this science:

• normal anatomy. Studying the anatomy of a healthy human body.
• Comparative anatomy. He studies the regularities of the structure of organs, comparing them with different taxa of animals.
• Topographic anatomy. Studying the location of organs.
• Functional anatomy. It studies the relationship between the structure of the body and the functions it performs.
• Plastic anatomy. Examines the external shape of the body and its proportions.
• Pathological anatomy. He studies painful pathological processes in the body.
• macroscopic anatomy. Studying the structure of the body and its organs.
• Microscopic anatomy. Examines organs under a microscope.

Physiology

Physiology is a science that studies the functions of the body and its organs. Several areas of science have emerged from general science:

• Neurophysiology. Studying the nervous system.
• age physiology. It studies the development of an organism during its individual development.
• Comparative physiology. Studying the functions of the body, comparing them with animals.
• evolutionary physiology. It studies the process of changing the functions of an organism in the course of evolutionary development.
• Ecological physiology. Observes how environmental factors affect the body's reactions.

There are also other sciences that study the human body. These include hygiene, which studies the impact of work and living conditions on health. Thanks to this, measures are being developed to prevent illnesses and to create conditions for strengthening and maintaining health.

Human anatomy, physiology and hygiene are sciences that are branches of biology and study the structure and functions of the human body and the conditions for maintaining its health; hygienic aspects of environmental protection.

Anatomy

Anatomy studies the shape and structure of organs and the systems of the human body they compose in connection with the functions performed; physiology studies the vital functions of the body and its individual parts. Both the structure and functions of organs are interconnected, so their understanding is impossible in isolation from each other. Knowledge of the anatomical structure, the coordinated function of organs and systems makes it possible to substantiate the hygienic conditions of work and rest, disease prevention measures to preserve human health, ability to work and longevity. Therefore, hygiene is studied in close connection with anatomy and physiology.

Human anatomy includes the following private disciplines:

• normal anatomy, which studies the structure of a healthy person and his organs;
• pathological anatomy - the morphology of a sick person;
• topographic anatomy - the science of the location of any organ in the human body;
• dynamic anatomy, which studies the motor apparatus from functional positions, which is important for the correct physical development of a person.

Anatomy explores the formation of man in his historical development in the process of animal evolution, using the comparative anatomical method. Adjacent to anatomy are histology, the science of tissues, and embryology, which studies the processes of formation of germ cells, fertilization, and the embryonic development of organisms.

Modern anatomy widely uses experiment and has the latest research methods, including modern optics, X-rays, radio telemetry methods, plastic materials, alloys, preservatives, and relies on the laws of physics, chemistry, cybernetics, cytology, etc.

Physiology

Physiology is a science that studies the functions of an integral organism, i.e. life processes of the organism and its constituent organs and individual parts.

Physiology can be divided into three departments:

• general,
• comparative
• special

General physiology studies the basic patterns of the response of living organisms to environmental influences. Comparative physiology studies the specific features of the functioning of the whole organism, as well as tissues and cells of organisms belonging to different species. Comparative physiology is closely related to evolutionary physiology. In addition, there are special sections of physiology that study the physiology of various types of animals (for example, agricultural, carnivorous, etc.) or the physiology of individual organs (heart, kidneys, liver, etc.), tissues, cells.

Various methods are used to study the functions of the body. These include short-term or long-term monitoring of the work of organs with an increase in the functional load, the action of stimuli on them, or when cutting nerves, administering drugs, etc. Instrumental methods of study are also widely used, which exclude any damage to tissues and organs of animals. With the help of various devices, you can get information about the electrical processes occurring in the body, about the state of the nervous system, heart and other organs. Modern methods allow recording the electrical activity of any organ. Using optical methods, they study the inner surface of the wall of the stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, etc. Examination of the body using X-rays makes it possible to study the functioning of the digestive, cardiovascular and other systems in a healthy and sick person.

Radiotelemetric methods of transmitting information about physiological processes are becoming increasingly important. For example, radio telemetry is used to study the state of a person during space flights. To assess the functional activity of human organs, biochemical studies of tissues, body fluids - blood, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, etc. are widely used. system levels.

Hygiene

Hygiene considers the impact of living and working conditions on human health. It develops measures to create favorable conditions for life, work and recreation, ensuring the preservation of health.

In modern conditions, as the achievements of scientific and technological progress are introduced into industry and everyday life, unfavorable changes in the physical and chemical properties of the environment increase. Industrial waste often contains chemicals that are harmful to the human body. In garbage, household waste there are decaying organic substances that contain a huge number of microbes, including pathogens. The deterioration of hygienic living conditions adversely affects the health and life expectancy of people.

The task of hygienists is to improve the sanitary condition of cities and towns. It is also important to properly plan residential and industrial areas in order to exclude, if possible, the harmful effects of industrial noise, vibration, dust, and electromagnetic fields on the body. Green spaces are a powerful healing factor. They reduce the intensity of street noise, trap dust, create an optimal microclimate.

Anatomy, physiology and hygiene are closely interrelated and form the basis of medicine, since their knowledge contributes to the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Modern advances in medicine are amazing: operations are carried out on the brain, heart, transplantation of tissues and torn off parts of the body, blood transfusion, plastic surgery; hormones and vitamins have been synthesized and successfully used, many diseases are treated and prevented with the help of medicines, artificial respiration and circulatory apparatuses, and an artificial "kidney" are used.

Knowledge of the structure of the human body and its functions allows you to create rational systems of physical and sports exercises that contribute to the formation of a harmoniously developed personality.

1. Anatomy human – it is the science of the forms and structure, origin and development of the human body, its systems and organs. Human anatomy is studied by examining various organs. Anatomy studies the structure of the body and its individual parts and organs. Knowledge of anatomy is necessary for the study of physiology, so the study of anatomy must precede the study of physiology.

Physiology studies the course of life processes at the level of the whole organism, individual organs and organ systems, as well as at the level of individual cells and molecules. At the present stage of the development of physiology, it is again united with the sciences that once separated from it: biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology and histology.

Historical sketch of the development of anatomy. The first information about the structure of the human body was obtained in ancient Egypt. The founder of anatomy is Aristotle (384-322 BC), who provided a lot of valuable information. The Indian Vedas (1,000 years AD) indicate that a person has 500 muscles, 90 tendons, 900 ligaments, 300 bones, 107 joints, 24 nerves, 400 vessels, 9 organs. During the Renaissance, the greatest scientists and artists were interested in anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci performed over 30 human dissections and left 13 volumes of anatomical drawings. A. Vesalius in 1543 published his book "On the structure of the human body." In 1628, W. Harvey discovered the circles of blood circulation.

In Russia, the first data on the structure of the body appeared in the middle of the 17th century, when the book of A. Vesalius was translated into Russian.

In the hospital schools founded by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century, the teaching of anatomy was introduced for the first time in Russia. The first anatomists of Russia were M. I. Shaga (1712–1762) and A. P. Protasyev (1726–1796). P. F. Lesgaft (1837–1909) V. P. Vorobyov (1876–1937)

For the convenience of studying the structure of the human body, the material of anatomy is presented according to organ systems, united by a common function, structure and development - systematic anatomy. Anatomy subdivided into osteology bone science, artrosyndesmology- the study of the joints of bones, myology- learning about muscles splanchology- the doctrine of the viscera (organs of respiration, digestion, excretion and reproduction), angiology- the study of the circulatory and lymphatic systems, neurology - study of the nervous system endocrinology- the study of the endocrine glands, aesthesiology- The study of the sense organs. The section of anatomy that studies changes in the shape and structure of organs that naturally occur at different age periods of a person’s life is called age anatomy.

Physiology- a science that studies the patterns of functioning of living organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells, the relationship and changes in functions under different environmental conditions and under various conditions of the body.

The main physiological research method is experiment. It can be acute and chronic. Acute experience or vivisection ( vivus- alive, section- dissection - live section) is carried out on a living organism with the use of painkillers, in order to study the functions of the body, the effect of various substances on it, and the development of treatment methods. In chronic experiments, animals are previously subjected to an appropriate operation under sterile conditions, and after complete recovery, their functions are studied for a long time under normal conditions of life.

Historical sketch of the development of physiology. Information about physiology was first obtained from the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and the philosopher Aristotle. As a science, physiology originates from the work of the English physician W. Harvey, who gave an idea of ​​the large and small circles of blood circulation and the heart as an engine of blood in the body. Advances in physiology are inseparable from advances in anatomy. For example, the discovery of lymphatic vessels in the 17th century by the Italian scientist G. Azelli and the Danish anatomist T. Bartholin made it possible to establish the existence of lymphatic circulation.

I. M. Sechenov is rightly called the "father of Russian physiology." He developed questions of the physiology of labor. Studying the process of fatigue, for the first time he scientifically substantiated and established the importance of outdoor activities. Of great importance are the works of I. M. Sechenov (1829–1905) on the study of the functions of the central nervous system

Experimental surgical research methods of V. A. Basov, L. Vell, L. Tiri, R. Heidenhain, I. P. Pavlov and his students made it possible to study the functions of the digestive organs.

IP Pavlov discovered conditioned reflexes and created the doctrine of higher nervous activity.

The scientific activity of IP Pavlov developed in three main directions: the study of the problems of the physiology of blood circulation (1874–1889), the physiology of digestion (1889–1901), higher nervous activity (1901–1936). In 1904, I. P. Pavlov received the Nobel Prize.

One of the main tasks of human physiology is the study of the regulatory and integrating role of the nervous system in the body.

The doctrine of vitamins is also an achievement of domestic physiologists. The work of the scientist N. I. Lunin showed the need for normal functioning of certain substances, which in 1912 K. Funk called vitamins.

Physiology is divided into several, largely independent, but closely related scientific disciplines. Usually, general and particular physiology, comparative and evolutionary, special and applied (including age-related) physiology are distinguished.

Anatomy and age physiology study the features of the structure and functioning of the human body in different age periods of life; patterns of growth and development of the organism of children and adolescents.

Hygiene – a medical science that studies the influence of the environment on human health, its performance, and develops optimal requirements for living and working conditions. One of the tasks of hygiene is the examination of the quality of food products and household items.

Hygienic standards are created on the basis of knowledge of anatomy and physiology.

From general hygiene, its sections stood out: communal hygiene, food hygiene, occupational hygiene, hygiene of children and adolescents (or school hygiene), military hygiene, radiation hygiene, etc.

Hygiene of children and adolescents a science that studies the interaction of a child's body with the external environment in order to develop hygienic standards and requirements aimed at protecting and strengthening health.

Hygiene, like any other science, has come a long way.

An important role in the development of hygiene was played by the founders of domestic medicine S. T. Zybelin and M. Ya. Mudrov, generalized and developed a system of hygienic measures to prevent many diseases.

F. F. Erisman (1842–1915) and V. G. Khlonin (1863–1929) developed standards for school hygiene and mental work. L. P. Dobroslavin (1842–1879) and F. F. Erisman are the first hygienists in Russia.

An important place in the work of doctors in the field of hygiene of children and adolescents is given to measures to prevent fatigue and overwork, to develop the most favorable modes of training and work activities for students.

Students of a pedagogical university need knowledge of the anatomy, physiology and hygiene of children and adolescents to understand the basic patterns of growth and development of the child's body, maintain health and properly organize the educational process in educational institutions.

2. In the postnatal period, the growth and development of all organs and systems occurs continuously, heterochronously, with biological reliability.

Development in the broad sense of the word is understood as the process of qualitative and quantitative changes occurring in the human body. Development includes three main processes: growth, differentiation of tissues and organs, and shaping, which are closely interconnected.

Under growth understand an increase in the size of a developing organism, an increase in body weight, i.e., quantitative changes. They are associated with an increase in the number of cells or their size. For example, an increase in the lungs occurs due to an increase in the branching of the bronchi, the number and volume of the alveoli. The increase in muscle mass occurs due to an increase in the size of muscle fibers, while their number remains unchanged.

Under development understand the qualitative transformations in the body - the differentiation of tissues and organs (during the development of cells, initially homogeneous, specific structural and functional differences appear, their specialization occurs), complication and improvement of the functions of all organs and systems, mechanisms of regulation of functions, shaping (acquisition by the body of characteristic, inherent forms). Gradually increasing in the process of growth, quantitative changes lead to the appearance of new qualitative features in the child. Growth and development proceed heterochronously (non-simultaneously and unevenly). unevenness growth is manifested in the fact that periods of increased growth are replaced by periods of lower growth rates. Intensively, but unevenly, the growth of all organs and body length occurs during the first three years, especially in the first year. During the first year, the increase in height averages 25 cm, body weight triples. Second growth spurt half-height) observed at 6 - 7 years, the third ( pubertal) in adolescence.

Development, like growth, proceeds unevenly: during periods of slowdown in growth rates, the body of children and adolescents develops intensively.

Nonsimultaneity growth and development is manifested in the fact that in the process of individual development, the maturation of various organs, even individual cells of one organ, does not occur simultaneously, but the adaptive reactions of the child, which underlie its interaction with the environment, depend on the degree of maturation. At each age stage, the system that is most important for the body in a given period of time reaches its maximum development.

Such heterochrony of growth and development contributes to the harmonious (optimal) development of the child's body, as new systems are gradually included in the activity, which are necessary to perform more complex functions at each age stage.

At different age periods, individual systems of the child are most sensitive to development, these periods are called sensitive (sensus - feeling) or critical (for example, the critical period for the development of speech is the age of 5-6 years). For the process of maturation of the child's sensory systems, his mental development, an influx of afferent information from the environment is necessary. Deficiency of sensory information (sensory deprivation) in early postnatal ontogenesis leads to impaired mental development. Up to 10 years, the processes of growth and development do not have sharp sex differences, although girls to some extent overtake boys. After 10 years, these differences are more pronounced, and girls reach the functional level of an adult body 1-3 years earlier than boys.

To the general laws of the individual development of the organism, A. A. Markosyan proposed to attribute biological reliability. The organs and systems of the body grow and develop in the presence of a reserve of reserve capabilities (as in technology), which guarantees the body, as a biological system, the safety and optimal flow of physiological processes under various influences. Reliability is ensured by a number of morphological and functional features: the pairing of some organs; the presence of a depot (reserve) for blood, carbohydrates, fats; redundancy in the number of neurons in the CNS; the number of mediators released in the synapses during the conduction of nerve impulses, etc.

Under physical development understand the totality of morphological and functional features that ensure the endurance and performance of a person. Physical development is due to hereditary factors, but at the same time it largely depends on the social and living conditions of life, the degree of environmental pollution in the place of residence. Physical development is one of the indicators of the health status of children and adolescents. Acceleration in modern children requires a systematic study of the level of physical development, as it is necessary to revise the standards of school furniture, sports equipment, physical activity, pedagogical methods of training and education.

Physical development implies not only a high level of physical strength, muscle mass, which are determined by height and weight. When assessing physical development, it is necessary to assess the state of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the neurohumoral system of regulation.

An individual assessment of physical development is carried out using the following methods: 1. somatometry (measurement of various sizes of the human body); 2. somatoscopy (external examination of the body); 3. physiometry (study of functional indicators).

Somatometry method(anthropometry) - with its help, not only the absolute values ​​​​of height, individual parts of the body, weight, chest circumference are evaluated, but also their compliance with age norms, the proportionality of the physique, since with age in children there is a change in body proportions. One of the main requirements of somatometry is the strict unification (uniformity) of methods for measuring certain developmental indicators.

Somatoscopy method- external examination of the body. This method allows you to evaluate: features of the physique (constitution), its proportionality, the development of skeletal muscles, the degree of fat deposition; type of posture; the shape of the chest; the shape of the legs; foot condition.

Physiometry method allows you to determine the functional indicators of the human body. When studying physical development, the vital capacity of the lungs (spirometry), muscle strength of the hands, backbone strength (dynamometry), heart rate, and blood pressure are measured.

In terms of the pace of physical and mental development, there are significant differences among peers by passport age. Developmental or biological age- a concept that reflects the degree of morphological and physiological state of the body. Biological age depends on heredity and environmental conditions and lifestyle of a person. According to the passport, those people who have a healthy lifestyle combined with positive heredity become younger than their age. The criteria for assessing biological age are:

1) puberty (degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics);

2) skeletal maturity (timing and degree of ossification of the bones of the skeleton);

3) dental maturity (terms of eruption of milk and permanent teeth, wear of teeth);

4) human constitution;

5) the level of development of psychophysiological functions;

6) age-related changes in physiological systems;

7) the degree of development of the muscular system (muscle strength, endurance, coordination of movements);

8) anthropometric indicators.

Women, unlike men, age more slowly and live longer by an average of 6 to 8 years.

Along with the typical development characteristic of most children of each age period, developmental deviations are often encountered, which manifest themselves in acceleration or retardation.

Acceleration- acceleration of growth and development of the organism in the postnatal period. Distinguish between epochal and intragroup acceleration.

An epochal acceleration was noted at the beginning of the 20th century in industrialized countries. The rate of growth and maturation of children has accelerated significantly compared to the 19th century. Mass examinations of the physical development of children and adolescents have shown that acceleration covers the entire body. In the XX century, in newborns, the body length increased by 2 - 2.5 cm, weight - by 500 grams or more. In general, over 100 years, the body length of preschoolers has increased by 10-12 cm, and that of schoolchildren by 10-15 cm. Puberty occurs on average 2 years earlier than in the 19th century. The acceleration also affected motor functions, modern teenagers and young people run faster, jump higher and further, pull themselves up on the horizontal bar more times, etc. The acceleration of physical development also stimulated the mental development of children, but to a certain extent, the acceleration of mental development is also due to scientific technical progress.

Observations showed that there were no significant differences in the acceleration rates of children of different nationalities. But urban children are subject to acceleration to a greater extent than rural ones.

The physiological mechanisms of epochal acceleration have not been fully elucidated; several hypotheses have been proposed that reveal the causes of acceleration:

1. Changing the nature of nutrition: modern man consumes more meat, vegetables, fruits; takes a lot of drugs, and especially antibiotics, which are used in animal husbandry to increase body weight in livestock.

2. Cyclic cosmic changes in solar activity, ultraviolet radiation, an increase in the radiation background of the Earth;

3. A large number of mixed marriages between people from different regions, which leads to the renewal of the gene pool, the multiplication of genetic differences;

4. A sedentary lifestyle, environmental pollution, the pace of an urban lifestyle (in areas where people have not been affected by urbanization, acceleration has not been noted).

Intragroup acceleration. In each age group, 13-20% of children overtake their peers in growth and development. The creation of favorable stimulating learning conditions, the use of special methods for the development of perception, attention, speech, etc. contribute to a more complete realization of the child's capabilities. But psychologists warn against “artificial intellectual acceleration”, when excessive demands are placed on a child, as this can lead to a violation of his higher nervous activity. An indicator of the correspondence of developing influences to the child's capabilities is his desire, readiness to engage. The acceleration of development requires a revision of the methods of training and education in different age periods; changes in standards in school furniture, sports equipment, labor training equipment, therefore, every 10 - 15 years, mass surveys of the physical development of children and adolescents are carried out. Children mature physically early, but the level of working capacity, social maturity lag somewhat behind their physical maturity, which should be taken into account by teachers and parents.

Scientists point out that in e In the 20th and early 21st centuries, the pace of acceleration slowed down.

The second deviation from typical growth and development is retardation- lag (slowdown) in development, which is observed on average in 13 - 20% of children in each age group. These children have a lack of body weight, a general delay in physical and mental development, and by the age of 7 they are not ready to go to school. For such children, the period of adaptation to school is more difficult and longer, they do not cope with the program, among them there are more poorly performing or underachieving children. Training loads cause them an overstrain of the nervous system, which leads to a decrease in efficiency, deterioration in health, and an increase in morbidity.

The biological mechanisms of developmental delay are not fully understood, scientists believe that an important role belongs to:

1) hereditary factors;

2) adverse environmental factors;

3) socio-hygienic factors (malnutrition, lack of parental care in dysfunctional families, etc.).

3 . Ontogeny (from the Greek ontos - being) - the period of individual development h twist of the body. This is a set of transformations undergone by the body from inception to the end of life. The term was introduced by E. Haeckel in 1866.

Two periods: prenatal - intrauterine (from the moment of conception to birth) and postnatal - post-natal (from the moment of birth to the death of a person).

In prenatal, there are: embryonic development (embryo) - up to 1.5-2 months, when the fetus is formed; placental development (fetus) - 3-10 months, when fetal growth occurs.

It is characterized by the rapid growth and development of the child, its nutrition at the expense of the mother's body, therefore, acute and chronic diseases of the mother, the characteristics of her diet, mental and physical stress have a significant impact on the course of pregnancy and, accordingly, the development of the unborn child.

In the postnatal, there are: early, mature, final stages of development.

A newly born person differs from an adult in a number of qualitative features, and does not represent his simple reduced copy.

The time during which a developing child reaches the functional level of an adult, taking into account the main physiological indicators of the body, is 16-20 years.

It should be remembered that the division of childhood into periods has no exact boundaries. It stems from the need to provide children with such living conditions, nutrition and mental and physical activity that would correspond to the anatomical and physiological capabilities of each age group.

The growth and development of the child is influenced by both hereditary factors and the environment.

Heredity is the property of a living organism to store genetic information and pass it on from one generation to another. The phenomenon of heredity underlies the reproduction of life forms over generations, which fundamentally distinguishes the living from the non-living. DNA molecules are the hereditary apparatus of any cell. They form specific structures in the cell nucleus - chromosomes. Their number and shape are strictly constant for each species of animal and plant organisms. Each pair of chromosomes is specific and has its own serial number. The DNA of chromosomes contains in coded form all hereditary information (the program for the development of the future organism). The section of the DNA molecule in which the program for the development of a particular trait is encoded is called genome. Each DNA molecule contains hundreds of genes, their totality is called genotype.

Knowledge of the laws of heredity makes it possible to understand the mechanisms of transmission of hereditary information from parents to children, the patterns of formation of hereditarily determined traits, and the role of genes in the life processes of an organism. Reducing the genetic burden of hereditary anomalies will help preserve the hereditary nature of man.

Distinguish between chromosomal and extrachromosomal inheritance. Chromosomal heredity is associated with the distribution of heredity carriers (genes) in chromosomes. The transmission of traits to offspring can be traced during the inheritance of such hereditary traits that are split in the offspring according to the monogenic type of inheritance in accordance with Mendel's laws. Mendel's laws are empirical rules of inheritance, and they establish the numerical ratios of individual traits and their combinations that appear in hybrid offspring during sexual reproduction.

Extrachromosomal inheritance consists in the inheritance of traits that are controlled by factors localized in the mitochondria. Hereditary information is distributed between daughter cells randomly, so there is no clear Mendelian splitting in these cases. All systems of extrachromosomal heredity interact with chromosomal genes or their products.

An in-depth study of heredity began in the 19th century, and significant progress in this area was made only in the 20th century. After the discovery by Mendel (G. Mendel) in 1865 of the basic laws of heredity, it became undeniable that it is determined by material factors, later called genes. However, back in 1750, P. L. M. Maupertuis and in 1814 J. Adams described some features of the inheritance of individual traits in humans. In 1875, F. Galton proposed a twin method to distinguish between the role of heredity and environment in the development of traits in humans. He substantiated the genealogical method of analysis and developed a number of statistical methods, of which the method of calculating the correlation coefficient is especially valuable.

In the formation of ideas about the nature of heredity, the creation by Th. Morgan and his school of the chromosome theory of heredity was of great importance; it was revealed that the gene is a material structure in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus.

The hereditary information contained in the genes of each individual is the result of the historical development of a given species and the material basis for future evolution. Heredity ensures the storage and implementation of information, in accordance with which the life of the cell, the development of the individual and its vital activity are carried out. The implementation of hereditary information recorded using the genetic code - the alternation of nucleotides in the DNA of the zygote, occurs as a result of continuous mutual influences of the nucleus and cytoplasm, intercellular interactions and hormonal regulation of gene activity.

The child inherits from his parents: external signs (shape of individual parts of the body, eye color, type of constitution, etc.), blood type, properties of the nervous system, certain inclinations (thinking ability, giftedness, memory, etc.), hereditary diseases.

During development, the genotype constantly interacts with the environment. The totality of all the properties and characteristics of an individual, formed as a result of the interaction of the genotype with the environment, is called the phenotype. Some hereditary traits, such as eye color or blood type, are independent of environmental conditions. At the same time, the development of some quantitative traits, such as height and body weight, is greatly influenced by environmental factors. The manifestation of the effects of genes that cause, for example, obesity, largely depends on nutrition, therefore, with the help of an appropriate diet, hereditary obesity can be combated to a certain extent.

Material carriers of heredity contain information not only about normal, but also about pathological signs. So, various kinds of mutations - the genetic load accumulated in the human gene pool, are the cause of a large number of hereditary anomalies that affect hundreds of millions of people on our planet. . Mutations in germ cells can be associated with a change in the number of chromosomes (increase or decrease) or with a change in their gene composition, therefore, chromosome and gene diseases are distinguished.

To genetic diseases include congenital deafness, some forms of schizophrenia, albinism, color blindness, hemophilia and others. Hemophilia is characterized by the fact that only men suffer from it, although the gene for this disease is associated with the female sex chromosome. The second sex chromosome in this pair in women contains a “healthy” gene that dominates the “sick” gene, while in men only the “sick” gene is found.

To the number chromosomal diseases include Down's disease (mental retardation associated with the appearance of a third extra chromosome in 21 pairs), cleft palate, six-fingeredness, anomalies of the eyeball (associated with trisomy in 13-15 pairs). Often an extra chromosome is observed in children of elderly parents.

Diseases with a dominant type of inheritance or sex-linked are found relatively easily. It is more difficult to establish the significance of heredity in the development of such widespread polygenic diseases with a hereditary predisposition, such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, peptic ulcer, schizophrenia, bronchial asthma, etc. The incidence and severity of these diseases depend on a specific combination of environmental factors and hereditary predisposition.

An early pathogenic effect on the fetus is not inevitable, since compensation for violations may occur in the process of subsequent development. Embryos are distinguished not only by their high sensitivity to damaging influences, but also by their very high ability to restore normal development after violations have occurred.

Factors that disrupt the normal course of embryonic development include the following:

1) local pathological processes in the uterine mucosa,

2) lack of supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo,

3) the entry into the blood of the fetus of certain substances harmful to it (drugs, alcohol, nicotine, narcotic drugs, etc.).

Starvation or lack of vitamins, proteins in the mother's food leads to the death of the embryo or to an anomaly in its development. One of the negative factors affecting the development of the organism is ionizing radiation. The cells of the nervous system and hematopoietic organs of the embryo have the greatest sensitivity to radiation exposure. Radiant energy leads to damage to the chromosome set of the germ cell.

Maternal infectious diseases pose a great danger to the fetus. Viral diseases such as measles, rubella, smallpox, influenza, hepatitis, mumps have a negative impact on the developing fetus mainly in the first months of pregnancy, dysentery, tuberculosis, syphilis, toxoplasmosis - mainly in the second and last third of pregnancy.

Factors that disrupt normal development act not only through the mother's body, but through the father's body. Favorable conditions are required for the normal development of any cell, including spermatozoa. Adverse environmental factors (ionizing radiation, isotopes in the soil, building materials, chemical irritants, alcohol, drugs, infectious diseases, malnutrition) can disrupt the normal development of germ cells and cause developmental abnormalities in the body of the embryo.

Currently, more than 2000 hereditary diseases are known, out of every 100 newborns, 4-7 children have genetic defects.

In recent years, medical genetic consultations have gained great importance, where geneticists conduct an accurate scientific calculation of the possibility of manifestation of a particular hereditary disease.

Thus, the initial condition for human development are hereditary factors embedded in the genes. The importance of hereditary inclinations is evidenced by the facts of the early manifestation of special giftedness in children, for example, a musical gift, when there could be no talk of musical education. For example, Mozart, being a four-year-old child, wrote his first, very complex work. The historical facts of ancestral gene riches are known, when, for example, musical or literary talent manifested itself over many generations. The pedigree of Johann-Sebastian Bach included 58 musicians.

Each child has its own genetic basis, genetic inclinations, but their implementation largely depends on environmental conditions, that is, on the conditions of the child's life, upbringing and education. Therefore, the task of parents and teachers is to timely identify the natural abilities of the child and create conditions for their further development. They develop most fully in favorable environmental conditions. Normal social and hygienic conditions of life, systematic activities with the child, physical exercises contribute to the normal physical and mental development of children. The child should feel love from the closest people, both excessive attention and “abandonment” are equally harmful for him. In the absence of care, children grow weak, often get sick, and lag behind in mental development.

Upbringing and training largely determine the changes that a person undergoes from the moment of birth to the onset of maturity, his worldview, views, morality, actions and all behavior in general. The influence of the external environment occurs through a set of internal conditions related to its individual characteristics. From the environment, the child draws for his development only that which meets his needs and interests. Therefore, the development of the child is influenced not only by the people and things themselves, but also by the relationships that the child develops with them. If pedagogical influence does not take into account the experience of the child, the characteristics of his personality and interests, then pedagogical influences would not have support. So, in the learning process, the high achievements of a student depend not only on the skill of the teacher, but also on the preparation of the student himself, on his knowledge, skills and abilities, on his abilities and interest in the matter, on the relationship of the student with the teacher and friends.

4. Function regulation - this is a directed change in the intensity of the work of organs, tissues, cells, supporting the work of life support subsystems and subsystems responsible for performing specific functions. Distinguish nervous, humoral and myogenic mechanisms regulation of bodily functions. The body has self-regulation mechanisms created by nature in the course of its evolution. They are aimed at maintaining entropy at a genetic level.

The coordinated activity of various body systems, maintaining the relative constancy of the cellular composition and physico-chemical properties of the internal environment (homeostasis) is ensured nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation of functions.

humoral mechanism regulation (from the Latin humor - liquid) is phylogenetically more ancient and is associated with the ability of cells to change the intensity of vital activity depending on changes in the physicochemical parameters of the environment. The humoral mechanism of regulation of functions is carried out through the blood, it receives chemicals of various nature and physiological significance: metabolic products, hormones, mediators, biologically active substances. They are carried by the blood stream to all organs (they do not have a specific addressee) and act on certain cells of organs (depending on their sensitivity to a given chemical), causing activation or inhibition of their functional activity. But the humoral mechanism cannot provide a quick restructuring of the body's activity, quick adaptive reactions, since chemicals are carried throughout the body by blood, and the blood flow velocity is low (in the aorta it is 0.5 m/sec, in the capillaries - 0.5 mm/sec) .

In the process of evolution, the nervous system was formed and a second, younger and more perfect neural mechanism regulation of bodily functions. The nervous mechanism, in contrast to the humoral mechanism, provides a quick signaling of the nervous system about changes in the external or internal environment and provides quick adequate responses to these changes. The nervous mechanism has advantages over the humoral mechanism:

 has an exact addressee (nerve impulses that have arisen in receptors through certain nerve fibers enter a certain section of the central nervous system, and from it to certain organs);

 high speed of nerve impulses - from 3 to 120 m/sec.

Nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation of functions are closely interconnected. Humoral factors affect the activity of nerve cells of the central nervous system, which in turn changes the activity of organs. On the other hand, the formation and entry of humoral substances into the blood is regulated by the nervous system (see Chapter 13.1.).

Thus, in the body there is a single neuro-humoral system that provides self-regulation of functions, without which the existence of the body is impossible.

5. The visual analyzer is represented on the periphery by a complex structure of the nerve formation - the retina, containing light-sensitive elements in the form of rods and cones. A special light-refracting apparatus provides focusing on the retina of the rays entering the eye. All these structures, surrounded by the vascular and protein membranes, make up the eyeball.

Adequate irritant for the visual analyzer are light rays. Visible rays occupy only a small area in the spectrum of electromagnetic waves, limited by a wavelength from 750 (red rays) to 400 millimicrons (violet rays).

The value of the visual analyzer is not limited to a simple difference in objects, their illumination and coloration. Visual sensations are accompanied by afferent impulses from the tendon-muscle receptors of the muscles of the eye. These impulses arise during the movements of the eyeball, as well as during the activity of muscles that carry out adaptive changes in the apparatus of the eye (changes in the width of the pupil, the bulge of the lens). Thanks to the joint action of the visual and motor analyzers, it is also possible to distinguish the spatial shape of objects, their size, movement and distance.

The peripheral, or receptor, department of the visual analyzer is very complex. Light-sensitive and light-refracting apparatus are located in the eyeball.

The shells form a dense capsule of the eyeball, inside which is a transparent gelatinous substance - the vitreous body.

If we consider the eyeball, then on the outer surface of it you can see a fibrous membrane, called the sucler, or protein membrane. The anterior part of this membrane forms a transparent cornea. In the region of the posterior pole of the eyeball, the protein coat covers the optic nerve trunk entering the eyeball.

Under the sclera lies the choroid, rich in blood vessels and pigment. Anteriorly, it gradually passes into the ciliary, or ciliary, body, in which there are smooth muscle fibers that form the ciliary muscle. The most anterior section of the choroid, bordering the pupil in the form of an annular strip, is called the iris. There are two types of muscles in the iris: circular and radial. When the circular muscles contract, the pupil constricts, and when the radial muscles contract, it expands.

Thus, the pupil plays the role of a diaphragm that regulates the intensity of light falling on the photosensitive membrane of the eye. The presence of single cells in the iris determines the color of the eyes.

Accommodation(from lat. accommodation- adaptation) - the ability of the eye to see clearly at various distances. It is carried out using the coordinated work of three elements: the ciliary (ciliary) muscle, the ciliary ligament and the lens.

The normal state of the eye is distance accommodation when the muscles are relaxed. In order to view an object up close, the ciliary (so-called ciliary) muscle contracts, the zinn ligaments relax, as a result of which the elastic lens increases its curvature (becomes convex). This leads to an increase in its optical power by 12–13 diopters, the light rays are brought into focus on the retina and the image becomes clear. In the absence of a stimulus to accommodation, the ciliary muscle relaxes, the refractive power of the eye decreases, and it again focuses to infinity. There is disaccommodation (or accommodation in the distance).

One of the most important conditions for normal accommodation is the elasticity of the lens. Unfortunately, the elasticity of the lens changes with age. The highest accommodative properties of the lens - in childhood. With age, the elasticity of the lens decreases and gradually (usually after 40–45 years) the ability to see well at close range decreases, the so-called presbyopia - age-related farsightedness . In most cases, by the age of 60-70, the ability to accommodate is lost completely.

At twilight, the accommodation that provides distance vision disappears. This circumstance is one of the causes of poor vision (uncomfortable vision) in the evening and at night. The accommodation value is on average 2.0 diopters, respectively, in low light conditions hypermetropia (farsightedness) decreases by 2.0 diopters, the eye without refractive error (emmetropic eye) becomes myopic, and myopia increases by 2.0 diopters.

The accommodative ability of the eye is expressed in diopters or linear values.

Functional peace of accommodation is the absence of an accommodative stimulus in the visual field

Area of ​​accommodation is the distance between the furthest (distant vision) and nearest (near vision) points of clear vision.

Volume of accommodation- this is the difference in the refractive index of the eye (in diopters) when set to the nearest and farthest points of clear vision.

Stock (reserve) of accommodation- this is the unused part of the volume of accommodation (in diopters) when the eye is set to the fixation point.

The accommodation indices obtained during the examination of each eye separately are called absolute. And both at once - relative, because. are performed with a certain convergence (reduction) of the visual axes.

Accommodation is closely related to convergence. With the same angle of convergence of the visual lines, the accommodation costs in patients with different (visual acuity) are not the same. So, for example, in children with uncorrected hypermetropia (farsightedness) of medium and high degree, accommodative convergent strabismus may develop.

The way the human body is arranged from the inside has interested people since ancient times. Even when the basic laws by which people lived were ecclesiastical, forbidding the study of the structure of the body, there were scientists and naturalists who, in spite of everything, opened up the corpses of animals and people and were engaged in examining and studying all the details of interest.

The craving for knowledge in this area could not be overcome. Therefore, over time, it was still found out how the human body works. The scheme, the drawing of each organ and system was recorded by artists, testers, doctors, scientists, thanks to this, multiple sciences arose that still exist today.

Development of knowledge about the structure of the human body

Back in the 5th century, a man named Alkemon lived in Kraton. It was he who first expressed a desire to study the internal structure of living organisms, so he opened the corpses of animals. His main merit is the assumption of the relationship between the sense organs and the brain.

Later, from about 460 BC, a more conscious and intensive development of knowledge in the area under consideration begins. The following scientists made a great contribution to understanding what the human body is (the scheme of its structure, the topography of internal organs were also described):

1. Hippocrates.
2. Aristotle.
3. Plato.
4. Herophilus.
5. Claudius Galen.
6. Avicenna.
7. Leonardo da Vinci.
8. Andreas Vesalius.
9. William Harvey.
10. Caspar Azelli.

Thanks to these people, a general scheme of the structure of the human body was drawn up. There was knowledge about functional features, organ systems, tissues and their meaning, as well as other very important things.

The 17th century was a period of stagnation for all sciences, and this did not bypass the area we are considering. But later, the scheme of the human body (you can see the figure below) was significantly replenished, refined and transformed thanks to numerous discoveries. A new technique has appeared that makes it possible to study microstructures, and methods of experiment, observation, and comparison have been intensively applied. Special contributions were made by:

Thus, the human body was studied in detail, the scheme became complete and reflects all available organs and systems. Today, any student can consider both topography and a detailed description of each to study the functions performed and the internal structure.

General scheme "Man is a living organism"

If we talk about such a scheme, then it should be noted what exactly it contains. First, it can be presented in different versions. Some of these drawings and diagrams contain only verbal descriptions, a classification of the internal structures of a person, reflect their relationship and functions. Others, on the contrary, do not contain descriptions, but simply illustrate the topographic in the body, show their mutual orientation, the general plan of the structure. Organ systems are also reflected here. If you combine both options, then such a scheme will turn out to be too cumbersome, difficult to understand. The second type is more commonly used.

Therefore, the scheme "Man - a living organism" includes an image of organs from the following body systems (in case a full version of the whole body is provided):

1. Cardiovascular and lymphatic. Here the scheme of bodies and channels of a person is reflected in detail.
2. Digestive system.
3. Musculoskeletal or musculoskeletal.
4. Reproductive.
5. Excretory (genitourinary is called the combined system of reproductive and excretory organs).
6. Nervous and endocrine systems.
7. Sensory, or organs of sense and perception.

Thus, this diagram provides detailed information about the structure of the human body and the location of its organs. There are also many different tables and drawings, diagrams, which reflect the detailed microstructure of any organ. All features of the structure, functioning and location are described.

If you combine all these drawings, you get a whole book. Such publications are called "Human Biology in Tables and Diagrams" and often greatly simplify the life of schoolchildren, students and teachers. After all, they briefly, succinctly and clearly set out all the basics necessary for a general idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe structure of people.

Lymph formation system

Immunity plays an important role in maintaining a healthy state of the human body. But what is he? It turns out that this is the lymph circulation system, which is an important addition to the cardiovascular organs. It contains cells called "lymphocytes". It is they who perform the role of a biological defender of the body from viruses and bacteria, foreign particles and everything extraneous.

The human lymphatic system, the scheme of which is presented below, has a number of structures that make it up:

1. Trunks and channels.
2. capillaries.
3. Vessels.

Together, they form a network that is open-ended, unlike a cardiovascular one. Also in this system there is no central governing body. Lymphatic fluid (lymph) is a product of the vital activity of the intercellular space, which, under low pressure, moves through the vessels and nodes, capillaries, and trunks.

During an illness, for example, a cold, each person can feel an increase in the lymph nodes of his body. They are located under the lower jaw, in the armpits, inguinal region. Feeling them is easy enough. This confirms the fact that it is in them that the main struggle with the disease takes place. Thus, the main barrier to disease is the human lymphatic system. Its scheme shows exactly how all the structural parts are located and how they are interconnected.

Digestive system

One of the most important in the body. After all, it is thanks to her work that a person receives nutrients for growth, development, energy for life processes. Without it, it is impossible to move, grow, think, and so on. After all, every process requires energy, which lies in the chemical bonds of nutrient molecules.

A diagram of the human digestive system shows which organs make up this network.

1. The oral cavity, including the teeth, tongue, palate, and inner muscular part of the cheeks.
2. Throat and esophagus.
3. Stomach.
4. Digestive glands that secrete secretions to digest food.
5. Intestine, consisting of several departments: duodenum, small intestine and large intestine.

The cardiovascular system

Represents two circles of blood circulation, consisting of the main organ - the heart - and arteries, vessels, capillaries extending from it. The total blood volume of an adult is approximately 5 liters. However, the indicator fluctuates depending on body weight.

The heart is a central organ capable of rhythmically contracting, pushing blood into the channel under a certain pressure. Consists of four chambers closely interconnected.

human nervous system

One of the most difficult. Consists of:

• brain;
• spinal cord;
• nerve cells;
• fabrics.

Nearly every part of the human body contains nerve cells. They perceive irritations, transmit pain sensations, warning of danger. Their structure is quite peculiar. The brain and spinal cord include a number of sections, each of which exercises careful control over the work of one or another part of the body.

Sensor systems

There are five of them:

All of them together also make up the human body. The structure diagram shows what parts the sensory system is made up of, what structural features it has and what functions it performs.

human excretory system

The structure of this system includes the following bodies:

• kidneys;
• bladder;
• ureters.

Another name for this system is excretory. The main function is the excretion of metabolic products, the release of the body from toxic decay products.

Sciences that study the human body

There are several main ones. Although their number has grown significantly compared, for example, with the XVIII century. These are such sciences as:

• anatomy;
• physiology;
• hygiene;
• genetics;
• the medicine;
• psychology.

Physiology deals with the consideration of the functioning of a particular system. That is, its task is to answer the question: "How does this happen?" So, for example, it is this discipline that considers the mechanisms of the change of sleep and wakefulness, the features of the higher nervous activity of a person are studied.

Genetics and human hygiene

Genetics deals with the study of the mechanisms of inheritance of certain traits, as well as the causes and consequences of changes in the human chromosomal apparatus. Thanks to this science, people have learned to predict serious genetic abnormalities in the development of the fetus, control this process and, if possible, intervene and change its course.

Hygiene helps answer the question: "Why do we need cleanliness and how to achieve health?" This science tells in detail about the rules for maintaining the cleanliness of your body, about the significance of this process, about the mechanisms of immunity, which directly depend on the indicator of cleanliness, the level of bacteria and viruses. This discipline is relatively young, but no less important than all the others.

Psychology and medicine

Psychology is a very complex and subtle science that penetrates the consciousness and higher nervous activity of a human being. It is designed to explain the basic mechanisms of the psychosomatic structure of people. There are a number of sections of psychology that deal with all social issues relating to people (the psychology of family relationships, age, experimental, and so on).

Medicine is the most important science that deals with the health of people. Naturally, it closely borders on all other disciplines: physiology, anatomy, genetics, hygiene and psychology.

The foundations of medicine originated with humanity. After all, unfortunately, people always got sick. At all times, next to them were hereditary (genetic) diseases and other ailments. Therefore, this science is one of the most important when it comes to preserving life and health.

There are many sections that combine medicine into a single whole: surgery, oncology, hematology, therapy, dermatology, traumatology and others. All of them are narrowly specialized on specific problems, have their own methods of studying the problem and resolving it.

In general, all sciences that study the human body are one. After all, they are united by a common goal - to study, consider, explain all parts of the body, learn to control every organ and every cell of the body.

Anatomy as the main science

Of course, the very first, historically developed and its structure is anatomy. It was thanks to the development of this discipline that people became aware of what organs are in the human body, how they are located there (topography), how they are arranged and on what principles their work is based.

Above, we considered the main historical milestones in the development of knowledge about man. These are the stages of development of anatomy. Those people whose names have been named are the founders and fathers of this huge and important discipline.

The task of anatomy has always been the same for all times - to study the internal structure and external morphological features of all organs and systems, as well as tissues. Not for nothing in translation from Greek anatome - "dissection".