What countries did the Persian Empire conquer? Founder of the Persian Empire

Cyrus II the Great

Thanks to ancient writings, it can be argued that the first military leader in the history of human civilization, about whom even scarce, but quite reliable information has come down to us, was Kurush. The man who was destined to become the founder of a huge Persian state under the name of Cyrus II the Great.

Among the researchers of the Ancient World, there are no big disputes around the personality of one of the most prominent conquering commanders due to the information that has been preserved about him for two and a half millennia. It was an extremely "prolific" ruler with rock inscriptions.

Without a doubt, he advanced in his youth thanks to personal prowess and fearlessness, decisiveness of actions, primarily in the military field. That is, he can with good reason be considered the first reliable hero who, with an armed hand, made his way to the heights of power in the world around him. Before becoming king Cyrus, the noble Persian Kurush was a hero among his fellow tribesmen. Otherwise, he would not have gained such unrestricted power over them.

In the descriptions of his childhood and youth, it is difficult to separate real facts from mythological information. It is believed that he was born between 600 and 585 BC. e. It is reliably known that his warlike father, Cambyses I, came from a noble Persian family of Akhmenids. Herodotus says that as a child, Cyrus was banished to the mountains, was fed by a she-wolf and raised as a simple shepherd.

An exile from the tribe could return to the circle of the Persian nobility in only one most probable way - with a weapon in his hands. Only with weapons could he take revenge on his offenders and assert the rights of a noble person. History knows countless examples of this. But for this, young Kurush had to perform truly heroic deeds in the minds of his fellow tribesmen. And again, in mortal battles with their personal enemies, and then with enemies of their own kind.

In 558 B.C. e. Kurush became the ruler of one of the Persian regions - Anshan. Without a doubt, he achieved this right again by the authority of a strong personality. In all likelihood, by that time he had already developed as a military leader and statesman. Only this can explain the historical fact that Kurush, called Cyrus by the ancient Greeks, began to create a military alliance of the Persian tribes. This union will soon be destined to turn into the Persian kingdom.

The Akshan ruler formed a strong army out of tribal, mostly cavalry, militias. In the army of Cyrus, war chariots were widely used (in battles, the foot militia always felt fear of them), various throwing machines and all kinds of siege equipment, camel cavalry.

A few years after the beginning of his reign in Anshan, Cyrus raised an uprising against the ruling Median dynasty. In 553 B.C. e. began a stubborn three-year war of the Persian tribes, led by Cyrus, against the domination of Media. In the end, the Persians defeated the Medes, by 549 BC. e. their state was finally conquered by the Persian army. Cyrus for that time treated the Median rulers very mercifully, introducing them into the Persian nobility. The ruler of Media, Astyages, was removed from the throne. Now under the rule of Cyrus was the entire west of modern Iran.

Fighting against the Median cavalry, Cyrus realized that he needed his own cavalry. The conquest of Media, with its plentiful pastures and herds of thousands of horses, allowed him to quickly recruit many excellent riders into his army. Soon, many good horsemen appeared among the Persians themselves. In a relatively short period of time, Persian heavy cavalry and mounted archers became the best in the ancient world.

The tribes of the Median tribal union, which became the Median kingdom, included, in particular, the Persians. The Medes and Persians were so related peoples that ancient authors often confused them. Suffice it to say that Herodotus calls the famous Greco-Persian wars Median. The territory of Persia (the later province of Fars) was located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, in the immediate vicinity of Elam, and the Elamite heritage had a great influence on its neighbors. Not without reason, having already created a huge power, the Persians widely used the Elamite language and cuneiform writing, and one of the main residences of the Persian king was located in the capital of Elam, Susa.

In the middle of the VI century. BC e. the Persian king Cyrus II not only freed himself from Median hegemony, but also subjugated all the peoples who had previously been dependent on the Medes. The Lydian king Croesus tried to take advantage of the troubles in Media in order to expand his possessions in the east of Asia Minor. However, in 547 BC. e. the Lydian troops were defeated, and Croesus was besieged in his capital city of Sardis. Soon the entire territory of Asia Minor became part of the Persian state - up to the coast of the Aegean Sea, where the Greek cities were located.

Now in Asia Minor there was only one great power that had not yet been defeated by the Persians - the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, which occupied the territory not only of Mesopotamia, but also of the Eastern Mediterranean (since the time of the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar II). The international situation, which was difficult for Babylonia, was aggravated by internal struggle: King Nabonidus was in such tense relations with the political elite of the city that he retired from the capital and lived in the Teime oasis in Arabia. The Babylonian troops were commanded by his son, whom the biblical "Book of the Prophet Daniel" calls Belshazzar.

In 539 BC. e. the Babylonian army was defeated by the Persians, and Cyrus solemnly entered the great city. Without giving Babylon for plunder, he appeared in the main sanctuary and took power from the hands of the priests of the supreme god Marduk. In a special manifesto, promising "peace and tranquility to the city", Cyrus II accused Nabonidus of insufficient attention to the Babylonian gods and proclaimed himself their intercessor and legitimate king of all Babylonia. persia achaemenid tribal culture

Wherever the Persian troops were victorious, Cyrus II behaved unusually gently, not at all like the rulers of Assyria and Babylonia. The point, apparently, is that the Persian state itself was only just being formed during these wars. The political elite of the Persians was not yet spoiled by luxury and did not strive for unrestrained robbery of the conquered peoples. The king craved glory rather than enrichment, being content with the expression of devotion and the gifts brought to him. And so, in an unusually short time, a power was created, equal in size to which world history had not yet known. The Persian king, both ancient and modern historians, is called Cyrus the Great.

Cyrus came from a Persian family, the founder of which was considered a certain Achaemen. Therefore, he himself and his successors are called Achaemenids. After the death of the great conqueror (according to legend, he died in 530 BC during the war with the Central Asian nomads, the Massagetae), his eldest son Cambyses ascended the throne. He sought to continue the expansionist policy of his father and in 525 BC. e., defeating the troops of the last Sais pharaoh, captured Egypt. But after that, military happiness betrayed him, and campaigns in Nubia and the Libyan desert almost ended in failure for him. The Egyptians, inspired by this, began to rebel against the conquerors, and then Cambyses switched to a policy of cruel repression. Some ancient historians even claimed that he fell into insanity.

Meanwhile, the long absence of the king, who was on distant foreign campaigns, created political instability in the center of a huge power. The throne of the Achaemenids was occupied by a man who called himself Bardia - that was the name of the son of Cyrus, the younger brother of Cambyses. Upon learning of this, Cambyses hurried to the capital, but died on the way under mysterious circumstances. Bardia remained on the throne.

A few months after these events, representatives of the most noble Persian families formed a conspiracy. Bardia was stabbed to death in his own palace, and the conspirators chose a new king from among themselves. They became the son of the governor of Bactria, Darius I (522-486 BC). Darius announced that the real Bardia had long been dead (only for some reason no one knew about this!), and it was not the son of Cyrus who was killed by the conspirators, but a certain impostor. Darius allegedly received the throne not by agreement with accomplices and not by lot, but as a representative of the younger line of the Achaemenids (for there were no direct heirs of Cyrus the Great after the death of Cambyses). This version is set forth in letters in Aramaic, which were sent to all regions of the state, and captured in a huge inscription in three languages (Persian, Elamite and Akkadian) carved on the sacred Behistun rock.

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However, the official version of events apparently did not convince everyone. The conquered peoples, most likely, had little interest in who had more rights to the Persian throne. The local political elite tried, taking advantage of the unrest at the Achaemenid court, to restore the independence of their states. In Babylonia, an impostor appeared who called himself Nebuchadnezzar, in Media, allegedly a descendant of the famous king Cyaxares claimed the rights to power. The conquered countries rose one after another, standing under the banner of the local "kings". After the defeat, the rebels again gathered forces for the fight, putting forward the next impostor.

This was a critical moment in the history of the Achaemenid state: for more than a year, the young Persian king had to send his commanders first to one end of the state, then to the other to suppress the next uprising. When these internal wars were successfully completed, Darius I realized the need for fundamental reforms. The state in the form in which it existed under Cyrus and Cambyses could not be strong.

First of all, the king carried out an administrative reform, dividing the country into vast districts - satrapies, whose borders did not always coincide with the borders of the former states. Not satisfied with the system of gifts, Darius I established constant taxes (very considerable) from each satrapy. From the richest, he received tens of tons of silver a year. The satrapies were usually headed not by representatives of the local elite, who could try to secede, but by the Persians, often relatives of the Persian king. At the same time, the satrap had power only in civil matters, and the troops of one or another district were not subordinate to him, but to their commander. The satrap could not raise a rebellion, because he did not dispose of the troops, and the military leader did not have the levers of administrative power. The rivalry between the satrap and the commander was fueled by the central government, their denunciations against each other were encouraged in every possible way.

In the ancient empires, huge problems arose due to the imperfection of the communication system. If the borders of the state are thousands of kilometers away from the capital, then information under normal conditions goes for months. Any reaction to it becomes meaningless, because by the time it is received, the situation, as a rule, has already changed radically. Under Darius I, a unique system of main roads was created that connected the largest cities: Sardis, Babylon, Susa and the capital of Media, Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). A postal service was organized for the fastest delivery of reports to the king and his orders.

Having strengthened the state, Darius I tried to expand its limits even more, but only the advance to the east was successful - to North-Western India. On the northern borders, the king failed in the fight against the nomadic tribes of the Scythians. The Greco-Persian wars that began under Darius, despite the advantage of the Persians in strength, did not promise success, and under his closest successor Xerxes ended completely ingloriously - with the complete triumph of the Greeks throughout the Aegean basin. Only at the end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th century. BC e. the Persians took revenge, switching to a new tactic in the fight against the Greek cities - introducing discord among them and directly bribing the political leaders of all states and "parties".

Ancient authors often described the Persian order. The Greeks loved to oppose their lives as free citizens of free Hellas to complete slavery in the power of the "great king". Dignitaries at the Persian court have dishes made of precious metals, they are dressed in magnificent clothes and, “like women”, wear numerous decorations. But they have a master - the king, who can humiliate or cripple everyone at his whim. The tsar puts the guilty nobleman next to him at the feast, and the cook brings him food prepared from the meat of his son. And at the same time, the despot still mockingly asks: “Does it taste good to you?” He knows that all his subjects, not excluding the most senior ones, have no self-esteem: in their hearts they are just slaves.

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Absolute power, according to the description of ancient historians, corrupts everyone, and above all those who possess it. He is forced to live in conditions of general servility and at the same time insane fear for his life. His relatives are plotting against each other. The mother and wife of one of the Persian kings hated each other so much and were so afraid of being poisoned that they even ate from the same plate. But that didn't help either. The mother-in-law, having lulled her daughter-in-law's vigilance, nevertheless poisoned her by cutting the common piece with a knife, which was smeared with poison on one side of the blade.

In 401 BC. e. the famous “campaign of ten thousand Greeks” took place, colorfully described by its participant, the historian and philosopher Xenophon. The Greeks were hired by the satrap of one of the regions of Asia Minor, Cyrus the Younger, who wanted to overthrow his older brother from the throne. In the decisive battle, the unlucky pretender to the throne died, and immediately the whole expedition lost its meaning. The Persians, having lured the Greek military leaders allegedly for negotiations, treacherously killed them. But even in such unfavorable circumstances, the Greeks, pursued by the Persian army, which many times outnumbered them, were able to travel thousands of kilometers - from Babylon to the north of Asia Minor - and return to their homeland.

This campaign showed that the power of the Achaemenids, despite the hundreds of thousands of tons of silver accumulated in the royal treasury, and the apparent omnipotence of the "great king", is a colossus with feet of clay. Preparations began for a new campaign to the East. And when the Greeks managed to unite under the authority of the Macedonian king, the death of the largest state of the Ancient East was only a matter of time. The campaign of Alexander the Great opened a new period in world history - the era of Hellenism.

The Achaemenid state was a gigantic and complex organism, often artificially composed of heterogeneous parts. The same is true of her official art. In the architecture and sculpture of Persia, the experience of the already dead powers of Western Asia, and above all Assyrian, was borrowed. The best craftsmen brought from all regions of the state worked on the construction of magnificent palaces in Susa and Persepolis. Here, Iranian motifs are mixed with Greek, Egyptian, and Babylonian motifs. The synthesis of East and West, characteristic of the Hellenistic era, was prepared by two centuries of existence of the Achaemenid state.

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Features of the Achaemenid culture can also be traced in the state of the Seleucids (IV-I centuries BC), which, after the death of Alexander, inherited the main territories of Asia he conquered. Achaemenid traditions were also revived after the overthrow of the Greco-Macedonian dynasty in states ruled no longer by Greek, but by local, Iranian nobility - in the Parthian kingdom (III century BC - III century AD) and under the Sassanid dynasty (III-VII centuries).

In the middle of the VI century. BC e. the Persians entered the arena of world history - a mysterious tribe, about which the previously civilized peoples of the Middle East knew only by hearsay.

About manners and customs ancient Persians known from the writings of the peoples who lived next to them. In addition to their mighty growth and physical development, the Persians had a will hardened in the fight against the harsh climate and the dangers of nomadic life in the mountains and steppes. At that time they were famous for their moderate way of life, temperance, strength, courage and solidarity.

According to Herodotus, Persians wore clothes made of animal skins and felt tiaras (caps), did not drink wine, ate not as much as they wanted, but as much as they had. They were indifferent to silver and gold.

Simplicity and modesty in food and clothing remained one of the main virtues even during the reign of the Persians over, when they began to dress in luxurious Median outfits, wear gold necklaces and bracelets, when fresh fish was delivered to the table of Persian kings and nobility from distant seas, fruits from Babylonia and Syria. Even then, during the coronation ceremony of the Persian kings, the Achaemenides who ascended the throne had to put on the clothes that he wore when he was not a king, eat some dried figs and drink a cup of sour milk.

The ancient Persians were allowed to have many wives, as well as concubines, to marry close relatives, such as nieces and half-sisters. Ancient Persian customs forbade women to show themselves to strangers (among the numerous reliefs in Persepolis there is not a single female image). The ancient historian Plutarch wrote that the Persians are characterized by wild jealousy not only in relation to their wives. They even kept slaves and concubines locked up so that outsiders could not see them, and carried them in closed wagons.

History of ancient Persia

The Persian king Cyrus II from the Achaemenid clan conquered Media and many other countries in a short time and had a huge and well-armed army, which began to prepare for a campaign against Babylonia. A new force appeared in Western Asia, which managed in a short time - in just a few decades- completely change the political map of the Middle East.

Babylonia and Egypt abandoned their long-term hostile policy towards each other, because the rulers of both countries were well aware of the need to prepare for war with the Persian Empire. The start of the war was only a matter of time.

The campaign against the Persians began in 539 BC. e. decisive battle between the Persians and the Babylonians took place near the city of Opis on the Tigris River. Cyrus won a complete victory here, soon his troops took the well-fortified city of Sippar, and the Persians captured Babylon without a fight.

After that, the eyes of the Persian ruler turned to the East, where for several years he waged a grueling war with nomadic tribes and where he eventually died in 530 BC. e.

The successors of Cyrus - Cambyses and Darius completed the work begun by him. in 524-523 BC e. Cambyses marched on Egypt, as a result of which established the power of the Achaemenids on the banks of the Nile. became one of the satrapies of the new empire. Darius continued to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the empire. By the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 485 BC. e., the Persian state dominated over a vast area from the Aegean in the west to India in the east, and from the deserts of Central Asia in the north to the rapids of the Nile in the south. The Achaemenids (Persians) united almost the entire civilized world known to them and owned it until the 4th century BC. BC e., when their power was broken and subjugated by the military genius of Alexander the Great.

Chronology of the rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty:

Achaemenes, 600s BC.
Teispes, 600 BC
Cyrus I, 640 - 580 BC.
Cambyses I, 580 - 559 BC.
Cyrus II the Great, 559 - 530 BC.
Cambyses II, 530 - 522 BC
Bardia, 522 BC
Darius I, 522 - 486 BC
Xerxes I, 485 - 465 BC
Artaxerxes I, 465 - 424 BC
Xerxes II, 424 BC
Secudian, 424 - 423 BC
Darius II, 423 - 404 BC
Artaxerxes II, 404 - 358 BC
Artaxerxes III, 358 - 338 BC
Artaxerxes IV Arces, 338 - 336 BC
Darius III, 336 - 330 BC
Artaxerxes V Bessus, 330 - 329 BC

Map of the Persian Empire

The tribes of the Aryans - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. Samo the word "Iran" is the modern form of the name "Ariana", i.e. land of the Aryans. Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic pastoralists who fought on war chariots. Part of the Aryans moved even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained nomadic in Central Asia and the northern steppes - Saks, Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, having settled on the fertile lands of the Iranian Highlands, gradually abandoned their nomadic life, took up farming, adopting skills. It reached a high level already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC e. Iranian craft. His monument is the famous "Luristan bronzes" - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and really existing animals.

"Luristan bronzes"- cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in the immediate neighborhood and confrontation, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms were formed. The first of them Mussel intensified(Northwest Iran). The Median kings participated in the crushing of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written monuments. But the Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatany, has not been found yet. It is only known that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, two Median fortresses already explored by archaeologists from the time of the struggle with Assyria speak of a rather high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. e. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subject Persian tribe from the Achaemenid clan, rebelled against the Medes. In 550 BC. e. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world. In 546 BC. e. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. e. fell. The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered, and under King Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. e. Persian power reached its greatest expansion and prosperity.

The monuments of its greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best studied monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of them is Pasargada, the capital of Cyrus.

Sassanid Revival - Sassanian Empire

In 331-330 years. BC e. the famous conqueror Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire. In retaliation for Athens once ravaged by the Persians, Greek Macedonian soldiers brutally looted and burned Persepolis. The Achaemenid dynasty ended. The period of Greek-Macedonian dominion over the East began, which is usually referred to as the era of Hellenism.

For the Iranians, the conquest was a disaster. The power over all neighbors was replaced by humiliated submission to old enemies - the Greeks. The traditions of Iranian culture, already shaken by the desire of kings and nobles to imitate the vanquished in luxury, were now completely trampled. Little changed after the liberation of the country by the nomadic Iranian tribe of the Parthians. The Parthians expelled the Greeks from Iran in the 2nd century BC. BC e., but they themselves borrowed a lot from Greek culture. The Greek language is still used on the coins and inscriptions of their kings. Temples are still built with numerous statues, according to Greek models, which seemed to many Iranians blasphemy. Zarathushtra in ancient times forbade the worship of idols, commanding to honor the inextinguishable flame as a symbol of the deity and to make sacrifices to it. It was religious humiliation that was the greatest, and it was not for nothing that the cities built by the Greek conquerors were later called “Dragon buildings” in Iran.

In 226 AD e. the rebellious ruler of Pars, who bore the ancient royal name Ardashir (Artaxerxes), overthrew the Parthian dynasty. The second story begins Persian Empire - Sassanid Powers, the dynasty to which the winner belonged.

The Sassanids sought to revive the culture of ancient Iran. The very history of the Achaemenid state by that time had become a vague legend. So, as an ideal, the society that was described in the legends of the Zoroastrian priests-mobeds was put forward. The Sassanids built, in fact, a culture that had never existed in the past, thoroughly imbued with a religious idea. This had little in common with the era of the Achaemenids, who willingly adopted the customs of the conquered tribes.

Under the Sassanids, the Iranian decisively triumphed over the Hellenic. Greek temples completely disappear, the Greek language goes out of official use. The broken statues of Zeus (who was identified with Ahura Mazda under the Parthians) are being replaced by faceless altars of fire. Naksh-i-Rustem is decorated with new reliefs and inscriptions. In the III century. The second Sasanian king Shapur I ordered his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian to be carved on the rocks. On the reliefs, the kings are overshadowed by a bird-like farn - a sign of divine patronage.

Capital of Persia became the city of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians next to the empty Babylon. Under the Sassanids, new palace complexes were built in Ctesiphon and huge (up to 120 hectares) royal parks were laid out. The most famous of the Sasanian palaces is Taq-i-Kisra, the palace of King Khosrov I, who ruled in the 6th century. Along with monumental reliefs, palaces were now decorated with fine carved ornaments made from lime mixture.

Under the Sassanids, the irrigation system of Iranian and Mesopotamian lands was improved. In the VI century. the country was covered by a network of kariz (underground water pipes with clay pipes), stretching up to 40 km. Cleaning of karizs was carried out through special wells dug every 10 m. Karizs served for a long time and ensured the rapid development of agriculture in Iran in the Sasanian era. It was then that Iran began to grow cotton and sugar cane, and horticulture and winemaking developed. At the same time, Iran became one of the suppliers of its own fabrics - both woolen and linen and silk.

Sasanian power was much less Achaemenid, covered only Iran itself, part of the lands of Central Asia, the territory of present-day Iraq, Armenia and Azerbaijan. She had to fight for a long time, first with Rome, then with the Byzantine Empire. Despite all this, the Sassanids lasted longer than the Achaemenids - over four centuries. Ultimately, exhausted by continuous wars in the west, the state was engulfed in a struggle for power. The Arabs took advantage of this, carrying by force of arms a new faith - Islam. In 633-651. after a fierce war, they conquered Persia. So it was over with the ancient Persian state and ancient Iranian culture.

Persian system of government

The ancient Greeks, who got acquainted with the organization of state administration in the Achaemenid Empire, admired the wisdom and foresight of the Persian kings. In their opinion, this organization was the pinnacle of the development of the monarchical form of government.

The Persian kingdom was divided into large provinces, called satrapies by the title of their rulers - satraps (Persian, "kshatra-pawan" - "guardian of the region"). Usually there were 20 of them, but this number fluctuated, since sometimes the administration of two or more satrapies was entrusted to one person and, conversely, one region was divided into several. This mainly pursued the goals of taxation, but also sometimes took into account the characteristics of the peoples who inhabited them, and historical features. Satraps and rulers of smaller areas were not the only representatives of local government. In addition to them, in many provinces there were hereditary local kings or possessing priests, as well as free cities and, finally, "benefactors" who received cities and districts for life, and even hereditary possession. These kings, governors, and high priests differed in position from the satraps only in that they were hereditary and had a historical and national connection with the population, who saw them as bearers of ancient traditions. They independently carried out internal administration, preserved local law, a system of measures, language, imposed taxes and duties, but were under the constant control of the satraps, who could often intervene in the affairs of the regions, especially during unrest and unrest. The satraps also resolved border disputes between cities and regions, litigation in cases where the participants were citizens of various urban communities or various vassal regions, and regulated political relations. Local rulers, like the satraps, had the right to communicate directly with the central government, and some of them, such as the kings of the Phoenician cities, Cilicia, Greek tyrants, maintained their own army and fleet, which they personally commanded, accompanying the Persian army on large campaigns or performing military orders of the king. However, the satrap could at any time demand these troops for the royal service, put his garrison in the possessions of local rulers. The main command over the troops of the province also belonged to him. The satrap was even allowed to recruit soldiers and mercenaries on his own and at his own expense. He was, as they would call him in an era closer to us, the governor-general of his satrapy, ensuring its internal and external security.

The supreme command of the troops was carried out by the heads of four or, as during the subjugation of Egypt, five military districts into which the kingdom was divided.

Persian system of government gives an example of amazing respect by the winners of local customs and the rights of conquered peoples. In Babylonia, for example, all documents from the time of Persian rule do not differ legally from those relating to the period of independence. The same thing happened in Egypt and Judea. In Egypt, the Persians left the former not only the division into nomes, but also the sovereign families, the location of troops and garrisons, as well as the tax immunity of temples and priesthood. Of course, the central government and the satrap could intervene at any time and decide matters at their own discretion, but for the most part it was enough for them if the country was calm, the taxes were being paid properly, the troops were in order.

Such a system of governance took shape in the Middle East not immediately. For example, initially in the conquered territories it relied only on the force of arms and intimidation. The areas taken "with a fight" were included directly in the House of Ashur - the central region. Those who surrendered to the mercy of the conqueror often retained their local dynasty. But over time, this system turned out to be ill-suited to managing a growing state. The reorganization of government carried out by King Tiglath-Pileser III in the UNT c. BC e., in addition to the policy of forced migrations, it also changed the system of administration of the regions of the empire. The kings tried to prevent the emergence of overly powerful families. To prevent the creation of hereditary possessions and new dynasties among the rulers of the regions, to the most important posts often appointed eunuchs. In addition, although large officials received huge land holdings, they did not form a single array, but were scattered throughout the country.

But still, the main support of the Assyrian domination, as well as the Babylonian later, was the army. Military garrisons literally encircled the entire country. Taking into account the experience of their predecessors, the Achaemenids added to the force of arms the idea of a "kingdom of countries", that is, a reasonable combination of local characteristics with the interests of the central government.

The vast state needed the means of communication needed to control the central government over local officials and rulers. The language of the Persian office, in which even royal decrees were issued, was Aramaic. This is explained by the fact that in fact it was in common use in Assyria and Babylonia back in Assyrian times. The conquests by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings of the western regions, Syria and Palestine, further contributed to its spread. This language gradually took the place of the ancient Akkadian cuneiform in international relations; it was used even on the coins of the Asia Minor satraps of the Persian king.

Another feature of the Persian Empire that admired the Greeks there were great roads, described by Herodotus and Xenophon in the stories about the campaigns of King Cyrus. The most famous were the so-called Royal, which went from Ephesus in Asia Minor, off the coast of the Aegean Sea, to the east - to Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian state, through the Euphrates, Armenia and Assyria along the Tigris River; the road leading from Babylonia through the Zagros mountains to the east to another capital of Persia - Ecbatana, and from here to the Bactrian and Indian border; the road from the Issky Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea to Sinop on the Black Sea, crossing Asia Minor, etc.

These roads were laid not only by the Persians. Most of them existed in Assyrian and even earlier times. The beginning of the construction of the Royal Road, which was the main artery of the Persian monarchy, probably dates back to the era of the Hittite kingdom, located in Asia Minor on the way from Mesopotamia and Syria to Europe. Sardis, the capital of Lydia conquered by the Medes, was connected by road with another large city - Pteria. From it the road went to the Euphrates. Herodotus, speaking of the Lydians, calls them the first shopkeepers, which was natural for the owners of the road between Europe and Babylon. The Persians continued this route from Babylonia further east, to their capitals, improved it and adapted it not only for trading purposes, but also for state needs - mail.

The Persian kingdom also took advantage of another invention of the Lydians - a coin. Until the 7th century BC e. subsistence economy dominated throughout the East, money circulation was just beginning to emerge: the role of money was played by metal ingots of a certain weight and shape. These could be rings, plates, mugs without chasing and images. The weight was different everywhere, and therefore, outside the place of origin, the ingot simply lost the value of a coin and had to be weighed again each time, that is, it became an ordinary commodity. On the border between Europe and Asia, the Lydian kings were the first to switch to the minting of a state coin of a clearly defined weight and denomination. Hence the use of such coins spread throughout Asia Minor, to Cyprus and Palestine. The ancient trading countries -, and - retained the old system for a very long time. They began to mint coins after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and before that they used coins made in Asia Minor.

Establishing a unified tax system, the Persian kings could not do without the minting of coins; in addition, the needs of the state that kept the mercenaries, as well as the unprecedented flourishing of international trade, caused the need for a single coin. And in the kingdom a gold coin was introduced, and only the government had the right to mint it; local rulers, cities and satraps, in order to pay mercenaries, received the right to mint only silver and copper coins, which remained an ordinary commodity outside their area.

So, by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. in the Middle East, through the efforts of many generations and many peoples, a civilization arose that even the freedom-loving Greeks was considered ideal. Here is what the ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote: “Wherever the king lives, wherever he goes, he makes sure that everywhere there are gardens called paradises, full of everything beautiful and good that the earth can produce. He spends most of his time in them, if the season does not interfere with this ... Some say that when the king gives gifts, those who distinguished themselves in the war are first called up, because it is useless to plow a lot if there is no one to protect, and then they cultivate the land in the best possible way, for the strong could not exist if there were no workers ... ".

It is not surprising that this civilization developed precisely in Western Asia. It not only arose earlier than others, but also developed faster and more vigorously, had the most favorable conditions for its development due to constant contacts with neighbors and the exchange of innovations. Here, more often than in other ancient centers of world culture, new ideas arose and important discoveries were made in almost all areas of production and culture. Pottery wheel and wheel, bronze and iron making, war chariot as fundamentally new means of warfare, various forms of writing from pictograms to the alphabet - all this and much more genetically goes back to Western Asia, from where these innovations spread to the rest of the world, including other centers of primary civilization.

The founder of the Persian state is Cyrus II, who is also called Cyrus the Great for his deeds.

Rise to power

Cyrus II came from a noble and ancient family of the Achaemenids. On the maternal side, as ancient Greek sources testify, he was the grandson of the king of Media, Astyages.

At this time (i.e. in the first half of the 6th century BC), the regions inhabited by the Persians were subject to the kingdoms of Media, or Elam. Herodotus has a lot of information about Cyrus's childhood, as well as another ancient Greek explorer and commander - Xenophon. According to their stories, Cyrus grew up at the court of Astyages and from early childhood stood out among his peers with intelligence and courage. It is believed that Cyrus gathered the Iranian tribes around his power and organized an uprising against the Medes and his grandfather. As a result, on the site of the kingdom of Media, a larger Persian state arose, which is also called Achaemenid by the name of the clan from which Cyrus came.

Conquest campaigns of Cyrus

Having strengthened his new power, Cyrus began campaigns of conquest in all directions of his kingdom. Soon he annexed to the Persian state:

Elam.
Babylonia.
Armenia.
Lydia.
Asia Minor and Ionian cities.
Cilicia.

We learn from Greek and other sources that Cyrus had the following approach regarding the conquered territories: if somewhere a local ruler agreed to surrender without resistance, then he left this ruler in his place and was content only with collecting tribute. In other cases, he could appoint the son of the former ruler and someone from the local aristocracy to the supreme position. In particular, he did this with Babylonia, where the son of the king who was fighting against him became the governor of Cyrus. Cyrus also gave freedom of religion, which persuaded different peoples to him.

After conquering large territories in the west, the ruler sent ambassadors to the east of his state, where the nomadic massagets lived, demanding to bow to him. However, he was refused and in the campaign against them the Achaemenid soldiers were defeated, and Cyrus himself was killed, and his tomb is located in Pasargadae.

The Persian state had a huge impact on the history of the Ancient World. Formed by a small tribal union, the state of the Achaemenids lasted about two hundred years. The splendor and power of the country of the Persians are mentioned in many ancient sources, including the Bible.

Start

For the first time, the mention of the Persians is found in Assyrian sources. In an inscription dated to the ninth century BC. e., contains the name of the land of Parsua. Geographically, this region was located in the Central Zagros region, and during the mentioned period, the population of this region paid tribute to the Assyrians. Tribal unions did not yet exist. The Assyrians mention 27 kingdoms under their control. In the 7th century the Persians, apparently, entered into a tribal union, since references to kings from the Achaemenid tribe appeared in the sources. The history of the Persian state begins in 646 BC, when Cyrus I became the ruler of the Persians.

During the reign of Cyrus I, the Persians significantly expanded the territories under their control, including taking over most of the Iranian plateau. At the same time, the first capital of the Persian state, the city of Pasargada, was founded. Part of the Persians was engaged in agriculture, part led

Rise of the Persian Empire

At the end of the VI century. BC e. the Persian people were ruled by Cambyses I, who was dependent on the kings of Media. The son of Cambyses, Cyrus II, became the lord of the settled Persians. Information about the ancient Persian people is scarce and fragmentary. Apparently, the main unit of society was the patriarchal family, headed by a man who had the right to dispose of the life and property of his loved ones. The community, at first tribal, and later rural, for several centuries was a powerful force. Several communities formed a tribe, several tribes could already be called a people.

The emergence of the Persian state came at a time when the entire Middle East was divided between four states: Egypt, Media, Lydia, Babylonia.

Even in its heyday, Media was actually a fragile tribal union. Thanks to the victories of King Cyaxares of Media, the state of Urartu and the ancient country of Elam were conquered. The descendants of Cyaxares could not keep the conquests of their great ancestor. The constant war with Babylon required the presence of troops on the border. This weakened the internal politics of Media, which the vassals of the Median king took advantage of.

Reign of Cyrus II

In 553, Cyrus II revolted against the Medes, to whom the Persians paid tribute for several centuries. The war lasted three years and ended in a crushing defeat for the Medes. The capital of Media (the city of Ektabani) became one of the residences of the ruler of the Persians. Having conquered the ancient country, Cyrus II formally retained the Median kingdom and assumed the titles of Median lords. Thus began the formation of the Persian state.

After the capture of Media, Persia declared itself as a new state in world history, and for two centuries played an important role in the events taking place in the Middle East. In 549-548 years. the newly formed state conquered Elam and subjugated a number of countries that were part of the former Median state. Parthia, Armenia, Hyrcania began to pay tribute to the new Persian rulers.

War with Lydia

Croesus, the lord of powerful Lydia, was aware of what a dangerous adversary the Persian state was. A number of alliances were made with Egypt and Sparta. However, the Allies did not manage to start full-scale military operations. Croesus did not want to wait for help and went out alone against the Persians. In the decisive battle near the capital of Lydia - the city of Sardis, Croesus brought his cavalry to the battlefield, which was considered invincible. Cyrus II sent out warriors on camels. The horses, seeing unknown animals, refused to obey the riders, the Lydian horsemen were forced to fight on foot. The unequal battle ended with the retreat of the Lydians, after which the city of Sardis was besieged by the Persians. Of the former allies, only the Spartans decided to come to the aid of Croesus. But while the campaign was being prepared, the city of Sardis fell, and the Persians subjugated Lydia.

Expanding the boundaries

Then came the turn of the Greek policies that were on the territory.

At the end of the 6th century, the Persian state expanded its borders to the northwestern regions of India, to the cordons of the Hindu Kush and subjugated the tribes living in the basin of the river. Syrdarya. Only after strengthening the borders, suppressing rebellions and establishing royal power, Cyrus II turned his attention to powerful Babylonia. On October 20, 539, the city fell, and Cyrus II became the official ruler of Babylon, and at the same time the ruler of one of the largest powers of the Ancient World - the Persian kingdom.

Reign of Cambyses

Cyrus died in battle with the Massagetae in 530 BC. e. His policy was successfully carried out by his son Cambyses. After a thorough preliminary diplomatic preparation, Egypt, another enemy of Persia, found itself completely alone and could not count on the support of the allies. Cambyses carried out his father's plan and conquered Egypt in 522 BC. e. Meanwhile, in Persia itself, discontent was ripening and a rebellion broke out. Cambyses hurried to his homeland and died on the road under mysterious circumstances. After some time, the ancient Persian state provided an opportunity to gain power to the representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenids - Darius Hystaspes.

The beginning of the reign of Darius

The seizure of power by Darius I caused discontent and grumbling in the enslaved Babylonia. The leader of the rebels declared himself the son of the last Babylonian ruler and became known as Nebuchadnezzar III. In December 522 BC. e. Darius I won. The leaders of the rebels were put to public execution.

Punitive actions distracted Darius, and meanwhile rebellions rose in Media, Elam, Parthia and other areas. It took the new ruler more than a year to pacify the country and restore the state of Cyrus II and Cambyses to its former borders.

Between 518 and 512, the Persian empire conquered Macedonia, Thrace and part of India. This time is considered the heyday of the ancient kingdom of the Persians. The state of world significance united dozens of countries and hundreds of tribes and peoples under its rule.

The social structure of ancient Persia. Reforms of Darius

The Persian state of the Achaemenids was distinguished by a wide variety of social structures and customs. Babylonia, Syria, Egypt long before Persia were considered highly developed states, and the recently conquered tribes of nomads of Scythian and Arab origin were still at the stage of a primitive way of life.

Chain of uprisings 522-520 showed the inefficiency of the previous scheme of government. Therefore, Darius I carried out a number of administrative reforms and created a stable system of state control over the conquered peoples. The result of the reforms was the first effective administrative system in history, which served the rulers of the Achaemenids for generations.

An effective administrative apparatus is a clear example of how Darius ruled the Persian state. The country was divided into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. The sizes of the satrapies were much larger than the territories of the early states, and in some cases coincided with the ethnographic boundaries of the ancient peoples. For example, the satrapy of Egypt territorially almost completely coincided with the borders of this state before its conquest by the Persians. The districts were led by state officials - satraps. Unlike his predecessors, who were looking for their governors among the nobility of the conquered peoples, Darius I put only nobles of Persian origin in these positions.

Functions of governors

Previously, the governor combined both administrative and civil functions. The satrap of the time of Darius had only civil powers, the military authorities were not subordinate to him. The satraps had the right to mint coins, were in charge of the economic activities of the country, collected taxes, and ruled the court. In peacetime, the satraps were provided with little personal protection. The army was subordinated exclusively to military leaders, independent of the satraps.

The implementation of state reforms led to the creation of a large central administrative apparatus headed by the royal office. State administration was conducted by the capital of the Persian state - the city of Susa. The large cities of that time, Babylon, Ektabana, Memphis, also had their own offices.

Satraps and officials were under the vigilant control of the secret police. In ancient sources, it was called "the ears and the eye of the king." The control and supervision of the officials was entrusted to the Khazarapat - the chief of the thousand. State correspondence was conducted on which almost all the peoples of Persia owned.

Culture of the Persian Empire

Ancient Persia left a great architectural heritage to the descendants. The magnificent palace complexes in Susa, Persepolis and Pasargada made a stunning impression on contemporaries. The royal estates were surrounded by gardens and parks. One of the monuments that have survived to this day is the tomb of Cyrus II. Many similar monuments that arose hundreds of years later took the architecture of the tomb of the Persian king as a basis. The culture of the Persian state contributed to the glorification of the king and the strengthening of royal power among the conquered peoples.

The art of ancient Persia combined the artistic traditions of the Iranian tribes, intertwined with elements of Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian cultures. Among the items that have come down to the descendants, there are many decorations, bowls and vases, various goblets, decorated with exquisite paintings. A special place in the finds is occupied by numerous seals with images of kings and heroes, as well as various animals and fantastic creatures.

The economic development of Persia in the time of Darius

A special position in the Persian kingdom was occupied by the nobility. The nobles owned large land holdings in all the conquered territories. Huge plots were placed at the disposal of the "benefactors" of the tsar for personal services to him. The owners of such lands had the right to manage, transfer allotments as inheritance to their descendants, and they were also entrusted with the exercise of judicial power over subjects. The system of land use was widely used, in which the plots were called allotments of a horse, bow, chariot, etc. The king distributed such lands to his soldiers, for which their owners had to serve in the army as horsemen, archers, and charioteers.

But as before, huge tracts of land were in the direct possession of the king himself. They were usually rented out. The products of agriculture and cattle breeding were accepted as payment for them.

In addition to the lands, canals were in the immediate royal power. The administrators of the royal property rented them out and collected taxes for the use of water. For the irrigation of fertile soils, a fee was charged, reaching 1/3 of the landowner's crop.

Persia workforce

Slave labor was used in all sectors of the economy. The bulk of them were usually prisoners of war. Bonded slavery, when people sold themselves, did not become widespread. Slaves had a number of privileges, for example, the right to have their own seals and participate in various transactions as full partners. A slave could redeem himself by paying a certain dues, and also be a plaintiff, witness or defendant in legal proceedings, of course, not against his masters. The practice of recruiting hired workers for a certain amount of money was widespread. The work of such laborers was particularly widespread in Babylonia, where they dug canals, made roads, and harvested crops from royal or temple fields.

Financial policy of Darius

Taxes were the main source of funds for the treasury. In 519, the king approved the basic system of state taxes. Taxes were calculated for each satrapy, taking into account its territory and land fertility. The Persians, as a conquering people, did not pay a cash tax, but were not exempt from tax in kind.

Various monetary units that continued to exist even after the unification of the country brought a lot of inconvenience, so in 517 BC. e. The king introduced a new gold coin, called the darik. The medium of exchange was the silver shekel, which was worth 1/20 of a darik and served in those days. On the reverse of both coins was placed the image of Darius I.

Transport routes of the Persian state

The spread of the road network contributed to the development of trade between the various satrapies. The royal road of the Persian state began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and passed through Babylon, and from there to Susa and Persepolis. The sea routes laid by the Greeks were successfully used by the Persians in trade and for the transfer of military force.

The sea expeditions of the ancient Persians are also known, for example, the voyage of the navigator Skilak to the Indian shores in 518 BC. e.