What was the composition of the triple alliance on the eve of the war. Entente

The beginning of the last century was marked by a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the major world powers. The main rivalry flared up between England and Germany, who headed the military-political blocs opposing each other: the Entente and the Triple Alliance.

Back in 1904, an agreement was reached between Paris and London, which dealt with the elimination of disputed territorial issues between them - the delimitation of their spheres of interest in Africa. Although it did not say anything about Germany, but in essence the agreement was directed against her, since Berlin began to openly declare the need to redivision the world. And this created a threat to the colonial possessions of London and Paris. German claims to England and France pushed Paris to strengthen ties with Russia and forced British diplomacy to achieve the same, especially since St.

THE DIVISION BETWEEN RUSSIA AND GERMANY

Other problems have become aggravated in the world. Japan expressed claims to the terms of the Portsmouth peace. Austro-Hungarian and German capital broke into Turkey. Berlin strove to undermine the dominion of England in the sea and intensively strengthened the power of its naval forces. An arms race unfolded.

In 1907, at the initiative of Russia, the second international Hague conference was held, in which 44 states participated. It adopted 13 conventions, including: on the limitation of armaments, on the introduction of an arbitration court for the peaceful resolution of international conflicts, on the laws and conditions of warfare, etc.

In the ruling circles of Russia, the assessment of the ongoing events (especially in relation to Germany) was contradictory. It should be noted that Berlin actively sought to draw Russia into the wake of its policy, to split its international alliances. So, in 1905, during a meeting between Nicholas II and Wilhelm II in Björk, the Kaiser persuaded the tsar to sign (secretly from the then Minister of Foreign Affairs V. N. Lamzdorf) an agreement containing the obligations of Russia and Germany on mutual assistance in the event of an attack on one of contracting parties of a European power. Despite the extreme indignation of Wilhelm II, the Bjork agreement, which was in conflict with the allied treaty with France, did not have any practical results and in the autumn of 1905 was essentially canceled by Russia. The logic of the development of international relations eventually pushed the autocracy in the direction of the Entente.

Russia's transition to the camp of Germany's opponents was marked, but not immediately. A. P. Izvolsky, appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, sought to achieve rapprochement with England without breaking off relations with Germany. To do this, he planned to conclude agreements on the most pressing issues with Germany and Austria-Hungary, as well as with England. At the same time, Izvolsky intended to regulate relations with Japan. Such a policy allowed Russia to get a respite necessary to solve internal problems, restore its military potential, and was supposed to provide it with an advantageous position in the emerging Anglo-German conflict.

JAPAN'S CLAIMS

After the signing of the Portsmouth Peace, relations between Russia and Japan remained tense. Tokyo made a number of demands aimed at expanding its influence in the Far East to the detriment of Russian interests. The militaristic circles of Japan believed that "peace was concluded prematurely" and sought new conquests in the Far East, primarily the complete annexation of Korea and South Manchuria. They began to increase the army and navy. There were also calls for revenge in Russia. And Germany fueled these sentiments and pushed both countries to a new military conflict. At the same time, Berlin promised Russia its help and put forward the idea of a German-Russian-American coalition against Japan. Having entered into negotiations with Russia, Tokyo presented it with demands to expand its sphere of influence along the Sungari River in Manchuria, up to the inclusion of the CER in this sphere, as well as free navigation along the Amur, preferential transportation of goods across Siberia, and virtually unlimited freedom of fishing along the Far East coast of Russia.

In 1907, a Russo-Japanese agreement on political issues was signed. The parties agreed to maintain the "status quo" in the Far East. Northern Manchuria and Outer Mongolia were recognized as the sphere of influence of Russia, and South Manchuria and Korea - of Japan.

BOSNIA CRISIS

In 1908, during negotiations with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary A. Erenthal, Izvolsky agreed to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary, occupied by the Austrians after the Berlin Congress. In exchange, he received Erenthal's promise not to object to the opening of the Black Sea straits for Russian military ships. However, England and France did not support the claims of tsarist diplomacy. Izvolsky's attempt to solve the problem of the straits failed. Austria-Hungary, meanwhile, announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia in March 1909, demanding recognition of this act. The tsarist government, realizing that it was not ready for a decisive objection, was forced to yield.

BALKAN WARS

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 became the prologue to the First World War. United as a result of the active efforts of Russian diplomacy, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece started a war against Turkey and defeated her. The winners soon quarreled with each other. Germany and Austria-Hungary, considering the formation of the Balkan Union as a success of Russian diplomacy, took steps aimed at its collapse, and pushed Bulgaria to oppose Serbia and Greece. During the second Balkan war, Bulgaria, against which Romania and Turkey also began hostilities, was defeated. All these events significantly exacerbated the Russian-German and Russian-Austrian contradictions. Turkey more and more submitted to German influence.

THE ORIGIN OF THE ENTENTE

The Russian government, realizing the country's unpreparedness for war and fearing (in case of defeat) a new revolution, sought to delay an armed clash with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, in the context of the progressive deterioration of relations with its Western neighbors, it tried to formalize allied relations with England. These attempts were unsuccessful, because London did not want to bind itself with any obligations. Allied relations between Russia and France by 1914, however, were significantly strengthened. In 1911-1913, at meetings of the chiefs of the Russian and French general staffs, decisions were made that provided for an increase in the number of troops deployed against Germany in case of war. The naval headquarters of England and France concluded a naval convention entrusting the protection of the Atlantic coast of France to the English fleet, and the protection of England's interests in the Mediterranean Sea to the French. The Entente as a coalition of England, France and Russia directed against the Triple Alliance was becoming a threatening reality.

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Introduction

Chapter 1. International relations before the First World War

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

International relations in the second half of the 19th century were characterized by the struggle of the strongest capitalist powers for the acquisition of colonial possessions. The danger of limited, local conflicts escalating into a world war increased sharply with the expansion of the system of alliances of the great powers.

The creation of a system of military-political blocs limited the possibilities of diplomatic maneuver in conflict situations, but increased the likelihood of any conflict, even a minor one, escalating into a pan-European and world war.

The purpose of the course work: to consider the economic and political motives for the creation of the "Triple Alliance" and its impact on the international situation.

Relevance of the topic: In the last third of the XIX - early XX centuries. some new trends in the development of the existing system of international relations were identified. The content of international relations was largely determined by the struggle of the strongest capitalist powers for the acquisition of colonial possessions. It was during this period of history that the division of the world between the main leading powers was completed, the military-political blocs - the Triple Alliance and the Entente - were created. And the countries that formed them determined the general line of their foreign policy aspirations as a future struggle for the "redistribution of the world." Our study is devoted to the appearance of these two blocks.

The relevance of the study of this topic is determined by the need to analyze and comprehend the experience of such formations and the functioning of such foreign policy alliances in order to achieve a common goal, which is quite justified today.

Research objectives:

Study the literature on the topic;

Determine the main prerequisites for the formation of the "Triple Alliance";

Identify the main tasks and goals of creating a tripartite alliance;

Analyze the role of the Triple Alliance in the preparation and unleashing of the First World War.

Methodological basis of the study.

1 method of comparisons and analogies;

2 method of generalizations.

The degree of scientific development of the topic. In historical science, the problem of the relationship between the participants in the coalitions during the First World War has repeatedly attracted the attention of researchers.

Among the researchers of history who paid special attention to various aspects of the topic under consideration, one can name the works of domestic researchers: G. K. Seleznev, R. Sh. Ganelin, V. M. Khvostov, V. A. Emts. In foreign historiography, one can name the works of J. Wallach, Robert Douty, William Philpotti..

The theoretical and practical significance of the work lies in the possibility of using the results of the study in developing new and improving existing courses on the history of international relations, the history of wars and armed conflicts, modern and national history. In addition, coursework materials can contribute to the development of strategic research and, in particular, to research on issues of coalition strategy.

Course work consists of introduction, main part, conclusion and list of used literary sources, as well as Internet resources. In the main part of the work there are two chapters, each of which includes two paragraphs and a conclusion.

Chapter 1. International relations before World War I

triple alliance war diplomatic

1.1 Holy Alliance. Growing imperialist contradictions

In an environment of increasing military danger, Europe split into two groups of opposing powers. The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, formed in 1879-1882, which marked the beginning of the division of Europe into hostile camps and played an important role in preparing and unleashing the First World War.

The goals pursued by the creators of the alliance were simple: to create an alliance capable of resisting England, France and Russia in a big war.

Germany was the main organizer of the Triple Alliance.

The international situation in Europe in the 19th century can be described as "very turbulent". It was a period of unrest, dangerous revolutionary moments, large-scale wars of conquest, and so on. In the clash between empires, only Russia remained a constant subject of history for many centuries. Other European empires rose and fell, but Russia, in its mission of "holding" remained in its place - both in the wars waged by Peter the Great, and in the Suvorov victories, and in the war with Napoleon, and in the Crimean War, and in two world wars. wars. History has proven the rule: European empires turned to dust when they clashed with Russia.

The Holy Alliance arose in 1815 after the fall of Napoleon's empire. In September 1815, when Alexander I, the Austrian emperor Franz I and the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III signed the "Act of the Holy Alliance" in Paris, King Louis XVIII of France joined this alliance in November.

The goals of the Union were: maintaining the inviolability of post-war borders in Europe; waging an irreconcilable struggle by all means against revolutionary uprisings. It was initiated by Emperor Alexander I, although he still considered it possible to patronize liberalism and grant a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland when drawing up the act of the "Holy Alliance".

The idea of the Union originated in him, on the one hand, under the influence of the idea: 1. To become a peacekeeper of Europe by creating such a Union that would eliminate even the possibility of military clashes between states.

2. Under the influence of a mystical mood that has taken possession of him.

The latter also explains the strangeness of the very wording of the union treaty, which is neither in form nor in content similar to international treatises, which led many specialists in international law to see in it only a simple declaration of the monarchs who signed it.

Marking the character of the era, the Holy Alliance was the main organ of the all-European reaction against liberal aspirations. Its practical significance was expressed in the decisions of a number of congresses (Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona), at which the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states was fully developed, with the aim of forcibly suppressing all national and revolutionary movements and maintaining the existing system with its absolutist and clerical aristocratic tendencies.

But by the end of the 1820s, the sacred Union began to disintegrate.

This was influenced, on the one hand, by the retreat from the principles of this Union on the part of England, whose interests at that time were very much in conflict with the policy of the sacred Union.

This was observed both in the enmity of the Spanish-American colonies with their mother country, and in relation to the still ongoing Greek uprising.

At the last Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance in 1822, contradictions were revealed between its participants, in particular between Russia and Austria in connection with the Greek liberation uprising of 1821-1830. The Holy Alliance condemned the Greek uprising, but Russia's policy on this matter was uncertain. The Greeks were Orthodox and Russian society supported them. In addition, support for Orthodox Greece would strengthen Russia's influence in the Balkans. Here it was decided to suppress the Spanish revolution. (In 1823, France invaded Spain and restored absolute monarchy there.)

After that, the Holy Alliance did not actually operate. So the religious and political utopia of Alexander I collapsed, and at the same time, the opposition of the powers to Russian policy in the "Eastern question" was clearly revealed.

In 1833 Russia, Austria and Prussia tried to restore the Holy Alliance. The monarchs of these countries entered into an agreement under which each of the sovereigns could receive help from others in the event of "internal troubles" in his state or in external danger. Revolutions of 1848-1849 finally buried the Holy Alliance.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the process of the old, "free" capitalism growing into monopoly capitalism - imperialism - was completed. In a number of European countries and in the United States, an industrial civilization was established, which guaranteed society not only a relatively stable and high standard of living, but also provided a wide range of rights, including the right to private property.

The result of the policy of social reforms carried out in the leading industrial states and the formation of civil society (a system of organizations and mass movements independent of the state that defended the rights and interests of citizens) was the emergence of mutual interests of society and the state and, accordingly, the easing of tension in society, which directed these countries to evolutionary path of development.

During this period of time, a conflict arose between the states of the “first echelon”, or “center”, and the countries of the “second echelon”, or “semi-periphery”: the former had already reached a high level of economic development, while the latter, striving to catch up with them in this, practically reached their goal, ahead of them in terms of development.

The reason for this was the emergence of new sectors of the economy, which put the latter in a more advantageous position, since they could create them “from scratch”, while the states of the “center” had to rebuild the existing system. Thus, the first place in the world in terms of gross industrial output belonged to the United States, the second to Germany, while England took third place, starting to lose the fight for markets to its American and German competitors.

But this section could not be final. There were always parts of disputed territories, remnants of crumbling empires (for example, Portuguese possessions in Africa, which, according to a secret agreement concluded by Great Britain and Germany in 1898, were subject to division between the two powers; the Ottoman Empire slowly fell apart throughout the 19th century and was a tasty pieces for young predators). Having colonies means not only having markets and sources of raw materials, but also being a great and respected power.

Contradictions manifested themselves in certain regions: the confrontation in the Balkans between Russia and its ally Serbia and Austria-Hungary, along with allied Bulgaria, became especially acute. The situation was aggravated by the fact that England, Germany, France and Italy also pursued their interests here.

Preparing for a world war, the states created a powerful military industry, the basis of which was large state-owned factories: weapons, gunpowder, shell, ammunition, shipbuilding, etc.

Private enterprises were involved in the production of military products: in Germany - the Krupp factories, in Austria-Hungary - Skoda, in France - Schneider-Creusot and Saint-Chamon, in the UK - Vickers and Armstrong-Whitworth, in Russia - the Putilov factory, etc.

The achievements of science and technology were put at the service of preparing for war. More advanced weapons appeared: store-bought rapid-fire rifles and machine guns, which greatly increased the firepower of the infantry; in artillery, the number of rifled guns of the latest systems has sharply increased.

Of great strategic importance was the development of railways, which made it possible to significantly speed up the concentration and deployment of large troop masses in theaters of military operations and to ensure the uninterrupted supply of active armies with human reinforcements and all types of material and technical support.

Road transport began to play an increasingly important role. Military aviation emerged. The use of new means of communication in military affairs (telegraph, telephone, radio) facilitated the organization of command and control. The number of armies and trained reserves increased rapidly. In the field of naval armaments, there was a stubborn rivalry between Germany and Great Britain. Since 1905, ships of a new type have been built - dreadnoughts.

By 1914, the German fleet had firmly taken second place in the world after the British fleet. Other states also sought to strengthen their navies. An ideological preparation for war was also carried out: the peoples were inspired by the means of propaganda that it was inevitable.

In the Middle and Far East, the new superpowers of the United States and Japan sought to spread their influence. In Europe, the political and economic rivalry between Germany and France was obvious, fighting for hegemony in the field of production and marketing in Europe.

As a result, the contradictions between the main imperialist powers sharply aggravated, caused by the unevenness of their economic development, the intensification of the struggle for spheres of influence, markets and sources of raw materials, and the desire of a number of states to redistribute the world.

1.2 Diplomatic preparations for the war for the redivision of the world

At the beginning of the XIX century. a peculiar political culture of resolving colonial disputes outside Europe was formed. This trend was embodied not only in numerous agreements on the settlement of colonial and territorial disputes, but also in the decisions of the two Hague conferences devoted to the problems of strengthening peace and security.

On May 18 - July 29, 1899, a peace conference was held in The Hague, convened on the initiative of the Russian Emperor Nicholas II. It was attended by 27 states, including Great Britain, Russia, USA, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Scandinavian states.

She discussed the issue of arms limitation. And although this issue was not resolved, as a result of the conference, conventions were concluded on the peaceful resolution of international conflicts, on the laws and customs of war on land, on the application to naval warfare of the provisions of the Geneva Convention of 1864 on the wounded and sick.

An important practical decision of the Conference was the creation of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, competent to resolve international disputes. The Second Hague Conference worked from June 15 to October 18, 1907, 44 states took part in it. She developed the principles of the Arbitration Court.

As the subsequent course of events showed, the decisions of the Hague conferences did not become an effective instrument for preventing wars and strengthening peace. Nevertheless, the discussion of these issues in such a representative forum expressed the concern of governments and peoples about the threat of war.

The most important of these agreements was concluded by Great Britain and France on April 8, 1904 in London in the form of a convention on Newfoundland and West Africa and two declarations - on Siam and on Egypt-Morocco. It was called "cordial consent" (Ententecordiale). This was the name of many bilateral agreements between these states.

In particular, back in the 1840s of the XIX century. “Consent” was a kind of political union of both liberal monarchies, opposed to the grouping of conservative monarchies of Russia, Austria and Prussia. However, in its historical significance, the Agreement of 1904 surpassed all previous ones. Although formally it was devoted to colonial issues, in fact it was the first step towards the creation of a military-political alliance of Great Britain, Russia and France, which - it should be emphasized - finally took shape only during the First World War.

Germany tried to prevent the rapprochement between Russia and Great Britain, and at the same time drive a wedge into the Russian-French alliance. On July 11 (24), 1905, Nicholas II and Wilhelm II met on board the imperial yacht in the bay of the city of Bjerke near Vyborg.

Wilhelm II proposed to conclude an alliance between Germany and Russia, despite the existence of the Russian-French alliance and, as it were, in addition to it. Without informing the Minister of Foreign Affairs V.N. Lamzdorf, Nicholas II signed such an agreement. It obligated Russia and Germany to assist each other in the event of an attack on one of them by any other European power.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was in conflict with Russia's obligations arising from the Russo-French Union. Therefore, he met energetic resistance in the ruling circles of Russia.

Ultimately, Nicholas II, in a letter dated November 13 (26), 1905, suggested that Wilhelm II make some changes to the contract, which actually meant its termination.

Another attempt to resolve disputed issues peacefully took place in 1906. An international conference met in the Spanish city of Algeciras, which, at the request of Germany, discussed the Moroccan problem. It was attended by all the major states of Europe, including Russia, as well as the United States and Morocco. The only one of the powers that fully supported the German point of view on the problem under discussion was Austria-Hungary.

The Algeciras Conference decided to preserve the state independence and territorial integrity of Morocco. She spoke in favor of the freedom and complete equality of all states in the economic development of this country.

The conference decided to create a Moroccan state bank under the control of Great Britain, Germany, Spain and France, and it was the French who received the largest share in the capital of this bank. The creation of the police and its leadership were entrusted to France and Spain. Germany's attempt to disrupt the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 ended in failure

Thus, attempts to peacefully resolve the contradictions that have arisen have not yielded positive results. England and its closest allies, France and the United States, did not want to concede either the superprofits from the exploitation of the colonies, or, even more so, the colonial territories themselves. Germany and its allies sought not only to redistribute the world, but also to world domination.

Chapter 2

2.1 Formation of the "Triple Alliance"

By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany had taken the first place in the world in many economic and technical indicators. German scientists and engineers took the leading positions. There was also a rise in culture. The well-being of the people has increased. Against this background, individualists began to penetrate into power. Many of them also had a sense of superiority, which led to the emergence of the doctrine of "Pan-Germanism".

This theory provided for the superiority of the German race over all others and the need to expand the “living space” for the Germans at the expense of the “eastern lands” (the Russian Plain to the Ural Mountains, a little Africa, a little China, the Balkans). It must be said that such theories arose in all countries, and, by analogy with the first, they sounded similar (pan-Americanism, pan-Slavism, etc.).

It is easy to see that the catalysts for Germany to become a strong state were the unification of German lands and rule.

This state significantly outnumbered its allies not only militarily, but also economically. Although formally everyone was equal in the Triple Alliance, in fact it was an alliance created by “Germany for Germany”, and its interests were above any others.

In addition, the Triple Alliance was torn apart by internal contradictions. Austria-Hungary and Italy could not agree because of the Algerian colonies of France. Italy tried to argue with Germany about the southeastern parts of France and her African colonies. Austria-Hungary claimed hegemony in the Balkan region (Given the desire of the Germans to establish their hegemony throughout Europe and the fact that the Balkans are part of Europe, the goal is very difficult to achieve).

An undoubted role in organizing the Triple Alliance was played by the German statesman, Prince Otto von Bismarck, a native of the Pomeranian Junkers.

O. Bismarck in 1879 achieved the conclusion of an alliance with Austria-Hungary, and in 1882 - the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), directed against France and Russia.

However, in an effort to prevent the possibility of a war on two fronts, Bismarck went in 1881 and 1884 to renew the "Union of the Three Emperors", and in 1887 concluded a "reinsurance agreement" with Russia. At the end of the 80s. opposed the intention of the German military circles to start a preventive war with Russia, believing that a war with Russia would be extremely dangerous for Germany. But German penetration into the Balkans, support for Austria-Hungary against Russia there, measures against Russian exports, etc. worsened Germany's relations with Russia.

Provoking "military alarms" also contributed to the rapprochement between France and Russia, culminating in the Franco-Russian agreement in 1891-1893. Bismarck did not take into account the depth of the Anglo-German contradictions and tried to achieve rapprochement with England. However, carried out by him in the 80s. the policy of colonial expansion led to an aggravation of Anglo-German relations. The failure of the policy of suppressing the labor movement and failures in foreign policy predetermined the resignation of Bismarck.

2.2 Charter of the "Triple Alliance"

On May 20, 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy signed a secret treaty for the Triple Alliance, or alliance of the Central Powers.

The main advantage of the Triple Alliance was its geographical position. The three countries adjoined each other with their borders and provided a quiet rear. At the same time, the three states accounted for only two fronts.

A strategic maneuver of forces was possible, their operational transfer from one front to another (the Entente, for the same, it was necessary to send convoys from England to Murmansk, and they sailed for almost weeks).

The introductory part of the treaty contained a statement that the contracting parties, "inspired by the desire to increase the guarantees of world peace, strengthen monarchical principles and thereby ensure the preservation of the social and political system in their states," concluded this "protective and defensive" treaty.

According to article 1 of the treaty, the parties to the treaty promised each other "peace and friendship", pledged not to take part in any alliances or obligations directed against one of them, to consult among themselves on "political and economic questions of a general nature" and to provide each other with mutual support "within their own interests".

According to Article 2, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to provide Italy "assistance and assistance with all their forces" in the event that she "without a direct challenge from her side would be attacked by France for any reason," and Italy pledged to do the same. in the event of an unprovoked French attack on Germany. As for Austria-Hungary, it was exempted from rendering assistance to Germany against France - it was assigned the role of a reserve in case Russia entered the war. It was in this article of the treaty that its value for Italy and Germany lay, since at that time they considered France to be their potential adversary.

Italy's attitude was different in Article 3 of the treaty, which stated that in the event of an unprovoked attack on one or two parties to the treaty by two or more great powers not participating in this treaty, all three parties to the treaty enter the war with the attacking powers. Austria-Hungary and Germany, following the signing of the treaty, at the insistence of Italy, took note of its special statement, the essence of which was that if England was one of the powers that attacked its partners, then Italy's military assistance provided for in Article 3 to its allies would not will.

Italy, whose shores were easily vulnerable to the English navy, was afraid of England and considered it dangerous to enter into conflict with her. Thus, from the very beginning of the existence of the Triple Alliance, it was clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary would have a more or less faithful ally in Italy only as long as England did not become enemies of the Triple Alliance.

Under Article 4, in the event of an unprovoked attack on one of the parties to the treaty by one of the great powers not participating in this treaty (except France), the other two parties were obliged to maintain benevolent neutrality with respect to their attacked ally. The practical value of this article for Germany and Austria-Hungary was to guarantee the neutrality of Italy in the event of a Russo-Austrian war.

Article 5 provided for a preliminary agreement between the parties on joint actions in the event of a threat to one of them. Here, the parties pledged "in all cases of common participation in the war not to conclude a truce, peace or treaty except with common consent among themselves."

Article 6 provided for the secrecy of both the content and the very existence of this treaty. According to Art. 7 the contract was concluded for 5 years.

The second alliance treaty of the powers of the Triple Alliance was signed in Berlin on 20.II 1887. It confirmed all the provisions of the 1882 treaty and set its validity to 30.V 1892. At the same time, separate Italo-Austrian and Italo-German treaties were signed in Berlin, supplementing the obligations of the treaty 1882.

The triple alliance was concluded on a secret basis and with minor reservations from Italy. Since she did not want to enter into conflict relations with Great Britain, she warned her allies not to count on her support in the event of an attack on any of them by Great Britain.

In the event of joint participation in the war, the parties pledged not to conclude a separate peace and to keep the Treaty on the Triple Alliance secret. The treaty was renewed in 1887 and 1891 (at the same time additions and clarifications were made) and automatically extended in 1902 and 1912.

From the end of the 19th century, Italy, which suffered losses from the customs war waged against it by France, began to change its political course. In 1902, she concluded an agreement with France, pledging to remain neutral in the event of a German attack on France.

The fourth treaty of alliance between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy was signed in Berlin on June 28, 1902, fully reproduced the text of the previous, third alliance treaty, was concluded for the same 6-year period and with the same extension conditions.

In a secret declaration communicated to the Italian government on 30.6.1902, the Austro-Hungarian government announced that it was striving to maintain the territorial status quo in the East, but would not do anything that could interfere with Italian actions dictated by its interests in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica .

The policy of the countries participating in the Triple Alliance in the decade 1902-12 is characterized by the growing aggressiveness of German imperialism, which leads this alliance, the ever-increasing penetration of the powers of the Triple Alliance into the Balkans and Turkey, the capture of Tripoli and Cyrenaica by Italy as a result of the Italo-Turkish war, and the continuing retreat of Italy from the Triple Alliance. union.

The fifth treaty of the Triple Alliance was signed in Vienna on 5.XII 1912. The content of this treaty is identical to the content of the treaties of 1891 and 1902. The treaty of 1912 was the last in the history of the Triple Alliance, it lasted until 1915, since Italy had already participated in hostilities on the side of the Entente. This redistribution of forces was preceded by the neutrality of this country in relations between Germany and France, with which it was not profitable for the "native" to spoil relations. After the conclusion of the London Pact, Italy entered the First World War on the side of the Entente, and the Triple Alliance broke up (1915).

After Italy left the union, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined Germany and Austria-Hungary, forming a quadruple alliance.

The Central Powers are a military-political bloc of states that opposed the powers of the "friendly agreement" (Entente) in the First World War of 1914-1918.

Block composition:

German Empire

Austria-Hungary

Ottoman Empire

Bulgarian kingdom (since 1915)

The block of the Central Powers ceased to exist with the defeat in the First World War in the autumn of 1918. At the signing of the armistice, all of them were forced to unconditionally accept the terms of the winners. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire disintegrated as a result of the war; the states created on the territory of the Russian Empire were forced to seek the support of the Entente.

Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland retained their independence, the rest were annexed back to Russia (directly to the RSFSR or entered the Soviet Union).

Thus, the military-political bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, which took shape in 1879-1882, marked the beginning of the division of Europe into hostile camps and played an important role in the preparation and unleashing of the First World War.

Conclusion

Based on the foregoing, the following conclusion can be drawn. The “Triple Alliance” differs from other international alliances in that it was aimed at establishing a new world order - and was focused on a qualitatively different from previously existing strategies - the idea of redistributing the world - an idea, if not new, but in the conditions of the then world - quite bold.

Based on the material studied, I came to the conclusion that the creation of any military-political union or bloc consists in joint actions to solve common political, economic and military tasks.

The "Triple Alliance" is a military bloc that aims to conquer a state in Europe and provide opportunities for an unbridled colonial economy.

As a result of the creation of the alliance, the struggle between the main imperialist states intensified and they were sharply divided into hostile groupings. The Triple Alliance was created in an environment of complex international contradictions in the process of the struggle of powers for world hegemony.

When writing a term paper, tasks were solved related to the disclosure of the main features of the creation of the "Triple Alliance", the study of the prerequisites for the formation and the role of O. Bismarck in the creation of the North German Union.

When studying the texts of the “Triple Alliance” treaty, one can notice the special militancy and aggressiveness of Germany, directed primarily against Russia and which laid the foundation for the formation of imperialist blocs in Europe.

With the formation of alliances of major European powers, the alignment of forces in Europe was finally determined. Both opposing sides were preparing for a short-lived war lasting no more than 6-8 months, and as a result, the war lasted more than four years, and led to huge material and human losses. Concluded for five years, the "Triple Alliance" was repeatedly extended and lasted until 1915.

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Formation of the Triple Alliance and the Entente.

Since the system of collective security ceased to exist, each country began to look for an ally. France was the first to start this search. After the Franco-Prussian war, on its eastern border there were now not several dozen German monarchies independent of each other, but a single empire, surpassing France in population and economic power. In addition, France was forced to transfer its territories to the enemy: the province of Alsace and a third of the province of Lorraine. This gave Germany a strategic advantage: in her hands was the exit to the plain of Northern France. From that moment, realizing the impossibility of a one-on-one fight, France itself begins an active search for allies to balance the power of the new Germany.

German Chancellor Bismarck, who did more than anyone to unify the country, saw the main goal of his diplomacy in preventing the alliance of France with other great powers. He understood how vulnerable the position of the German Empire, which, unlike France, was surrounded on three sides by great powers: Austria-Hungary, Russia and France itself. An alliance of the latter with either of the remaining two exposed Germany to the prospect of a war on two fronts, which Bismarck considered a direct road to defeat.

Triple Alliance

The way out of this situation was found on the ways of rapprochement with Austria-Hungary. The latter, in turn, entering into an increasingly sharp rivalry with Russia in the Balkans, needed an ally.

Consolidating this rapprochement, Germany and Austria-Hungary signed an agreement in 1879, under which they pledged to support each other in the event of an attack on them by the Russian Empire. The union of these states was joined by Italy, which was looking for support in the conflict with France over control of North Africa.

The Triple Alliance was formed in 1882. Germany and Italy assumed obligations of mutual assistance in the event of an attack by France, and Italy, in addition, promised neutrality to Austria-Hungary in the event of a conflict with Russia. Bismarck also hoped that Russia would refrain from conflict with Germany due to close economic, dynastic and traditional political ties with her and the unwillingness of the Russian emperor to ally with republican, democratic France.

In 1904, they settled all mutual claims that arose in connection with the colonial division of the world, and established "cordial agreement" among themselves. In French, it sounds "entente cordial", hence the Russian name for this union is the Entente. Russia signed a military convention with France back in 1893. In 1907, she settled all her differences with England and actually joined the Entente.

Features of new alliances

So there were unexpected and strange alliances. France and England have been enemies since the Hundred Years War, Russia and France since the Revolution of 1789. In the Entente, the two most democratic states of Europe - England and France - united with autocratic Russia.

Russia's two traditional allies - Austria and Germany - found themselves in the camp of its enemies. The union of Italy with its yesterday's oppressor and the main enemy of the unification, Austria-Hungary, also looked strange, on the territory of which, moreover, the Italian population remained. Austrian Habsburgs and Prussian Hohenzollerns, vying for centuries for control of Germany, found themselves in the same coalition, and blood relatives, cousins, Wilhelm II, on the one hand, Nicholas II and King Edward VII of Great Britain, his wife, were in opposing alliances.

Thus, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, two opposing coalitions formed in Europe - the Triple Alliance and the Entente. The rivalry between them was accompanied by an arms race.

Coalition building in itself was not unusual in European politics. Recall, for example, that the largest wars of the 18th century - the Northern and the Seven Years - were fought by coalitions, as were the wars against Napoleonic France in the 19th century.

Triple Alliance

The basis of the Triple Alliance was formed in two stages, from 1879 to 1882. The first participants were Germany and Austria-Hungary, which concluded a treaty in 1879, and in 1882 Italy also entered it. Italy did not fully share the policy of the alliance, in particular, it had a non-aggression agreement with Great Britain, in the event of a conflict between the latter and Germany. Thus, the Triple Alliance included part of Central and Eastern Europe from the Baltic to the Mediterranean Seas, some countries of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as western Ukraine, which was then part of Austria-Hungary.

Almost two years after the start, in 1915, Italy, which suffered huge financial losses, withdrew from the Triple Alliance and went over to the side of the Entente. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria took the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. After their entry, the bloc was in the Quadruple Alliance (or Central Powers).

The Entente military-political bloc (from the French "consent") was also not formed immediately and became a response to the rapidly growing influence and aggressive policy of the Triple Alliance countries. The creation of the Entente is divided into three stages.

In 1891, the Russian Empire concluded an alliance agreement with France, to which a defensive convention was added in 1892. In 1904, Great Britain, seeing a threat to its policy from the Triple Alliance, entered into an alliance with France, and in 1907 with Russia. Thus, the backbone of the Entente was formed, which became the Russian Empire, the French and British Empires.

It was these three countries, as well as Italy, which joined in 1915 with the Republic of San Marino, that took the most active part in the war on the side of the Entente, but in fact another 26 states joined this bloc at different stages.

Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Romania joined the Triple Alliance from the countries of the Balkan region. Belgium and Portugal became other European countries that replenished.

The countries of Latin America, almost in their entirety, took the side of the Entente. It was supported by Ecuador, Uruguay, Peru, Bolivia, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Haiti, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Brazil, Cuba and Panama. The northern neighbor, the United States, did not join the Entente, but took part in the war on its side as an independent ally.

The war also affected some countries in Asia and Africa. In these, China and Japan, Siam, Hijaz and Liberia took the side of the Entente.

Sources:

"History of the First World War 1914-1918", a group of authors, M .: Nauka, 1975.
"The First World War", Zaychonkovsky A. M. St. Petersburg: LLC "Polygon Publishing House", 2002.

The Triple Alliance and the Entente are military-political blocs formed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the main European powers. During the First World War, these coalitions were the main opposing forces.

Triple Alliance

The beginning of the division of Europe into hostile camps by the creation in 1879-1882 of the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was this military-political bloc that played a decisive role in the preparation and unleashing of the First World War.

The initiator of the Triple Alliance was Germany, which in 1879 concluded an agreement with Austria-Hungary on. The Austrian Treaty, also known as the Dual Alliance, was primarily directed against France and Russia. Subsequently, this agreement became the basis for the creation of a military bloc, which was headed by Germany, after which the European states were finally divided into 2 hostile camps.

In the spring of 1882, Italy joined Austria-Hungary and Germany. On May 20, 1882, these countries concluded a secret treaty on the Triple Alliance. According to the agreement signed for a period of 5 years, the allies assumed obligations not to take part in any agreements directed against these states, to provide mutual support and consult on all political and economic issues. Also, all participants in the Triple Alliance pledged, in the event of joint participation in the war, not to conclude a separate peace and keep the Treaty on the Triple Alliance secret.

By the end of the 19th century, Italy, under the yoke of losses from the customs war with France, began to gradually change its political course. In 1902, she had to conclude an agreement with the French on neutrality in the event of an attack on France by Germany. Just before the outbreak of the First World War, Italy, as a result of a secret agreement known as the London Pact, left the Triple Alliance and joined the Entente.

Entente

The response to the creation of the Triple Alliance was

Everyone is looking for and not finding the reason why the war began. Their search is in vain, they will not find this reason. The war did not start for any one reason, the war started for all reasons at once.
(Thomas Woodrow Wilson)

Since the end of the 19th century, European politicians have been haunted by the feeling of an impending catastrophe. The world was shaken by the Anglo-Boer, then the Spanish-American, then the Russian-Japanese, Italian-Turkish and endless Balkan wars, but they did not develop into a big war. And the political crises that disturbed Europe could lose count.

Who will we be friends with?

In 1905, Germany concluded an alliance treaty with Russia (Bjork Treaty), but it never entered into force. By 1914, two powerful military-political blocs had already taken shape. The Old World was divided into two warring camps - the Triple Alliance and the Entente. A clash between these groups seemed inevitable, but hardly anyone could have imagined then what catastrophic consequences it would lead to. Twenty million killed, hundreds of millions maimed, razed to the ground once flourishing cities and villages - such was the result of the First World War ...

All the major states of the planet have been preparing for a world war since the 1880s. Somewhere at the beginning of the second decade of the 20th century, preparations for the Great War were generally completed, that is, a huge amount of weapons and military equipment was accumulated in European states, and an infrastructure aimed at war was created. It remains only to find a suitable occasion. And they found him. On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, the Serbian patriot Gavrila Princip assassinated the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Habsburg dynasty, deputy commander-in-chief of the empire's army. And all the major powers considered it necessary to start a war. And the war began. The terrorist act was just an excuse that everyone was waiting for.

Long before that, a tangle of contradictions was growing in Europe between the great powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, and also Russia. The growing economic power of Germany required the redistribution of world markets, which was opposed by Great Britain. French and German interests clashed in the disputed frontier areas that changed hands over the centuries - Alsace and Lorraine. In the Middle East, the interests of almost all powers clashed, striving to be in time for the division of the crumbling Ottoman Empire.

Block Entente(formed after the Anglo-Russian alliance in 1907):

Russian Empire, Great Britain, France.

Block Triple Alliance:

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

However, during the war there were some reshuffles and replacements: Italy entered the war in 1915 on the side of the Entente, and Turkey and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary, forming Quadruple Union(or bloc of the Central Powers).

Central Powers:

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Bulgaria.

Allies of the Entente:

Japan, Italy, Serbia, USA, Romania.

Friends of the Entente(supported the Entente in the war):

Montenegro, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, China, Afghanistan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica.

A lot of oddities in the Entente camp happened due to the fact that Russia and France were in its composition ... France is an ally of Russia; France's ally is Great Britain. Eternal enemy Great Britain becomes an ally of Russia. An ally of Great Britain... Japan! As a result, a recent enemy - Japan becomes an ally of Russia.

On the other hand, the obvious enmity between Turkey and Russia led to the fact that this country, which was under strong British influence, turned out to be an ally of Germany. Italy, which was part of the Triple Alliance and for many years considered a natural ally of Germany, ended up in the camp of the Entente countries.

A hodgepodge. Kish-mish in Turkish.

Timeline of the declaration of war

As a result, 38 states participated in the war, in which 70% of the world's population lived. The Entente forces, led by France, Russia, Great Britain, from 1915 Italy, and from 1917 the United States defeated the states of the Quadruple Alliance (also known as the Central States) led by Austria-Hungary, Germany, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

In August 1914, the world did not yet know how grandiose and catastrophic the war declared on the first day of the last summer month would become. No one knew yet what incalculable victims, disasters and upheavals it would bring to humanity and what an indelible mark it would leave in its history. As a result of the war, the armies of the participating countries lost about 10 million soldiers killed and 22 million wounded. And it was precisely those terrible four years of the First World War that, despite the calendars, were destined to become the true beginning of the 20th century.

In September 1914, the first Battle of the Marne took place. The war unfolded in two main theaters of military operations - in Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in the Balkans and Northern Italy, in the colonies - in Africa, in China, in Oceania. Very soon after the start of the war, it became clear that the clash would take on a protracted character. The uncoordinated actions of the Entente countries, which had a noticeable superiority, allowed Germany - the main military force of the Triple Alliance - to wage war on an equal footing.

Despite fierce resistance, by 1917 it became clear that the victory would go to the Entente. In 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. The United States came out on the side of the Entente (after the famous “Zimmermann telegram”). In August 1916, Romania, which also hesitated for a long time, joined the Entente, but it turned out very unsuccessfully; soon its territory was occupied by the countries of the German bloc (much later, regarding the reliability of Romania as an ally, A. Hitler said: “If Romania ended the war on the same side as it started, it means that it defected twice!”).

The internal situation led to the February Revolution in Russia, and later to the October Revolution, as a result of which Russia separately withdrew from the war on extremely unfavorable terms (the capitulatory Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded - an “obscene peace”, in the words of V. I. Lenin), so how by 1917 Russia was no longer able to conduct any kind of military operations. This allowed Germany to continue the war for another year.

After the failure of another offensive on the Western Front in November 1918, a revolution also began in Germany (ending on November 9 with the overthrow of Kaiser Wilhelm and the establishment of the Weimar Republic).

On November 11, 1918, the German and Allied command signed a truce in Compiègne, which ended the First World War. In the same month, Austria-Hungary ceased to exist, disintegrating into several states; the monarchy was overthrown.

Fall of empires

The result of the First World War was the disintegration and liquidation of four empires: the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman (Ottoman), the latter two were divided, and Germany and Russia, ceasing to be monarchies, were cut down territorially and weakened economically. Germany lost its colonial territories. Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia gained independence. The war set the stage for the future collapse of the British Empire.

The First World War marked the end of the old world order that had taken shape after the Napoleonic Wars. The outcome of the conflict proved to be an important factor in the outbreak of World War II. It was the revanchist sentiment in Germany that actually led to the Second World War.

In addition, the world war became one of the main reasons that turned the life of Russia over the revolutions - the February and October. Old Europe, which for centuries maintained its leading positions in political, economic and cultural life, began to lose its leading position, giving way to the emerging new leader - the United States of America (or the USA - the North American United States, as it was customary to call this country at that time).

This war raised the question of the further coexistence of various peoples and states in a new way. And in the human dimension, its price turned out to be unprecedentedly high - the great powers that were part of the opposing blocs and assumed the brunt of the hostilities lost a significant part of their gene pool. The historical consciousness of the peoples turned out to be so poisoned that for a long time it cut off the path to reconciliation for those of them who acted as opponents on the battlefields. The World War “rewarded” those who passed through its crucible and survived with a bitterness that constantly reminded of itself. People's faith in the reliability and rationality of the existing world order was seriously undermined.

Brief background

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the balance of power in the international arena changed dramatically. The geopolitical aspirations of the great powers - Great Britain, France and Russia on the one hand, Germany and Austria-Hungary on the other - led to an unusually sharp rivalry.

In the last third of the 19th century, the geopolitical picture of the world looked like this: the United States and Germany, in terms of economic growth, began to outpace and displace the "old" great powers - Great Britain and France, on the world market, while simultaneously claiming their colonial possessions. In this regard, relations between Germany and Great Britain became extremely aggravated in the struggle both for colonies and for dominance in the open spaces of the ocean. In the same period, two unfriendly blocs of countries formed, finally delimiting relations between them. It all started with the Austro-German Union, formed in 1879 on the initiative of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Subsequently, Bulgaria and Turkey joined this alliance. Somewhat later, the so-called Quadruple Alliance, or Central Bloc, was formed, which marked the beginning of a series of international treaties that led to the creation in 1891-1893 of the opposing Russian-French bloc.

Shooting chain. Before the run

In 1904, Great Britain signed three conventions with France, which meant the establishment of the Anglo-French “cordial agreement” - “Entente cordiale” (this bloc began to be called the Entente later, when a short rapprochement was outlined in the conflicting relations between these two countries). In 1907, in order to settle colonial issues regarding Tibet, Afghanistan and Iran, a Russian-English treaty was concluded, which actually meant the inclusion of Russia in the Entente, or the "Triple Agreement". In the growing rivalry, each of the great powers pursued its own interests.

The Russian Empire, realizing the need to curb the expansion of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans and strengthen its own positions there, counted on the conquest of Galicia from Austria-Hungary, not excluding the establishment of control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which are in the possession of Turkey.

The British Empire aimed to eliminate its main competitor - Germany and to strengthen its own position as a leading power, while maintaining dominance at sea. At the same time, Britain planned to weaken and subjugate its allies - Russia and France - to its foreign policy. The latter longed for revenge for the defeat suffered during the Franco-Prussian War, and most importantly, she wanted to return the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine lost in 1871.

Germany intended to defeat Great Britain in order to seize her colonies rich in raw materials, defeat France and secure the border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In addition, Germany sought to take over the vast colonies that belonged to Belgium and Holland, in the east its geopolitical interests extended to the possessions of Russia - Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states, and it also hoped to subjugate the Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) and Bulgaria, after which, together with Austria-Hungary to establish control in the Balkans. Aiming at the speedy achievement of their goals, the German leadership in every possible way looked for a reason to unleash hostilities, and he eventually found himself in Sarajevo ...

"Oh, what a wonderful war!"

The military euphoria that engulfed European countries gradually turned into military psychosis. On the day the hostilities began, Emperor Franz Joseph published a manifesto, which, among other things, contained the famous phrase: “I weighed everything, I thought everything over” ... On the same day, a meeting of the Russian Council of Ministers was held. The military leadership of the country considered it necessary to conduct a general mobilization, conscripting 5.5 million people into the army. War Minister V. A. Sukhomlinov and Chief of the General Staff N. N. Yanushkevich insisted on this in the hope of a fleeting (lasting 4-6 months) war. Germany presented Russia with an ultimatum demanding an end to the general mobilization within 12 hours - before 12:00 on August 1, 1914. The ultimatum expired, and Russia found itself at war with Germany.

Further events developed rapidly and inevitably. On August 2, Germany entered the war with Belgium, on August 3 - with France, and on August 4, official notice was received in Berlin about the start of hostilities against her by Great Britain. Thus, diplomatic battles in Europe were replaced by bloody battles on the battlefield.

Russian three-inch shoes at a military review

Probably, the top leadership of Germany and Austria-Hungary did not imagine what disastrous consequences their actions would lead to, but it was the political short-sightedness of Berlin and Vienna that made such a fatal development possible. In conditions when there was still the possibility of resolving the crisis peacefully, neither in Germany nor in Austria-Hungary was there a single politician who would come up with such an initiative.

Interestingly, by the beginning of the 20th century, there were no such insurmountable contradictions between Germany and Russia, which inevitably had to develop into such a large-scale military confrontation. However, the desire of the German Empire for European and world domination was obvious. The Habsburg Empire was guided by similar ambitions. With their military and political power growing, neither Russia nor France, much less Great Britain, could afford to be on the sidelines. As Russian Foreign Minister S. D. Sazonov noted on this occasion, in case of inaction, one would have to “not only abandon Russia’s age-old role as the protector of the Balkan peoples, but also recognize that the will of Austria and Germany standing behind her back is the law for Europe ".

"War to the bitter end!"

By the beginning of August 1914, the prospect of a "great European war" was in sight. The main powers of the opposing alliances - the Entente and the Central Bloc - began to put their armed forces on alert. Millions of armies went to their original combat positions, and their military command was already looking forward to a quick victory. Then few could have imagined how unattainable it was ...

At first glance, there was no logic in the fact that the further events of August 1914 unfolded according to a scenario that no one could have imagined. In fact, such a turn was predetermined by a number of circumstances, factors and trends.

On August 8, representatives of most political parties and associations at a meeting of the Russian State Duma expressed loyal feelings to the emperor, as well as faith in the correctness of his actions and readiness, putting aside internal disagreements, to support the soldiers and officers who found themselves on the fronts. The national slogan "War to the bitter end!" was picked up even by liberal-minded oppositionists, who until quite recently stood up for Russia's restraint and caution in foreign policy decisions.

After the announcement of the Supreme Manifesto on the war from all over the country, from all the provinces, assurances of loyal feelings poured into St. Petersburg. A week later, response telegrams arrived: “I thank the population of the province for their devotion and readiness to serve Me and the Motherland. Nicholas."

What was the composition of the triple alliance on the eve of the war. Entente

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