What words in Russian originated from Latin words. latin roots

Latin is the language of Ancient Rome (VI century BC - V century AD).

The vast majority of Latin words began to penetrate into Old Russian, and then into Russian, when Latin was already a dead language. They entered through intermediary languages, first through the Old Slavonic language, then through Polish, German, French, etc.

Among the words of Latin origin there are many scientific and political terms, in general, words associated with "scientific" occupations: native, abstraction, lawyer, axiom, alibi, audience, affix, vacuum, vein, deduction, dean, dictatorship, inertia, colleague, cone, conference, meridian, perpendicular, proportion, radius, rector, review, formula, constitution, manifesto, memorandum, plenum, revolution, republic, referendum, faction, etc. Words from other thematic groups: intelligentsia, office, cooperation, culture, course, laureate , literature, maximum, minimum, motor, nation, innovator, revision, center, instance, etc.

Many proper personal names came from the Latin language: August, Anton, Valentin, Valery, Victor, Ignatius, Innokenty, Claudia, Konstantin, Maxim, Marina, Natalia, Pavel, Roman, Sergei, Felix, Julius, etc.

Signs of Latin words - final - e nt, -tor, -um, -ur (a), -yc *, -tion, etc.: document, associate professor, incident, monument, enzyme; author, announcer, doctor, innovator, rector, equator; quorum, consultation, memorandum, opium, plenum, presidium, forum; fittings, dictatorship, censorship, etc.; degree, consensus, cone, corpus, sine, status, tone; diction, intelligentsia, constitution, nation, reaction, section, faction, etc.

See also:

« Russian language and culture speeches". under the editorship of Professor V. I. Maksimov. Recommended Ministry. P FOREWORD. Chapter I Speech in interpersonal and social relations.

Russian language and culture speeches. Speech and mutual understanding. On the process of mutual understanding speech communication, some features of the use of language in speeches.

Russian language and culture speeches. culture speech communication. Under culture speech communication is understood as such a selection and organization of language tools that contribute to the most effective achievement of the tasks in this area speech...

Russian language and culture speeches. Three main types of interaction between dialogue participants in Russian language.So, dialogic unity is ensured by the connection of various kinds of replicas (formulas speech etiquette, question-answer, addition, narration...

Russian language and culture speeches. Structure speech communications. As an act of communication, speech always facing someone.

Russian language and culture speeches. Establishment (maintenance) of business contacts .Communicative setting definition social and role status of participants in communication, the establishment of social speech contact.

Russian language and culture speeches. Speech, her features.K speeches also refer to the products of speaking in the form speech a work (text) fixed by memory or writing.

A significant place in the textbook is occupied by material related to culture speech communication and paperwork. The textbook is aimed at presenting modern views regarding Russian language and culture speeches at the beginning of the 21st century...

abel, abil habilis fit,

fit; skillful, capable

means: having the ability, able to be (the ability to carry out the action expressed by the root); cf. Russian -able, English, French -able/-ible, German -abel/-ibel.

In Russian language influenced by English. languages began to appear semi-calques, for example: unfold readable (cf. English eatable, readable).

transportable"capable of being transferred"; cf. English, French transportable, German transportabel

rehabilitation restoration of bodily capabilities after their loss (medical and psychological rehabilitation) or civil rights (opportunities), good name (legal rehabilitation); cf. English rehabilitation, fr. rehabilitation, German Rehabilitation

Wed also: English reversible, fr. reversible, German reversible (legal, tech. reversible); lat. Homo habilis (handy man, probable ancestor of Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens).

agent

cm. Act.

agro ager, agri land, field, arable land

agronomy agriculture

agriculture ways to improve farming techniques agrarian land

aqua aqua water

aquarium water tank

water area part of the water surface (cf. territory)aqueduct(ancient) plumbing

Wed lat. Aquarius - Aquarius (constellation).

Act agere set in motion, do, act; actio movement, activity; actor incumbent; activus active

Act action, deed stock action

actor actor, performer reaction action in response to

interaction interaction, deal; cf. English, French interaction

agent something active or someone active

reagent substance involved in a chemical reaction

alg alga seaweed

It is necessary to distinguish lat. alg(seaweed) from Greek. alg(pain, suffering).

algology branch of botany that studies algae

algocid algae killer; see lat cide

alps from the Alps

forms words with meaning alpine; a rather rare case when a proper name (the name of a mountain system) has become a derivational element.

Alpine alpine; cf. English alpine, fr. and German. alpine

mountaineering climbing high mountains rock garden park composition imitating an alpine meadow

anima anima life, soul; animare to animate, animate

animation animation of drawings, dolls (formerly called animation)

resuscitation"return of the soul", return from a state of clinical death

animism belief in the animation of all objects and phenomena, a primitive form of religion

Wed lat. animal - animated (living) being, animal.

audi audire hear, listen

audience meeting of listeners, as well as the room where they gather

auditor initially: investigator, i.e., listening to answers to his questions, now: a person authorized to conduct an audit, verification of financial and economic activities

audiometry hearing measurement

audio equipment sound recording and reproducing devices

Cf .: "Audi" (the name of the passenger cars of the German company) is a translation of the former name "Horch" ("Horch"), which in German means "listen."

bi bis twice

forms words with meaning double, double(consisting of two parts, having two signs); corresponds to Russian. two-/two-, Greek di-(??-).

biceps biceps

binomial"double" mat. binomial

biathlon biathlon (skiing and shooting); cf. triathlon, pentathlon

bilingualism bilingualism, bilingualism

bilateral bilateral; bilateral symmetry - bilateral, like in most animals

bin bini two, pair;

binarius binary

binoculars"two-eyed" optical device (cf. Russian eye)

binary double, consisting of two components

shaft valere to be healthy, strong, strong; have influence, significance, value; valens, validus healthy, strong, strong

validity"strength", adequacy (e.g., assertion, scientific method)

currency monetary unit, banknotes (it. valuta - letters. price)

devaluation depreciation, decrease in the value of a currency

disabled person powerless, incapable; cf. English invalid, fr. invalide

valence"strength" of a chemical element (measured by the number of atoms with which it can form chemical bonds)

ambivalent double, dual

equivalent equivalent

valence

cm. shaft.

valid

cm. shaft.

vent venire to come; ventio arrival

convention elective body (lat. conventus - letters. meeting, assembly); cf. congress, concession, synod

adventchurch"arrival" of Christmas, the time preceding Christmas, Christmas post (lat. adventus - letters. coming); cf. English, German Advent

convention"convergence" in opinion, agreement, agreement

willow verbum word

verbal verbal

verbalization translation into words

Wed: English verb, fr. verbe, germ. Verb (verb); once Russian. word verb meant "word, speech".

vers versare to turn, turn; (change

reversible reversible, swivel

version one of several interpretations (turns) of smth.

conversion transformation, transformation

sabotage deviation; destruction (originally: distraction maneuver)

controversial controversial, contradictory; cf. English controversial

visas video I look, I look, I see; viso I look, I look, I look

visual visual; cf. English visual, fr. visual, German

visuell revision revision

provisions"foresight", prudently stocked food

improvisation actions without "foresight", without preparation

vizier viewfinder, sight

visit phenomenon "in person"

TV set far-sight device

vice vice, vicem instead of, like, like, as (someone)

forms words with meanings: assistant, deputy, second person (by position, rank).

vice president first deputy president vice mayor deputy mayor vice governor deputy governor

provocation"calling" the action necessary for the provocateur, the impact on smb. in order to push to a certain action (actions)

advocate legal aid lawyer (who is called upon, invited to assist, defend)

vocable word

ox 1 voluntas will, desire

voluntarism strategy of action that ignores objective circumstances

volunteer volunteer

Wed lat. volens nolens - willy-nilly.

ox 2 volvo I roll, I rotate, I spin

evolution development (this is a Russian word - tracing paper) involution"retinue", simplification (opp. evolution)revolver"twist", something that can rotate in both directions (for example, a drum in one of the types of handguns, because of which the weapon itself was called a revolver)

the revolution coup

hail gradus step, degree, step

degree unit of measurement of arcs and angles, temperature, strength of drinks

degradation decline, movement down the steps of the ladder (social, service)

gradient a measure of increase or decrease of smth. physical quantity when moving per unit (step) distance

gradation gradual transition from one to another, as well as the steps of this transition

gress gressus move, movement

progress forward movement, forward movement regression); cf. Slovenian napredek, Czech. vzestup, Polish postep

regression backward movement, decline (opp. progress)

aggression attack, onslaught

progression series of numbers (going to infinity)

congress congress, meeting (lat. congressus - letters. convergence, gathering); cf. synod

demi

cm. seven.

deci decem ten

decimation disciplinary punishment in the ancient Roman army: the execution of every tenth in the offending unit

In the names of units of measurement, it denotes the coefficient "one tenth", for example: decibel, decimeter.

dict dicere to speak; dictare

diction"speaking", the quality of pronunciation

speaker speaker, radio or television worker

dictator telling people what to do and how to do it

predicatelog., lingv. predicate

Wed: English prediction, fr. prediction (prediction); English, French abdication (renunciation).

domino dominari to dominate, rule; dominus lord

dominance dominance, dominance

dominant the dominant component of smth.

duct ducere to lead, lead, conduct, produce

product something produced

products production products

aqueduct(ancient) plumbing

induction guidance: in logic, particular statements to a general conclusion (cf. deduction), in physics - electric current by a magnetic field

introduction introduction

deduction inference from a general statement

to the private (vs. induction)

conductor conductor

Wed: it. duce (Duce - the title of Mussolini), rum. conducator (conductor - the title of Ceausescu); English duke, fr. duc, Spanish duque (duke).

ect jactare throw, toss, throw off, overthrow

an object subject (this is Russian sloovo - tracing paper)

objective"subjective", unbiased

subjectlog., lingv. subject of judgment, subject;

cf. English subject, fr. sujet, germ. Subject

projection ejection forward (for example, light - and thus pictures - from the projector to the screen); cf. English, French projection

project proposal, plan for creating (including writing) smth.

ejaculation ejection (of semen during intercourse)

injection injecting, squirting

injector, injector injector (this could also be called a medical injection tool, but the word was borrowed from the German language syringe– Spritze)

trajectory line that describes the center of gravity of a moving body (tra– from trance-)

Wed English jet - jet, jet (i.e. throwing out a jet); as sum/. - a jet (of something), a jet engine, unfold reactive plane; in the meaning of “jet aircraft”, the word is borrowed by many European languages (for example, French jet, German Jet).

capit, kaput caput head (body part), head (chief); capitulum head, chapter (section); capitalis main (head)

capital top (head) of a column

captain commander, head of a ship or military unit

cabbage garden plant (still the same “head”, head of cabbage)

capitulate agree on clauses (chapters) of conditions for the surrender, cessation of armed resistance

biceps biceps muscle (lat. biceps - from bis + caput)

Wed: English, Spanish. capital, it, fr. capitale (capital, main city); it. capitolo, Spanish capitulo, English dapter, fr. chapitre (chapter - in the book).

carn caro, carnis meat, flesh, body

incarnation embodiment

reincarnation reincarnation, the transfer of the soul

from one carrier body to another carnosaurus predatory (carnivorous) dinosaur carnival festival (it. carnevale - "farewell to meat"; at first, carnivals were held before Great Lent (meat-empty), i.e. it was an analogue of our Maslenitsa)

Wed: English carnal - carnal, carnation - carnation (the flower of this plant looks like a piece of raw meat); lat. carnivora- zool. predatory (a detachment of mammals with families of cats, mustelids, canines, etc.).

square, square

quattuor four; quadri - four-

square quadrilateral with equal parallel sides

quadriphony speaker system of four sound sources, creating the effect of its "voluminous" quadriga chariot drawn by four horses

quasi quasi as if

forms words with meaning imaginary, false, false, For example: quasi-diamond, quasi-scientist, quasi-scientific.

quasiparticles physical quanta of elementary excitations of the system

quasi-stationary: quasi-stationary current - relatively slowly changing electric current

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Latin and Greek borrowings in Russian

Vorobyova Maria

MOBU "Lyceum No. 3", 6 "B" class

School teacher

Babaskina Irina Evgenievna,

teacher of Russian language and literature

Orenburg 2012

1. Introduction 3

Purpose and objectives of the study.

2. Literature review on the issues covered in the teaching and research work 4

3. Classification and methods of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language. 7

4. Objects and methods of research 9

5. Research results 9

6. Conclusion 15

7. Practical significance of the study. sixteen

8. References 17

Purpose of the study:

I. At the lexical level, consider the functioning of Latin and Greek borrowings in modern Russian.

II. Raise your cultural level, expand your horizons of knowledge.

Tasks:

1. Acquaintance with the literature on the problems raised in the educational and research work.

2. To identify ways of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language.

3. Collection of lexical material and compilation of a working file.

1. Introduction

For almost 20 centuries, the Latin language served the peoples of Europe as a means of communication, with its help they got acquainted and perceived Roman and Greek culture. He had a huge impact on the languages of European peoples, both in the field of grammar and especially in the field of vocabulary. Russia joined the heritage of Roman civilization through the book way, as early as the 15th century, translations of Latin works became widespread in Russia.

The Greek language played a huge role in the formation of Slavic writing, the Old Church Slavonic language. In addition, the cultural achievements of the Greek civilization not only had a significant impact on Russian culture, but also almost completely laid the foundations of the Western European civilizational type. Language serves as a means of accumulation and storage of culturally significant information.

We believe that this topic is relevant. In this work, we have analyzed only a small part of the vocabulary of Latin and Greek origin. This was painstaking, but interesting work, because behind every word there is a whole story.

2. Literature review on issues raised in the educational and research work.

In the process of their historical development, human languages have constantly entered into and continue to enter into certain contacts with each other. Language contact is the interaction of two or more languages that has some effect on the structure and vocabulary of one or more of them. The simplest case of language contact is the borrowing of a word from one language into another. As a rule, the borrowing of a word is associated with the borrowing of an object or concept denoted by this word.

There is a whole story behind every word in any language. Language, as the most important means of our cultural and national identity, can tell us a lot of interesting things. It influences the minds of the people who speak it no less than people influence it.

Language, like people, can be plastic or conservative or even "dead" like the ancient Greek and Latin languages. “The language has its ancestor who gave it life, under favorable conditions it can be far from its progenitor, giving rise, like the Latin language brought by the Romans, to a whole family of noble offspring” (W. Stevenson).

Since ancient times, the Russian people entered into cultural, trade, military, political relations with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually borrowed words, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - to assimilate, to liken) by the borrowing language, were among the words of general use and were no longer perceived as foreign. In different eras, words from other languages penetrated into the original language (Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper).

Borrowing - the process by which a word appears and is fixed in the language. Borrowing replenishes the vocabulary of the language. Borrowed words reflect the completeness of contacts between peoples. So, in the Germanic languages there is an extensive layer of the most ancient Latin borrowings, in the Slavic languages the most ancient borrowings come from the Germanic and Iranian languages. For example, the German word Arzt "doctor" comes from the Latin arhiator (Chief Physician), etc.

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often changes. So, the French word chance means " luck " or "you are lucky", while the Russian word " chance " means only "the possibility of good luck." Sometimes the meaning changes beyond recognition. For example, the Russian word " moron" came from the Greek private person", the word "shed" goes back to the Persian word with the meaning " castle" (it entered the Russian language through the Turkic languages). It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. This is the history of the word bistro" , which came into the Russian language from French, where it arose after the war of 1812, when parts of the Russian troops ended up on the territory of France - probably as a transmission of the replica "Quickly!"

The main flow of borrowings of foreign words comes through the colloquial speech of professionals.

Among borrowings, a group of so-called internationalisms stands out, i.e. words of Greek-Latin origin, which have become widespread in many languages of the world. These include, for example, the Greek words:philosophy, democracy, problem, revolution, principle, progress, analysis.In addition to ready-made Latin and Greek words, individual Greek-Latin morphemes are widely used in international scientific terminology: roots, prefixes, suffixes (many Greek morphemes were borrowed by Latin in ancient times). Building elements of Greek origin include for example:bio-, geo-, hydro-, anthropo-, pyro-, chrono-, psycho-, micro-, demo-, theo-, paleo-, neo-, macro-, poly, mono-, para-, allo-, -logia, -grafi-, super-, inter- , extra-, re-, or-, -izationand others. When constructing terms, international Greek and Latin elements can be combined with each other (for example: TV, sociology), as well as with morphemes borrowed from new European languages, for example, a speedometer (from the English Speed “Speed”).

Words of Greek origin in Russian are of two types - in accordance with the era and the way they were borrowed. The most numerous group is made up of those Greek words that came into Russian through Latin and new European languages - this includes all international scientific terminology, as well as many generally significant words, such astheme, scene, alphabet, barbarian, pulpit, Athens, date.Finally, in the Russian language there are single words borrowed from ancient Greek in its classical version, for example, the philosophical term ecumene (lit."population ”), going back to the same word “ house", which is included in the words economy or ecology.

A particularly important role in the Russian language is played by borrowings from Church Slavonic, a closely related language in which divine services were conducted in Russia and which until the middle of the 17th century. simultaneously performed the function of the Russian literary language. These include: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, icon, monk,monastery, lampada, sexton and others.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such asbread, mug, umbrella, sail, market, bazaar, station, tomato, cutlet, car, cucumber, church, tea, sugar andothers, many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

3. Classification and methods of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language.

Latinisms and Greekisms first began to penetrate into the Russian language several centuries ago. The greatest number of them came to our language in the XVIII and XIX centuries. This is due to the general cultural influence on Russia of the countries of Western Europe and, above all, France, whose language is the closest descendant of Latin. Latinisms came to us directly from the Latin language, but could be borrowed indirectly - through other languages. Therefore, Latinisms and Greekisms are divided intodirect and indirect. The most common intermediary languages were French, English, German, Italian and Polish. So many European words are borrowed into Russian through Polish, for example, music (a word of Greek origin that came into Russian through Europe and Poland), the word market (Polish ryneh with the same meaning, which arose, in turn, from the German Ring- ring, circle ) and others. There are borrowings with a very long and complex history, for example, the word"lacquer" : it came to the Russian language from German or Dutch, to these languages \u200b\u200bfrom Italian, while the Italians most likely borrowed it from the Arabs, to whom it came through Iran from India.

Latinisms and Greekisms are classified into artificial and natural. artificial Latinisms are words that arose as terms of technical devices, art history or socio-political terminology. These words were created by individuals, mainly in our time, and they did not exist in living Latin.

Kalki. In some cases, one Latin and the same Greek word served as a source for two borrowings in Russian. They arise by literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of the word (prefixes, roots). Tracing is, for example, the word"spelling" (gr. Orthos et grapho), adverb (Latin ad t verbum). Word-building calques are known from the words of Greek, Latin, German, French.

Neologisms. Among the neologisms of recent years, we observe vocabulary of Latin origin, which came into the Russian language through the medium of the English language. These are Latinisms in anglicized form. Word office (English Office, lat. Officum - service, duty), sponsor (Eng. Sponsor lat. Spondare - solemnly promise, patron, private person or any organization that finances something, anyone).

4. Objects and methods of research.

The material for educational and research work is the etymological dictionary of the Russian language by the authors Shansky N.M., Ivanova V.V., Shanskoy T.V. This dictionary includes over 3000 words. In difficult cases, the Newest Dictionary of Foreign Words was used. By sampling from this dictionary, a working card file of the author was created, which has 100 cards. Each card indicates the source (given dictionary), the heading word (vocabulary), the Latin and Greek word, origin, translation into Russian. Latinisms and Greekisms are represented by words that actually function in the Russian language, as well as the latest borrowings (computer, counterfeit, etc.)

Borrowed words can be considered in different ways. We will consider the languages from which these borrowings came into the Russian language at different periods of development and enter them into cards. Borrowings occur at all language levels, but in our work it is most convenient to work with vocabulary borrowings, because at the same time, it was possible to get a fairly complete picture of interlingual interaction based on dictionary data.

Our card index contains vocabulary: socio-political, economic, legal, cult, medical, vocabulary of enlightenment and education, philological, commonly used words and terms that are included in the active vocabulary of the Russian language.

5. Results of own research

Any research involves, first of all, the classification of the objects under study. Having studied the theory of classification and methods of penetration of borrowings into the Russian language, we set ourselves the task of identifying the grounds for classifying our material.

Working with the card index, we were able to establish that there are various bases for the classification of lexical Latinisms and Greekisms. We have chosen the following:

1) Direct borrowing

Direct ones are those that came into the Russian language directly from the source language (Latin).

In our card index of 100 words - 40 direct borrowings.

Symposium, scholarship, stimulus, university, board, presidium, session, nonsense, tomato, passport, decoration, carnival, medic, audience, maximum, index, stroke, president, pluralism, lecture, abstract, seminar, rector, professor, alibi, symbol, etc.

scholarship lat. 1) soldier's salary. 2) financial scholarship

Stroke (insulto< лат) 1) скачу, впрыгиваю. 2) острое нарушение мозгового кровообращения.

October -October, octo - eight in ancient Rome, the 8th month of the year after the reform of the calendar by Julius Caesar 10th month.

Session - session< лат происхождение от глагола “sedere” (сидеть), буквально - сидение.

Stimulus - stimulus< лат 1) остроконечная палка, которой погоняли скот. 2)в русском языке - поощрение, стимул.

Symposium - Symposium< лат. 1) пир, пирушка. 2) совещание

Style - stulus< лат. палочка для письма у древних греков.

Lecture - lectio< лат. вид учебного занятия.

2) Indirect borrowing

Of the 100 words in our card index, 60 lexemes are indirect or indirect borrowings. We have established that the intermediary languages through which Latin words came to Russian are French, German, Polish, English, Italian. They went through a difficult path, moving from language to language, and got into the Russian language through not one language, but two, three.

For example, a lawyer (Latin advocatus, German -Advokat)

Introvert (lat- intro inside + vertere - eng. introvert-turn)

Classification (Latin -classis, German - Klassifikation)

penny (Latin - grossus, Polish - gross)

Bottle (Latin - buticula, Polish - butelka)

Bath (Latin - wannus, German - Wanne)

Public (Latin - publicum, Polish - publica)

Lady (Latin - domina, Polish - dama)

Board (Greek - discos, Latin - discus, German - tisch)

Coin (lat. - moneta, through the Polish language from the Latin language)

Patch( emplastrum. borrowed from it. language, in which pflaster goes back to lat. emplastrum, learned in turn from Greek)

Tomato (via French from Latin), in which pomidoro means "golden apples"

Russian word "Crystal" ”(the outdated form “crystal” is borrowed directly from Greek, and through the Latin language - crystallus, then through it. Kristall it entered the Russian word in the form “crystal”).

Student - borrowed at the beginning of the 18th century from it. language in which Studens is a student (from studio - I study, I study)

Exam - lat. origin, where amen - truth, ex - going out - truth going out, i.e. examination. In the church service, the Orthodox often hear the word "amen" - this means "into the truth."

Session - lat. the origin of "sessio" from the verb sedere - to sit, literally - sitting.

Crib - formed with the help of the suffix -ka, from crib - paper, borrowed from the Polish language. The Polish word "szargal" - old scribbled paper goes back to the Latin sparganum - a diaper, acquired in turn from the Greek language.

Stimulus - lat (a pointed stick, which drove cattle, and in Russian - encouragement, incentive - there was a loss of the internal form of the word).

3) Artificial borrowings.

Artificial borrowings, as a rule, consist of 2 multilingual elements.

Biathlon (Latin Bi + Greek athlon - competition) - a ski race with rifle shooting (standing and prone) at several lines.

Sociology (lat. soci - society + Greek. logos - concept, doctrine) - the science of society.

Fluorography (lat. flour - flow + Greek grapho - write) - a method of X-ray examination of the organs of the human body by transferring an image from a translucent screen to film.

Futurology (lat. futurum - future + Greek. Logos) - science, a field of scientific knowledge that aims to provide for the future.

Scuba (lat. Aquva-water, English lung - light) - an apparatus for diving at great depths.

Supermarket (lat. super - over, English - market - market) - large (usually a grocery store)

Deodorant (French des + Latin odor - smell) - a means to remove an unpleasant odor.

4) Tracing paper and semi-tracing paper

Humanity (lat. Humanus + Russian. suf. awn)

Tolerance (lat. tolerantio- patience)

Creativity (lat. creo - create, create)

erudition(eruditus - learning)

There are only 4 words in our card index, which are composed using the Russian suffix ost and the Latin root.

5) Neologisms

In the Russian language of modern times, Latinisms appear in an anglicized form. This vocabulary is associated with the latest achievements of science and technology.

There are 6 neologisms in our card file.

A computer English computer< лат.compulor - счетчик

Cursor English cursor< указатель <лат cursorius - быстро бегающий или cursor - бегун - вспомогательный, подвижный знак, отмечающий рабочую точку экрана компьютера.

Scuba - (at aqua-water + English lung - light) - apparatus for scuba diving

Internet (inter-lat and eng-net) - the world wide web.

Office (English officium - service, duty) - office

Sponsor (eng. sponsor and lat spondare - philanthropist) - a private person or organization, a firm that finances someone.

Our card file contains Greekisms.

1) Direct borrowing

Direct borrowings from Greek. These are words related to various spheres of human activity, commonly used words, church vocabulary.

For example:

Bed - Borrowed from Greek. Greek Krabbation has been celebrated since the 17th century.

Alphabet - Alphaboetos - in Greek, a compound word made up of the names of the first 2 letters alpha and beta ("alphabet").

2) Indirect borrowing

A large number of Greek words came to us through French and German. This can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is historically connected with the culture of France and Germany. Many French Greekisms (plastic, cream, scandal) appeared in the era of enlightenment, when Russian art and the direction of scientific thought were formed under the influence of French philosophy. So, in our card index of indirect Greek borrowings - 10.

Borrowings from the Greek language came to Europe, to Russia, to Ukraine, usually through the Latin language, in a Latinized form. Carcinogen (lat cancer - cancer, Greek genesis - origin)

Mausoleum (lat. - mausoleum + gr. - mausoleon) - the tomb of the Carian king Mausol.

Symposium (lat. - symposium, gr. - symposion) - feast

6. Conclusion

The Latin language for us is, first of all, the language of science, culture, religion, and medicine. As a result of the study of lexical Latinisms and Greekisms, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Many words are terms of various fields of science, therefore, medical, legal, vocabulary of enlightenment and education, commonly used vocabulary stands out among them. All Latinisms and Greekisms function in modern Russian.

2. Classifying lexical Latinisms and Greekisms according to the method of borrowing, we determined that most of the studied words are indirect borrowings (60%). Intermediary languages are: in 20% of cases - French, equally in 15% - German and Polish, in 10% - English. A separate group consisted of 13% of Greekisms borrowed into Russian through Latin. Direct borrowings from the Latin language accounted for 40% of the studied lexical units.

3. The bulk of Latinisms and Greekisms was borrowed from French and German, this can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is associated with the culture of France and Germany.

4. As a result of borrowings, the Russian language is replenished with international terms. Words found in many languages are called international (artery, aorta, democracy, problem, revolution, principle, progress, analysis).

5. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. The Russian language retained its full originality and was only enriched by borrowed Latinisms and Greekisms.

Latin is “dead”, but its “death” was beautiful - it has been dying for a thousand years and nourished most European languages, becoming the basis for some and giving hundreds and thousands of words to other languages, including Russian. It is easy to verify this by reading the following text, in which words of Latin and Greek origin are in italics:

The principal of the school presents class certificates maturity for applicants who then give exams in institutions. Rector of the university, deans of historical, economic, legal and philological faculties read to undergraduate and graduate students lecture courses and carry out special seminars.

7. Practical significance.

The practical significance of our study lies in the possibility of using the obtained material for extracurricular activities (competitions, olympiads and weeks in English and Russian, the publication of wall newspapers, booklets, leaflets, memos) in order to improve the cultural level of schoolchildren. Also, the results of the research can be used by teachers

Bibliography

1 Barlas L.G. Russian language. Introduction to the science of language. Lexicology. Etymology. Phraseology. Lexicography: Textbook, ed. G.G. Infantova. - M.: Flinta: Science, 2003

2 Big dictionary of foreign words. - M.: UNVERS, 2003

3 Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1990
4. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 72500 words and 7500 phraseological expressions / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute of the Russian Language; Russian Cultural Foundation; - M.: AZ, 1993
5. Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. A guide for teachers. - M.: "Enlightenment", 1975

6. Ya.M. Borovsky, A.B. Boldarev. Latin language. 1961.

7. G.P. Savin. Fundamentals of the Latin language and medical terminology. Moscow 2006.

8. D.E. Rosenthal. Reference book on the Russian language. year 2000.

medical term borrowed from Latin

In Russia, Latin became widespread with the reforms of Peter I. At first, it was used exclusively by scientists, diplomats and lawyers, but gradually Latin became Russified and became understandable to wider sections of society, and many Latin words firmly entered the Russian language and took root: literature, architecture, fashion, notary, lawyer and many other words are no longer perceived as alien.

In modern society, Latin is already essential not only for doctors, but also for entrepreneurs, lawyers, lawyers and representatives of other professions. Persona non grata, status quo, terra incognita - these are just a tiny part of those Latin expressions and catchphrases that we meet almost every day. Moreover, without a minimum knowledge of the Latin language, without an understanding of well-known Latin expressions, proverbs and catchphrases, it is no longer possible to imagine a modern intelligent person.

The original Russian medical vocabulary is rooted in the common Indo-European language-base and the common Slavic language-base, on the basis of which in the 7th-8th centuries. originated the Old Russian language. Writing appeared in Russia in the middle of the 10th century. in the form of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language.

It is possible that the original keepers of medical knowledge among the ancient Slavic tribes, like among many other peoples, were the priests-sorcerers. The common Slavic word Doctor, which has a common root with the words “grumble”, “speak”, originally meant a sorcerer, sorcerer, fortuneteller, soothsayer, healing with charms, conspiracies and slander. From the depths of centuries, the words witnessed in ancient Russian handwritten monuments have come down to us, belonging to the common Slavic layer: thigh (diminutive “thigh, tibia”; hence “tibia”), thorn, side, eyebrow, hair, pox (pox), head, throat , chest, hernia, lip, tooth, face, forehead, urine, nose, nail, fetus, kidney, cancer, arm, spleen, heart, crown, ear, etc.

We can consider Old Russian words that are common to Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, as well as words that belonged to one of them, but steadily entered the Russian literary language, for example: pregnant, infertility, twins, illness, pain, sick, pus, lower leg, larynx, thirst, stomach, bile, conception, health, vision, intestine, skin, bone, medicine, healing, treatment, heal, brain, callus, muscle, nostril, smell, touch, edema, poisoning, groin, liver, hymen, shoulder, sole, lower back, navel, erysipelas, mouth, spasm, body, jaw, skull, neck, ulcer, etc. Modern terminology includes such ancient names as the ligament, duodenum, epigastrium (the Church Slavonic and Old Russian word “vyya” referred to neck, and the Church Slavonic words “finger” and “womb” meant, respectively, “finger” and “stomach”).

Many old Russian names of diseases and their symptoms have long been out of use, and their identification with modern terms is possible with great difficulty. Such names include, for example, inhalation (asthma), goldfish (jaundice), kamchug (arthritis), bloody womb (dysentery), falling sickness (epilepsy), burning pain (anthrax), leprosy (leprosy, lupus and some other lesions skin), overthrow (scabies), shaking (malaria).

Some of the Old Russian words used in the modern medical dictionary have changed their meaning. So, for example, the word "corn" in ancient times meant enlarged lymph nodes or an ulcer, the word "composition" - a part of the body or an organ, as well as a joint in the modern sense, the word "gland" could mean a tumor ("gland merli people"). The Old Russian word "belly" had several meanings: life, property, animal. The word "eye", originally meaning "ball (shiny)", only in the XVI-XVII centuries. acquired a modern meaning along with a synonym - the common Slavic word "eye" and finally supplanted the latter only in the 18th century. In literary monuments of the XVI century. for the first time the word "back" appears as a synonym for the ancient word "ridge" in the monuments of the 17th century. - the word "lungs" instead of the ancient name "ivy", the word "cough" is found for the first time.

Many original Russian names that existed in the language of ancient Russian empirical medicine and were recorded in all kinds of "Healers", "Travniki" and "Vertograds" did not survive in the language of scientific medicine and gave way to other names, most often of Greek-Latin origin.

Grecisms of anatomical and physiological content are found sporadically already in the early monuments of ancient Russian literature. The penetration of Greekisms after the adoption of Christianity by Russia (X century) was facilitated both by direct contacts with Byzantium and its culture, and by the growth in the number of translated Church Slavonic works. The latter were often compilations of passages from the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, and Byzantine physicians.

Latin vocabulary was originally also borrowed through the Greek-Byzantine intermediary, although in an extremely negligible amount. Actively it began to penetrate in the XV-XVI centuries. through the Polish language. In the 17th century in connection with the progress of education in Ukraine, Latinisms began to be borrowed directly from works in Latin. Perhaps the very first of these works - Vesalius' Epitome, which is the author's brief extract from the essay On the Structure of the Human Body, was translated in 1657-1658. prominent Russian educator Epiphanius Slavinetsky. It is assumed that the translation was supposed to serve as an anatomy textbook for students of the school of Russian doctors, allegedly opened in 1654-1655. under the Apothecary order. Although the translation of E. Slavinetsky has been lost, it can be assumed on the basis of his other work “The Complete Greek-Slavic-Latin Lexicon” that he created certain prerequisites for mastering the terminology of Western European medicine of that era. E. Slavinetsky used only two ways of translating terms - the use of original Russian equivalents and tracing [for example, he translated the term polyphagia (from the Greek poly- a lot and phagein is) with the word "polyeating"] and almost did not use borrowings.

A significant step in the understanding and mastering of Greek-Latin vocabulary by Russians, including medical content, was made by the remarkable lexicographer of the early 18th century. F.P. Polikarpov. His “Trilingual Lexicon, that is, Slavonic, Hellenic-Greek and Latin Treasures” (1704), consisting of 19,712 articles, contains a significant number of names of diseases and medicinal herbs in Greek, Latin and Russian. A large number of synonyms cited by him indicates a wide range of literary medical sources used. Each article begins with a Russian name, which most often represents either the Russian equivalent (stone disease, smallpox, erysipelas, okovrach or full-timer, etc.), or a descriptive designation; borrowings are used less often - and Latinisms (apoplexy, dysentery, doctor, etc.).

After the first graduates of the Greco-Latin Academy, in 1658 in Moscow, classicisms began to be borrowed directly from the works of ancient authors and on a much larger scale than before. Particular attention was paid to teaching scientific anatomical and surgical terminology in Latin at the First Hospital School, established in 1707 at the direction of Peter I and led by N. Bidloo.

During the Petrine era and after it, throughout the entire 18th century, hundreds of scientific Latinisms poured into the actively developing Russian literary language, both directly from Latin writings and through Western European languages. At the beginning of the XVIII century. the following words became widespread: physician, medicine, medicine, medicine, pill, pharmacist, prescription, sangva (lat. sanguis blood), urine (lat. urina urine), febra (lat. febris fever). In the middle of the XVIII century. the words abscess, ampulla, amputation, tonsillitis, vein, consultation, constitution, contusion, muscle, nerve, oculist, patient, dissector, pulse, respiration (breathing), retina, relapse, section, scalpel, scurvy (scurvy) appear in the literature, temperament, fiber (vein), fistula, etc.

A huge contribution to the substantiation of the principles and the development of Russian scientific terminology was made by M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). A brilliant connoisseur of classical languages, he repeatedly emphasized their importance for the needs of education and for the progress of terminology in Russia. M.V. Lomonosov took part in the review of the first anatomical atlas translated from German by A.P. Protasov (1724-1796), who laid the foundations of scientific anatomical terminology in Russian.

Russian doctors-translators of the XVIII century. credit for the creation of Russian scientific medical terminology. It was truly a feat of learning and patriotism. Russian translators had to overcome significant difficulties in the transfer by means of their native language of the names of abstract concepts developed by Western European languages, including the classicisms and neoclassicisms mastered by the latter.

The shortcomings of terminology were felt especially sharply by Russian medical teachers. The teaching of medical disciplines in Russian was possible only under the condition of the development of domestic terminology. Therefore, many prominent Russian doctors became both translators and philologists. Among them, first of all, we should mention the chief physician of the St. Petersburg Admiralty Hospital M.I. Shein (1712-1762), who created the earliest summary of Russian anatomical terms in Russian literature.

Translators were able to cope with the names of diseases and symptoms more easily, because they often had equivalent designations that existed in the language of traditional medicine. The situation was more difficult with scientific anatomy, since many anatomical formations, for example, pleura, pancreas, tro-chanter, did not have Russian names at all. In such cases, it was not uncommon to create descriptive compound terms instead of a single Latin (or Latinized Greek) word. So, M.I. Shein created the Russian equivalent for the word diaphragma "abdominal obstruction". Along with this, translators resorted to tracing. A.P. Protasov introduced the name Clavicle, which is a tracing-paper from the Latin word clavicula (from clavis key).

In the process of the formation of domestic terminology, there was almost no foreign language term for which different authors would not offer several equivalents in Russian. Not all of them have stood the test of time and have been replaced by terms of Greek-Latin origin, including neologisms.

The first dictionaries of medical terms in Latin, Russian and French were compiled by the first Russian professor of midwifery N.M. Ambodik-Maximovich (1744-1812). In 1783, his “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” was published, containing about 4000 items, and the Russians were extracted, according to the author, “from various printed, church and civil, as well as new, old and handwritten books”, and also represented "hand-made" his work. In the next issue - "Medical-Pathological-Surgical Dictionary" (1785) - "the names of diseases and their symptoms that reside in the human body, as well as devices, operations, dressings used in surgery to perform certain manipulations" were collected.

Russian medical vocabulary was presented in the first academic dictionary of the Russian language - "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1789--1794) - more than 600 words. Popular common Russian names were included, as well as borrowed scientific terms of Greek-Latin origin. The words were accompanied by very complete, carefully worded definitions. The medical part of the dictionary was compiled by the leading Russian scientists, doctors A.P. Protasov and N.Ya. Ozertskovsky (1750-1827). In this dictionary, in particular, the term Inflammation was first recorded, created by Shein in 1761 as a tracing-paper from the Latin word inflammatio (from inflammo to set fire, ignite, ignite).

A major contribution to the creation of Russian anatomical terminology was made by the founder of the Russian anatomical school P.A. Zagorsky (1764-1846), who wrote the first Russian anatomy textbook (1802), where he introduced the Russian equivalents of a number of Latin terms. E.O. Mukhin (1766-1850), who also created an anatomy course in Russian.

A qualitatively new stage in the lexicographic processing, clarification and systematization of the rapidly growing Russian medical terminology can be considered the “Medical Dictionary”, compiled in 1835 by A.N. Nikitin, founder and first secretary of the Society of Russian Doctors of St. Petersburg. It was the first medical dictionary in Russia in which the terms were interpreted. Medical community in the first half of the 19th century. highly appreciated the work of Nikitin "for a deep knowledge of the Russian language and an extensive acquaintance with Russian medical literature", which allowed "to present the nomenclature without innovations in full and in such a way that henceforth it could serve as a model of Russian medical terminology."

Throughout the 19th century Russian medical vocabulary continued to be actively replenished with terms that had an international distribution, the predominant mass of which was classicism and neoclassicism, for example, Abortion, alveolus (Alveolus of the lung), Ambulatory, Bacillus, Vaccine, hallucination (Hallucinations), Dentin, Immunization, Immunity, Heart attack, Infection, Cavern, Carbuncle, Lymph, Percussion, Pulp, Reflex, Exudate, etc., preserved to this day.

At the same time, there were extreme purists among Russian doctors who objected to borrowings and neologisms, defended the original Russian common vocabulary, which they endowed with special medical significance. This point of view was held, in particular, by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872) - a doctor by profession, the creator of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. However, none of the replacements he proposed was retained in the language of domestic medicine.

The majority of Russian physicians defended the terms established in professional usage, regardless of whether they are internationalisms of Greek-Latin origin or their Russian equivalents. They also realized the importance of preserving the Latin termini technici, i.e. reference, international not only in meaning, but also in form, according to the Latin transcription of names. In 1892-1893. was published in translation from the German language "Encyclopedic Medical Dictionary" by A. Vilare. The preface to the Russian edition of the dictionary stated that "over the past decades, Russian medical terminology has developed significantly and strengthened among practical doctors, however, it is not yet at such a height that it excludes the use of Latin names." It defended the advantage of the then generally accepted Latin terms such as autodigestio, abrachia, acromegalia, epilepsia, and objected to the corresponding Russian names "self-digestion", "handlessness", "giant growth", "falling", etc. It is interesting that the further fate of these terms turned out to be different: Self-digestion, and not autodigestio, was fixed in the language, and the rest of the terms were preserved in the form of borrowing, without being accompanied by Russian equivalents (Abrachia, Acromegaly, Epilepsy).

Modern Russian medical terminology on the basis of linguistic origin, forms of writing, functions performed at the national or international levels, can be divided into the following main groups:

1) original Russian names;
2) borrowed classicisms, assimilated to varying degrees, adapted to the sound and morphological system of the Russian literary language; the vast majority of them actually perform the function of internationalisms, i.e. terms that have received interlingual distribution in at least three languages from different language groups (for example, in Latin, French, English, German, Russian, etc.);
3) primordial Western Europeanisms that actually perform the function of internationalisms;
4) Latin termini technici.

In the second half of the XX century. medical vocabulary continues to be enriched with internationalisms. In modern Russian medical terminology, internationalisms and their Russian equivalents (including tracing papers of a foreign term) act as synonyms. At the same time, in some cases, the Russian equivalent is preferably used, for example, Lice instead of pediculosis (Pediculosis), Scabies instead of Prurigo, Ossification instead of Ossification, Diarrhea instead of Diarrhea, Dwarfism instead of Nanism, Infringement instead of Incarceration, Eversion of the eyelid instead of Ectropion. In other cases, internationalisms are preferred, for example, Puncture, not Puncture, Malignancy, not Malignancy, Favus, not Scab, Palpation, not Feeling, Enucleation, not Ecclusion, Gynophobia, not Misogyny. In many of the above cases, the preferred use of a borrowed word is explained by the fact that its Russian equivalent is also used in the general literary language in a broader or different sense. Sometimes the Russian equivalent retreats before internationalism, since it is easier to form derivative words from the latter, for example Placenta (placental) - Children's place. Often such synonyms are almost equal, for example: Bleeding, Hemorrhage and Hemorrhage (hemorrhagic), Myopia and Myopia (myopic), Pancreas and pancreas (pancreatic), Blood transfusion and Hemotransfusion (hemotransfusion).

Many terms of Greek-Latin origin, including neoclassicisms, penetrate Russian terminology through Western European languages. Often they were able to win the actual status of internationalisms, appearing almost simultaneously in two or more languages, and it is often difficult or impossible to find out in which particular Western European language this or that term, marked with the seal of classical or neoclassical origin, first appeared. Many terms, having appeared initially in English, French or German language design, are subject to simultaneous or subsequent formal romanization; however, this process can also develop in the opposite direction: from a term Latinized in form to its nationally adapted counterpart.

Sometimes a clear indication that classicism or neoclassicism was borrowed through Western European languages is phonetic features that are not characteristic of classical languages. Thus, the presence of the [w] sound in some words, which was absent in classical languages, indicates that the word was borrowed from German (Sciatica, neoclassicisms Schizophrenia, schizothymia, etc.). Under the influence of the phonetic system of the French language, the term Senestopathy (French cеnestopathie) originated from the Greek words koinos (general), aisthзsis (sensation, feeling) and pathos (suffering, illness).

Under the influence of Western European languages, in some Latinized words of Greek origin, a sound [ts] absent in Greek appeared, for example: Cysta (Latin cysta, from Greek kystis), Cyanosis (Latin cyanosis, from Greek kyanФsis).

The artificial (neoclassicist) nature of a number of terms is indicated by the components of different languages, mainly Greek and Latin; for example: Vagotomy (Latin anat. nervus vagus vagus nerve + Greek tom3 incision), Coronarosclerosis (Latin anat. arteria coronaria coronary artery + Greek skl3rfsis hardening, sclerosis), Rectoscopy (Latin rectum rectum + Greek skopef consider , research). “Hybrids” Appendicitis, Gingivitis, Duodenitis, Conjunctivitis, Retinitis, Tonsillitis, etc. are formed similarly (to the Latin anatomical terms appendix - appendage, gingiva - gum, duodenum - duodenum, conjunctiva - connective membrane of the eye, retina - retina, tonsilla - tonsil, added the Greek suffix -itis, used to denote inflammation). Greek prefixes Hyper-, Hypo-, Peri-, etc. are often connected with the Latin stem: hyperfunction, hypotension, perivisceral, perivascular. There are also Greek-Russian "hybrids": Allochryasch, leuco suspension, Speechgram, etc.

Such a "hybridization" is quite natural within the framework of biomedical terminology, where Greek and Latin roots and word-formation elements have grown into the fabric of national languages for many centuries and formed an international fund in them. Therefore, the “hybrid” word “acidophilic” (lat. acidus sour + Greek philos loving, prone) is just as legitimate as the monolingual word “thermophilic” (Greek thermos heat, warmth + Greek philos).

Native Western Europeanisms, i.e. there are relatively few words that have arisen from the lexical and word-building material of Western European languages in Russian medical vocabulary. Their active introduction is noted only from the end of the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. They are presented mainly in the terminology related to medical technology, surgical techniques, genetics, physiology, hygiene, and are much less common in the nomenclature of diseases. So, anglicisms include, for example, Atachman, Blockade, Doping, Inbreeding, Clearance, Crossingover, Pacemaker, Site, shunt (Arteriovenous shunt) and “hybrid” terms Aerotank, dumping syndrome, rant disease (Rant disease), Westing- syndrome. Borrowings from the French language include, for example, Absence, Midwife, Bandage, Bouj, Influenza, Drainage, Probe, Cannula, Whooping Cough, Cretinism, Curette, Patronage, Pipette, Raspator, Tampon, Tic, Yaws, Chancre, the "hybrid" term Culdoscopy . Examples of borrowings from the German language are boron (Dental Boron), Bygel, Klammer, Kornzang, Kurort, Reuters, Spatula, Fur Coat, “hybrid” words Abortsang, Rausch-narcosis, etc.

Some nosological terms of Italian origin have become internationalisms: Influenza, Malaria, Pellagra, Scarlet fever. From the Spanish language comes the term Sigwatera, from the Scottish - Croup.

There are separate words borrowed from Oriental and African languages: the Japanese word Tsutsugamushi, the African tribal word - Kwashiorkor, the Sinhalese word - Beri-beri. Sexologists use some words of ancient Indian origin, for example, Vikharita, Virghata, Kumbitmaka, Narvasadata. The names of some medicinal substances are borrowed from the tribal languages of the American Indians: ipecac, curare, quinine.

The traditional feature of biomedical terminology continues to be the use of termini technici - terms graphically and grammatically designed in Latin. The identity of their understanding by different specialists in all countries makes termini technici an indispensable tool for the internationalization of terminology.

Large termini technici groups are combined into modern international nomenclatures and have an officially approved international status. These include the nomenclature of morphological and biological disciplines: anatomical, histological and embryological nomenclature, codes of botanical and zoological nomenclature and a code of nomenclature of bacteria. In the International Pharmacopoeia, the Latin name of the medicinal product is indicated as the main reference.

Termini technici related to the dictionary of clinical medicine, denoting diseases, pathological conditions, symptoms, syndromes, etc., have a different status. In most cases, they actually perform the function of international designations, but their use is optional. The "International Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death" does not contain international Latin names as mandatory. In the USSR, most of these termini technici are used only in conjunction with their Russian equivalents, such as hernia (hernia), urticaria (urticaria), herpes zoster (herpes zoster), cholecystitis (cholecystitis). At the same time, some termini technici of this type are used in domestic medical terminology as preferred terms. These include, for example, Caries sicca, Carcinoma in situ, Partus conduplicato corpore, Situs viscerum inversus, Spina bifida, Status typhosus, Tabes dorsalis, coxa vara (Coxa vara).

Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the British Isles, trade relations existed between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in the languages of these tribes. Borrowings of this period, which is usually called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat. Piper and others.

The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons before they moved to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. Comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words of Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, there was an assumption that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, in view of the lack of monuments, whether these words came into Old English directly from the Latin language or were borrowed from the Celtic language already in the territory Britain.

The bulk of Latin borrowings is associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church-religious concepts. The general upsurge of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity led to the emergence of new concepts that needed an appropriate language design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.

Here are some examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and have survived in modern English.

Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post (post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat.bursa; sicol (sikle) from Lat. secula;

Clothing items: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.

Measures of weight for their length: circul (circle) from Lat. circumlus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.

Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel (camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; truht (trout) from Lat. tructa.

Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pyrum; rose (rose) from Lat. rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta.

Words related to the concepts of religion:

engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne (nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.

In total, according to the estimates of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period, there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.

A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the period of the 11th-13th centuries, during the period of the Normans. However, these words, in their majority, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less subject to any kind of changes, especially semantic ones. It is logical to explain this by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited by the scope of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.

Most of the Latin book borrowings in English fall on the period of the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland, and Chaucer that have not been previously attested in English. In the Renaissance, words from the field of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms and so on appear. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this, you need to create a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological features, for example, verbs that have the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of I conjugation, as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, derived from the basis of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of III conjugation, like prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems in -ant- and -ent-, e.g. evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The following centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are the so-called "learned words", often retaining the morphological features of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are also such borrowings that have completely preserved their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotation from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in the styles of scientific prose, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include such expressions as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine quanon, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words from one language to another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. Such is the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as a new one. Etymological Franco-Latin doublets are obtained.

Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be attributed to the number of Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later comprehended as word-forming morphemes. However, in the linguistic literature they are called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant impact on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, set the stage for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological relationship. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word has entered the English language from French or Latin.

Among borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages - international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that the Latin language in the era of feudalism was for many countries of Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries in general the literary language. The Latin language retained its significance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, art still widely use the Latin bases to designate newly emerging concepts. Of the Latin words borrowed into English and being international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.