Cardinal Richelieu in France. City houses inside and out
The role of Richelieu in the history of France
Cardinal Richelieu - First Minister of France.
The King allowed Richelieu to join the Queen Mother in the hope that he would have a pacifying effect on her. As part of the King's compromise with Mary, on September 5, 1622, Armand Jean du Plessis, formerly Bishop of Luçon, became Cardinal du Plessis, then aged 37. In a congratulatory letter, Pope Gregory XV wrote to him: "Your brilliant successes are so famous that all France should celebrate your virtues ... Continue to raise the prestige of the church in this kingdom, eradicate heresy."
But Louis continued to treat Richelieu with distrust, as he understood that his mother owed all diplomatic victories to the cardinal. A few months later, in August, the current government collapsed, and at the insistence of the Queen Mother, Richelieu joined the Royal Council and became the king's "first minister", a post in which he was destined to stay for 18 years. When on April 29, 1624, Richelieu first entered the meeting room of the French government, he looked at those present, including the chairman, the Marquis La Vieville, in such a way that it immediately became clear to everyone who was now the boss here. From that moment until the end of his life, Richelieu remained the de facto ruler of France. From now on, Richelieu began to serve Louis XIII, and not the whims of his eccentric mother. Of course, Marie de Medici was angry when she realized the change in the situation, but this did not happen immediately. Cardinal du Plessis was well aware that he would not be able to avoid a cruel confrontation with the Queen Mother.
From the very first day in power, Richelieu became the object of constant intrigues on the part of those who tried to “hook him up”. In order not to become a victim of betrayal, he preferred not to trust anyone, which caused fear and misunderstanding of those around him. In Paris, Cardinal Richelieu managed to prove his indispensability and in 1624 headed the new government. In terms of intrigue, the first minister knew no equal.
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The role of Richelieu in the history of France
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The role of Richelieu in the history of France
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2. A city will be founded here
City houses inside and out. - Royal residences. - Castle and city of Richelieu. – New France
Wars, taxes, requisitions - all this did not contribute to the growth and renewal of other cities of the French kingdom, their appearance changed only due to the destruction of medieval fortresses and defensive structures. As for the housing stock, it remained the same as it was three hundred years ago.
The main factor that determined the differences between the architectural appearance of rural and urban houses was the availability of free space. In rural areas, houses were mostly one-story, with various extensions, and in cities, the lack of space forced them to build on floors. The most common type of houses were half-timbered houses, which were very durable, which made it possible to make them quite high. From the 12th century, stone houses began to be built in the cities that were in the zone of influence of the abbeys, while wooden houses predominated in independent cities or those directly subordinate to the king. Most often, the first floor was stone, and the second, third, and even fourth - wooden. The windows overlooked the street, and outbuildings overlooked the courtyard. From the street they immediately got into the main room, where they led several steps; it served as a living room and dining room, followed by another, smaller one, where food was cooked, and even dined in a narrow family circle. Merchants set aside the first floor of their house for benches; often there was a cellar under the house. The bedrooms were on the second floor. The staircase was inside the house or outside, from the side of the yard. Railings on the internal stairs began to be made only under Louis XIII, in old houses they climbed up, holding on to a tight rope. The top floor protruded slightly forward, hanging over the street. Often the houses clung to each other, having a common wall, but in some cities, especially in Burgundy, they were separated from each other by some distance. The upper floors were rented by the poor; the higher the floor, the poorer its inhabitant. Sometimes one large room was divided by partitions into cells, in which entire families crowded. Wealthy townspeople built houses with stone facades, conforming them to their own tastes and needs. The windows were arranged so that they best illuminate the room, and not according to the laws of symmetry. In the southern provinces, the windows were small to keep the house cool; in the north - on the contrary, numerous and wide. The walls were of sufficient thickness, the floors strong and durable; the load-bearing structures of the upper floors were decorated with carvings. Door fittings, locks and bolts were often artistic casting, allowing blacksmiths to show all their imagination. They tried to decorate the facades as much as possible with paintings, so that each house had its own individuality. Tiles were a kind of decoration; in Burgundy, it was covered with multi-colored glaze, and shiny, iridescent roofs are still the hallmark of Dijon. However, the roofs were also covered with gray slate. The right address was found, guided by intricate signs hanging across the street.
If it was more customary to hear about the bourgeois: “I bought a house”, and not “built”, then the main persons in the kingdom, not content with Parisian mansions, were also engaged in suburban construction.
Louis XIII was born in Fontainebleau, and in honor of this event, one of the gates of the castle was named Dauphine Gate. This castle, spacious, beautiful, roomy, did not undergo great changes under him; Jean Androuet du Cerceau only added a horseshoe-shaped staircase to one of the facades in 1623 - now this porch is famous for the fact that Napoleon said goodbye to the guard on it, going into exile on the island of Elba.
Louis spent his childhood in another castle - Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Parents only occasionally went there to see their children, usually living in Paris or in Saint-Cloud. The "Old Castle", where the future king played real soldiers, is still the same as it was built in the 16th century. The Dauphine lived on the second floor, in the royal apartments, which were a suite of five rooms: the anteroom, which served as a pantry and a music hall; a royal bedroom with a balustrade, carpets and portraits of reigning monarchs on the wall, with a bed with columns, next to which stood the bed of a governess; nurse's bedrooms; maid's bedroom and royal study. The rest of the retinue of the royal first-born (more than two hundred people, fifteen of them women) was located on the third floor. Henry IV completed the construction of the New Castle, begun under Henry II (it was connected to the Old Castle by an alley that began at the bridge over the moat), and stayed there when he came to his large family. On the way between the Old and New castles there was a hall for playing ball, and caves were arranged in the park, including the cave of Mercury with a cunning fountain invented by the Italian Franchini: with the help of a special crane, it was possible to unexpectedly pour water on those who were nearby; this game pleased the little dauphin very much. In 1638, Ludovic Bogodanny, the future Sun King, was born in the New Castle. The one-story house where this joyful event took place is all that has survived to this day. Louis XIII died there on 15 May 1643.
While he was alive, he preferred to Paris its surroundings, covered with dense forests, where you could hunt to your heart's content. Louis deliberately ordered that a small hunting lodge be built for himself in Versailles, and not a royal residence. He never held a council there, never summoned the ministers. The royal "apartments" on the second floor consisted of only four rooms: an entrance hall, an office, a bedroom and a dressing room. Other participants in the hunt - no more than two "chosen ones" - were housed in two tiny outbuildings. It was only later that his son turned Versailles into a luxurious palace, and the French kings made it their "capital".
Country houses did not have permanent furnishings: if the king moved from one to another, then the furniture was also transported there. Once the king spent more than four hours in the monastery, talking with Louise de Lafayette, who had retired there (they were connected by high and pure platonic love), and when he went outside, a terrible downpour fell on Paris. It was madness to go back to Versailles, and the closer house in Saint-Maur had bare walls: things had not yet been moved there. The captain of the guards persuaded the king to go to spend the night in the Louvre, to the queen. According to legend, Louis XIV was conceived on this night.
After the coup of 1617, Marie de Medici was asked to retire from the capital, and she chose Blois to live. This first exile ended with a real adventure: Mary escaped from the castle through the window at night. First, she descended to the fortress wall along the ladder, which desperately creaked and swayed. Having endured fear, the queen mother flatly refused to use another ladder to descend to the ground. Then they wrapped her in winter robes and lowered this sack by dragging on a rope. Subsequently, the younger brother of Louis, Gaston, settled in Blois, finally ceasing to participate in conspiracies against the king. He completely destroyed the Anne of Brittany wing (the one from which Marie de Medici made her desperate escape) and instructed Francois Mansart to build a more modern building in its place. The building remained unfinished, but the Gaston d'Orleans wing is still considered a magnificent example of classical architecture of the 17th century, mainly due to its dome.
The cardinal also spent his childhood in a castle - the Richelieu family castle in the picturesque Brouage region, not far from the Loire. He was inherited by Armand's older brother, Henri de Richelieu, but in 1619 he died in a duel, and the Richelieu family was cut short. Armand, then still only Bishop of Luson, was very upset by the death of his brother and was determined at any cost to redeem the family nest where all his ancestors and himself were born. The case turned out to be long and difficult, but in the end, Armand acquired the castle and surrounding properties at an auction for 79 thousand livres. In March 1621, he took possession of his fiefdom.
As the years passed, the bishop became a cardinal and the king's first minister. Having visited his castle, he decided to turn it into a palace where he could adequately receive the king. Work began in 1625 and did not stop until the death of the cardinal. Richelieu entrusted the construction of the luxurious castle to Jacques Lemercier, setting only one condition: to leave the right wing of the old building intact - there was a room where Arman was born.
Construction had barely begun, and the cardinal was already worried about the interior decoration. He ordered the busts of Louis XIII and the Queen Mother, who was still in favor with him, to be brought to Richelieu. In subsequent years, the cardinal began to acquire the surrounding lands, making grandiose plans: to found a city. In August 1631, Louis elevated his possessions to the rank of a duchy (the cardinal became the Duke of Richelieu) and granted charters for the construction of a city around the castle. More than two thousand workers were driven to the construction site.
The city was built according to a single plan; straight wide streets divided it into regular squares and rectangles, the houses were of the same height and architecture - made of stone or brick, with pointed gray roofs with steep slopes and dormer windows. These windows were necessary in case of a siege: food supplies, mainly grain, were stored in attics, and thanks to the holes in the roof, they could be ventilated and not moldy. Times are restless. In addition, the city was surrounded by a rampart two and a half kilometers long. Richelieu was very different from other French cities of that time, it was called "the most beautiful place in France." The castle also grew and became prettier, inside it was decorated with magnificent works of art, but the cardinal never managed to see it in all its glory: he died in 1642. His great-nephew Armand-Emmanuel emigrated during the French Revolution, his property was confiscated, and the art from the Château de Richelieu was sold or donated to museums. In 1805, the estate was bought by the merchant Alexandre Bontron; he destroyed the castle and sold it for building materials. Of all the former splendor, only the church, the greenhouse, cellars and monumental gates survived.
The cardinal tried to be closer to the king; when Louis left for Fontainebleau, Richelieu lived there or nearby, in Fleury, and in 1633 he acquired a castle in Rueil, and this small village gradually turned into a resort town. All the important people of that time came to the luxurious castle: the king, Gaston of Orleans, Anna of Austria. Subsequently, he was inherited by the niece of the cardinal, the Duchess d "Eguillon.
Cardinal Richelieu, who in the common view is better known not as a builder, but as a destroyer (many fortifications of Protestant cities under him were razed to the ground, and France lost monuments of medieval architecture), contributed to the emergence of new settlements not only in France, but also far from it - in Acadia (now the territory of Canada). One of the first French settlements was founded in May 1604 on the island of Sainte-Croix and was named Port-Royal (today it is Nova Scotia). The first pancake came out lumpy: harsh climatic conditions and epidemics caused the death of three dozen of the eighty colonists. However, Basque, Breton and Norman fishermen continued to explore the Acadian coast: coastal waters were rich in fish.
A great contribution to the development of New France was made by Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635), a Protestant from Bruage. In May 1603 he sailed for the first time to American shores. Together with his immediate superior, de Chast, he landed 80 leagues from the mouth of the St. Lawrence River at its confluence with the Saguenay; the French left their ships there and went up the river to the waterfall of St. Louis (the pioneer Jacques Cartier stopped there at one time) and explored the nearby territories. Champlain compiled a map of the area and a detailed account of the journey. He continued his research for several years, having received the post of royal geographer and captain of the royal fleet, and in 1608 he laid a city 130 leagues from the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, calling it Quebec: in the language of the natives, this meant "narrowing of the river."
Champlain actively intervened in the life of the local population: he helped the Algonquins against the Iroquois, ensured their victory and named the lake after himself, on the shore of which the decisive battle took place.
Two years later, under the influence of the discoveries made by the Englishman Hudson, Champlain decided to look for a way to China through the north and west of America. The first expedition along the Ottawa River ended in vain. The requirements of the moment were different: Champlain returned to France to recruit colonists, and brought with him Franciscan friars who helped him spread the Christian faith among the natives. But he did not back down from his plans: he again went up the Ottawa, where by water, where by land, he reached Lake Huron, crossed the plains and Lake Ontario ... Having made friends with the Hurons, he helped them fight the warlike Iroquois, and spent the winter of 1615 among the Algonquins, learning their customs and language.
Meanwhile, Louis XIII came to power in France, but, busy with the war with his mother and the nobles who supported her, he thought little about the overseas colonies and did not support them. In 1624, Champlain came to his homeland to obtain an audience and personally ask for funds that he was denied. Richelieu, who stood at the helm of power, provided him with these funds. Champlain began to actively strengthen Quebec, and named the St. Lawrence River after the cardinal.
Richelieu gave new impetus to colonial policy by creating the Company of a Hundred Comrades in New France and Acadia in 1627. The development of trade required the creation of settlements in new territories: the French, who lived on the Atlantic coast, sailed to the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence from La Rochelle, Rouen, Dieppe, Nantes, Bordeaux, hoping for a better life in the New World. Among them were both Catholics and Protestants, although the latter made up only 7-8 percent of the population of New France and Acadia. They were mostly unmarried men about 25 years old, who entered the service of a colonist, merchant, religious community or navy unit for three years, five or seven years. The move was difficult and dangerous: in 1628, England declared war on France, and English pirate ships cruised the Atlantic, intercepting French ships.
Six warships under the command of David Kirk (a native of Dieppe who had sought asylum in England) laid siege to Quebec. The population of the city then amounted to only two hundred souls, but Champlain proudly refused to capitulate. Kerk retreated, but famine began in the city: by spring, the only kind of food was the roots that people found in the forest. Kerk renewed his offer and the city had to capitulate; Champlain left for France. In the years 1629-1631, Quebec was in the hands of the British, but the following year, after the signing of a peace treaty, France again took possession of Canada, and Champlain became its governor. It is characteristic that during the short period of English domination, the Indians refused to cooperate with the "occupiers", and with the return of the French they again began to help them. (This is perhaps the only example of good neighborly relations between the French and the natives: the indigenous population of Madagascar, for example, simply hated them.) Champlain turned out to be a skilled administrator, Quebec gradually became a prosperous city, and its founder died in it in 1635, surrounded by universal respect and honor .
The process of settling in Canada did not stop: families left for New France, and orphans also went there. The recruiter paid for the move, which took two to three months. The contract of employment was drawn up by a notary or recruiter, it stipulated the conditions for moving, the nature of the work performed, the rights and obligations of the hired person, and the conditions for his return to his homeland. Some paid for the move on their own - they were "free passengers" who were not bound by any obligations.
The hired labor force consisted of peasants, bakers, servants, apprentices, apprentices, carpenters (ordinary and shipboard), sailors, soldiers, farmers, day laborers. The latter felled the forest, built houses, worked with an ax and a saw. Under the "soldiers" sometimes meant masons, arquebusiers, gunsmiths, locksmiths. In the lists of the Free Marine Association, after each name of the "soldier" the craft is often indicated. Some professions were valued more than others; peasants hired in the first years of colonization were subsequently replaced by artisans. From La Rochelle, ships sailed to New France and Acadia, from Nantes, most headed for the Antilles.
While the Dutch were mastering Manhattan, and the British the east coast of the Atlantic, planting tobacco and importing black slaves from Africa, the French moved north and west, traded furs with the Hurons, tried to get along with the warlike Iroquois, studied the customs of the Ottawas and Illinois: the missionaries hoped convert them to the true faith. If in 1635 there were 132 colonists in Quebec, then in 1641 there were already 300 of them, and soon the total number of settlers began to number in the thousands. Today, about one and a half million descendants of those who once crossed the ocean in search of a better life live in Canada.
Armand-Jean du Plessis de Richelieu, later nicknamed the "Red Cardinal" (l "Eminence Rouge), was born on September 9, 1585 in Paris or in the castle of Richelieu in the province of Poitou in an impoverished noble family. His father, Francois du Plessis, was the chief provost - a judicial officer of France under Henry III, and his mother, Suzanne de la Porte, came from the family of a lawyer of the Paris Parliament.Armand-Jean was the youngest son in the family.When Jean was only five years old, his father died, leaving his wife alone with five children, dilapidated estate and considerable debts.The difficult years of childhood affected the character of Jean, because all his subsequent life he sought to restore the lost honor of the family and have a lot of money, surround himself with the luxury that he was deprived of in childhood.Since childhood, Armand-Jean - a sickly and quiet boy, preferred book games with friends.In September 1594, Richelieu entered the Navarre College in Paris and began to prepare for a military career, inheriting the title of Marquis du Chille. become an officer of the royal cavalry.
The main source of the family's material wealth was the income from the position of the Catholic clergyman of the diocese in the La Rochelle area, granted to Plessy by Henry III in 1516. However, in order to keep it, someone from the family had to take the monastic order. Until the age of 21, Armand, the youngest of three brothers, was expected to follow in his father's footsteps and become a military and courtier.
Since Jean was too young to take the priesthood, he needed the blessing of Pope Paul V. Having gone to the pope in Rome as an abbot, he initially hid his too young age from Pope Paul V, and after the ceremony he repented. The Pope's conclusion was: "It is fair that a young man who has discovered wisdom beyond his age should be promoted early." On April 17, 1607, the twenty-two-year-old Armand-Jean du Plessis took the name of Richelieu and the rank of Bishop of Luson. The church career at that time was very prestigious, and was valued above the secular one. However, Jean Richelieu, on the site of the once flourishing abbey in Luzon, found only ruins - a sad memory of the Wars of Religion. The diocese was one of the poorest and the funds delivered by it were not enough for a more or less decent life. But the young bishop did not lose heart.
The dignity of the bishop made it possible to appear at the royal court, which Richelieu was not slow to take advantage of. Very soon, he completely fascinated King Henry IV with his mind, erudition and eloquence. Heinrich called Richelieu none other than "my bishop." But, as happens in such cases, some influential persons did not like such a rapid rise of the provincial bishop, and Richelieu had to leave the capital.
Estates General 1614-1615.
Richelieu spent several years in Luzon. There, Bishop Richelieu was the first in France to reform the economy of the monastery, and was also the first Frenchman to write a theological treatise in his native language, which reflected the state of affairs in the country destroyed by the Wars of Religion.
All his free time, Richelieu was engaged in self-education, that is, he read. In the end, he read to the point that until the very end of his days he was tormented by terrible headaches.The assassination of Henry IV by Catholic fanatic Ravaillac in 1610 unleashed the hands of the separatists. The government of Marie de Medici, Queen Mother, regent under Louis XIII, was corrupt to the core. The collapse was reinforced by the failures of the military, so the royal court went to negotiations with representatives of the armed masses.
The Bishop of Luson (Richelieu) acted as an intermediary in the negotiations, which was the reason for his election as a representative to the Estates General from the clergy of Poitou in 1614. States General - a collection of estates, established in the Middle Ages and still occasionally meeting the king on one occasion or another. The delegates were divided into the first estate (clergy), the second estate (secular aristocracy) and the third estate (bourgeois). The young Bishop of Luzon was supposed to represent the clergy of his native province of Poitou. In the conflict between the clergy and the third estate (artisans, merchants and peasants) over the relationship between the crown and the Pope, Bishop Richelieu took a neutral position, giving all his strength to bring the parties to a compromise.
Already soon Richelieu was noticed thanks to the dexterity and cunning shown by him in establishing compromises with other groups and eloquent defense of church privileges from the encroachments of secular authorities. In February 1615, he was even instructed to give a ceremonial speech on behalf of the first estate at the final session. The next time the Estates-General would convene was 175 years later, on the eve of the French Revolution.
Rise of Richelieu at the royal court.
At the court of young Louis XIII drew attention to the 29-year-old bishop.
Richelieu's talents made the greatest impression on the queen mother, Marie de Medici, who still actually ruled France, although in 1614 her son had already come of age. Appointed as the confessor of Queen Anne of Austria, the young wife of Louis XIII, Richelieu soon achieved the location of the closest adviser and favorite of Maria Concino Concini (also known as Marshal d'Ancre). In 1616, Richelieu joined the royal council and took the post of secretary of state for military affairs and foreign politics.The new post required Richelieu to actively participate in foreign policy, to which he until then had nothing to do.Richelieu's first year in power coincided with the outbreak of war between Spain, which was then ruled by the Habsburg dynasty, and Venice, with which France was at war Union This war threatened France with a new round of religious strife.However, in April 1617, Concini was assassinated by a group of "friends of the king" - opponents of the regency of Marie de Medici. The instigator of this action, the Duc de Luynes, now became the favorite and adviser of the young king. Richelieu was first returned to Luçon and then exiled to Avignon, Papal States, where he struggled with his melancholy by reading and writing. For two years, Richelieu studied literature and theology in complete seclusion. During this time, he wrote two theological works - "Defense of the Fundamentals of the Catholic Faith" and "Instructions for Christians".
The French princes of the blood - Conde, Soissons and Bouillon - were indignant at the arbitrary actions of the monarch and rebelled against him. Louis XIII had to retreat. In 1619, the King allowed Richelieu to join the Queen Mother in the hope that he would have a pacifying effect on her. For seven years, part of which had to be spent in exile, Richelieu was in active correspondence with Marie de Medici and Louis XIII.
However, the dowager queen was not such a person to immediately forget everything after reconciliation. As it should be for any woman, especially a regal one, she broke down a little more before agreeing to a final reconciliation. And when she decided that it was time, she demanded that her son appoint Richelieu a cardinal. On September 5, 1622, Bishop Richelieu received the rank of cardinal. And if someone was appointed a cardinal, then in the Royal Council, the then French government, he certainly had to be included, especially since the ministers of Father Louis XIII, almost all had already died.
But only in 1624, Marie de Medici was returned to Paris, and with her Richelieu, without whom she could no longer take a step. Louis continued to treat Richelieu with distrust, as he understood that his mother owed all diplomatic victories to the cardinal. When on April 29, 1624, Richelieu first entered the meeting room of the French government, he looked at those present, including the chairman, the Marquis La Vieville, in such a way that it immediately became clear to everyone who was now the boss here. A few months later, in August, the current government collapsed, and at the urging of the Queen Mother, on August 13, 1624, Richelieu became the "first minister" of the king - a post in which he was destined to stay for 18 years.
Cardinal Richelieu - First Minister of France.
Despite his fragile health, the new minister achieved his position through a combination of patience, cunning and an uncompromising will to power. Richelieu never ceased to use these qualities for his own advancement: in 1622 he became a cardinal, in 1631 a duke, all the while continuing to increase his personal fortune.
From the very beginning, Richelieu had to deal with many enemies and unreliable friends. At first, Louis himself was among the latter. As far as one can judge, the king never found sympathy for Richelieu, and yet, with each new turn of events, Louis fell into more and more dependence on his brilliant servant. The rest of the royal family remained hostile to Richelieu. Anna of Austria could not stand the ironic minister, who deprived her of any influence on state affairs. Duke Gaston of Orleans, the king's only brother, plotted innumerable plots to increase his influence. Even the queen mother, always ambitious, felt that her former assistant stood in her way, and soon became his most serious opponent.
Suppression of the nobility under Richelieu.
Various factions of rebellious courtiers crystallized around these figures. Richelieu responded to all challenges thrown to him with the greatest political skill and brutally suppressed them. In 1626, the young Marquis de Chalet became the central figure in the intrigue against the cardinal, who paid for it with his life.
The king himself felt like an instrument in the hands of the cardinal and, apparently, was not without sympathy with the last attempt to overthrow Richelieu - the conspiracy of Saint-Mar. Just a few weeks before his death in 1642, Richelieu uncovered a final conspiracy centered on the Marquis de Saint-Mar and Gaston d'Orléans. The latter, as always, was saved from punishment by royal blood, but Saint-Mar, a friend and favorite of Louis, was beheaded. In the period between these two conspiracies, the most dramatic test of the strength of Richelieu's position was the famous "day of the fools" - November 10, 1631. On this day, King Louis XIII promised for the last time to dismiss his minister, and rumors spread throughout Paris that the Queen Mother had defeated her enemy. However, Richelieu managed to obtain an audience with the king, and by nightfall all his powers were confirmed and his actions were sanctioned. "Fooled" were those who believed false rumors, for which they paid with death or exile.Resistance, which manifested itself in other forms, met with no less resolute rebuff. Despite his aristocratic tastes, Richelieu crushed the rebellious provincial nobility by insisting on their obedience to royal officials. In 1632, he secured the death sentence for participation in the rebellion of the Duke de Montmorency, governor-general of Languedoc, who was sent against Richelieu by Marie de Medici, and one of the most brilliant aristocrats. Richelieu forbade parliaments (the highest judicial bodies in cities) from questioning the constitutionality of royal legislation. In words, he glorified the papacy and the Catholic clergy, but by his deeds it was clear that the head of the church in France was the king.
Cold, prudent, very often severe to the point of cruelty, subordinating the sense of reason, Richelieu firmly held the reins of government in his hands and, with remarkable vigilance and foresight, noticing the impending danger, warned her at the very appearance. In the fight against his enemies, Richelieu did not disdain anything: denunciations, espionage, gross forgeries, previously unheard-of deceit - everything went into action. His heavy hand in particular crushed the young, brilliant aristocracy that surrounded the king.
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From the very first day in power, Richelieu became the object of constant intrigues on the part of those who tried to “hook him up”. In order not to become a victim of betrayal, he preferred not to trust anyone, which caused fear and misunderstanding of those around him. "Whoever knows my thoughts must die," said the cardinal. Richelieu's goal was to weaken the position of the Habsburg dynasty in Europe and strengthen the independence of France. In addition, the cardinal was an ardent supporter of absolute monarchy.
Suppression of the Huguenot Protestants under Richelieu.
Another important source of opposition, crushed by Richelieu with his usual decisiveness, was the Huguenot (Protestant) minority. The conciliatory Edict of Nantes by Henry IV of 1598 guaranteed the Huguenots complete freedom of conscience and relative freedom of worship. He left behind them a large number of fortified cities - mainly in the south and south-west of France. Richelieu saw this semi-independence as a threat to the state, especially in times of war. The Huguenots were a state within a state, they had strong supporters in the cities and a powerful military potential. The cardinal preferred not to bring the situation to a crisis, but the fanaticism of the Huguenots was fueled by England, the eternal rival of France. The participation taken by the Huguenots in 1627 in the attack of the English from the sea on the coast of France served as a signal for the government to take action. By January 1628, the fortress of La Rochelle, a stronghold of the Protestants on the shores of the Bay of Biscay, was besieged.
Richelieu took personal leadership of the campaign, and in October the recalcitrant city capitulated after about 15,000 of its inhabitants starved to death. In 1629, Richelieu ended the religious war with a magnanimous reconciliation - a peace agreement in Ala, according to which the king recognized for his Protestant subjects all the rights guaranteed to him in 1598, with the exception of the right to have fortresses. True, the Huguenots were deprived of political and military privileges. But their freedom of worship and judicial guarantees put an end to the wars of religion in France and did not give rise to disagreements with Protestant allies outside the country. Protestant Huguenots lived in France as an officially recognized minority until 1685, but after the capture of La Rochelle, their ability to resist the crown was undermined.Administrative and economic reforms under Richelieu.
In an effort to strengthen the sovereignty of royal power in the field of domestic and foreign policy and finance, Richelieu initiated the codification of French laws (the Michaud Code, 1629), carried out a number of administrative reforms (the establishment of quartermaster positions in the provinces appointed by the king), fought against the privileges of parliaments and nobility (prohibition of duels, destruction of fortified noble castles), reorganized the postal service. He stepped up the construction of the fleet, which strengthened the military position of France at sea and contributed to the development of foreign trade companies and colonial expansion. Richelieu developed projects for the financial and economic recovery of the country in the spirit of mercantilism, but internal and external wars did not allow them to be implemented. Forced loans led to an increase in tax oppression, which, in turn, caused riots and peasant riots (the "Krokan" uprising of 1636-1637), which were brutally suppressed.
As far as economics was concerned, Richelieu knew practically nothing about it. He declared wars without thinking about the supply of the army, and preferred to solve problems as they came. The cardinal followed the doctrine of Antoine de Montchristien and insisted on the independence of the market. At the same time, he emphasized the production of goods for export and prevented the import of luxury goods. In the sphere of his economic interests were glass, silk, sugar. Richelieu advocated the construction of canals and the expansion of foreign trade, and he himself often became a co-owner of international companies. It was then that the French colonization of Canada, Western Western India, Morocco and Persia began.
French Wars under Richelieu.
By the end of the 1620s, the French government was in a position to become more involved in international affairs, prompting Richelieu to take action. By the time Richelieu came to power, the grandiose (called the Thirty Years) War in Germany between the Catholic sovereigns, led by the Holy Roman Emperor, and the union of Protestant princes and cities was already in full swing. The House of Habsburg, including the ruling families in Spain and Austria, was the main enemy of the French monarchy for more than a century, but at first Richelieu refrained from interfering in the conflict. Firstly, the Protestant powers were supposed to become allies of France in this case, so the cardinal and his chief adviser, the monk of the Capuchin order, Father Joseph (nicknamed, in contrast to his boss, l "Eminence grise, i.e. "Gray Cardinal") understood that it is necessary to have a clear and legal justification for such a step.Secondly, the freedom of action outside the country has long been constrained by the turbulent situation inside France itself.Thirdly, the main threat to French interests did not come from the Austrian Habsburgs, but from the even more powerful Spanish branches, prompting the French to focus on the Pyrenees and Spanish possessions in Italy rather than Germany.
Nevertheless, France was still involved in the war. By the end of the 1620s, the Catholics had achieved such impressive victories within the Empire that it seemed that the Austrian Habsburgs would become complete masters of Germany.
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During the Richelieu siege of the fortress of La Rochelle, the Spaniards managed to mobilize forces in northern Italy and capture the fortress of Casal. Then Richelieu showed extraordinary mobility: immediately after the fall of La Rochelle, the French army was thrown over the Alps and caught the Spaniards by surprise. In 1630, in the course of complex intrigues, Richelieu refused to sign the Peace of Regensburg, in response, Spain turned to Pope Urban VIII with a request to excommunicate Louis XIII from the church. Richelieu was on the verge of failure, because his relationship with the king was very difficult, and the zealous Catholic Maria Medici simply fell into hysterics. When Richelieu returned to France, she demanded the resignation of the cardinal, but Louis did not agree to this, seeking to maintain political independence from his mother. Richelieu was the only one who could help him in this, so he retained the rank of cardinal and the position of first minister. The offended queen mother left the court and went to the Netherlands, which was under the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs, taking with her the younger brother of the king, Gaston of Orleans.
Overcoming the opposition of the pro-Spanish "party of saints", Richelieu pursued an anti-Habsburg policy. He counted on an alliance with England, arranging the marriage of Charles I of England to Henrietta Maria of France, sister of Louis XIII, which was concluded on June 12, 1625. Richelieu sought to strengthen French influence in northern Italy (expedition to Valtelina) and in the German lands (support for the league of Protestant princes). He managed to keep France from direct participation in the Thirty Years' War for a long time.
After the landing of the Swedish king in Germany, Richelieu found it necessary to intervene, indirectly so far. On January 23, 1631, after lengthy negotiations, the envoy of Richelieu signed an agreement with Gustavus Adolf in Berwald. Under this agreement, the French Catholic prelate provided the Swedish Lutheran warrior king with financial means for waging war against the Habsburgs in the amount of one million livres per year. Gustav promised France that he would not attack those states of the Catholic League ruled by the Habsburgs. Nevertheless, in the spring of 1632, he turned his troops east against just such a state - Bavaria. Richelieu tried in vain to keep his ally. Only with the death of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Luzen (November 16, 1632) was the cardinal's difficult dilemma resolved.
At first, Richelieu had a glimmer of hope that monetary subsidies to the allies would be enough to save his own country from the risk of an open conflict. But by the end of 1634, the remaining Swedish forces in Germany and their Protestant allies were defeated by the Spanish forces.
In 1635, Spain occupied the Bishopric of Trier, which caused the unification of French Catholics and Protestants, who stood hand in hand against the external enemy - Spain. This was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War for France.
In the spring of 1635, France formally entered the war, first against Spain and then, a year later, against the Holy Roman Empire. At first, the French suffered a series of unfortunate defeats, but by 1640, when the superiority of France began to manifest itself, she began to overcome her main enemy - Spain. Moreover, French diplomacy was successful, causing an anti-Spanish uprising in Catalonia and its fall (from 1640 to 1659 Catalonia was under French rule) and a full-scale revolution in Portugal that ended Habsburg rule in 1640. Finally, on May 19, 1643, at Rocroix in the Ardennes, the army of the Prince de Conde achieved such a crushing victory over the famous Spanish infantry that this battle is considered to be the end of Spanish dominance in Europe.
In the last years of his life, Cardinal Richelieu was involved in yet another religious conflict. He led the opposition to Pope Urban VIII, as France's plans included expanding its sphere of influence in the Holy Roman Empire. At the same time, he remained devoted to the ideas of absolutism and fought against the Gallicans, who encroached on the Papal power.
Death of Cardinal Richelieu.
In the autumn of 1642, Richelieu visited the healing waters of Bourbon-Lancy, for his health, undermined by many years of nervous tension, was melting before his eyes. Even being ill, the cardinal, until the last day, dictated orders to the armies, diplomatic instructions, orders to the governors of various provinces for several hours until the last day. On November 28, there was a sharp deterioration. Doctors make another diagnosis - purulent pleurisy. Bloodletting did not give a result, only weakened the patient to the limit. The cardinal at times loses consciousness, but, having regained consciousness, tries to work more. These days, his niece, the Duchess d'Aiguilon, is inseparably next to him. On December 2, Louis XIII visits the dying. “Here we say goodbye,” Richelieu says in a weak voice. steps of glory and unprecedented influence, while all your enemies are defeated and humiliated. The only thing I dare to ask Your Majesty for my labors and my service is to continue to honor my nephews and relatives with your patronage and your favor. I will give them my blessing only on the condition that they will never break their loyalty and obedience and will be devoted to you to the end."
Then Richelieu ... names Cardinal Mazarin as his only successor.
Left with the doctors, Richelieu asks to be told how much he still has left. The doctors answer evasively, and only one of them - Monsieur Chicot - dares to say: "Monsignor, I think that within 24 hours you will either die or get on your feet." - "Well said," Richelieu said quietly and concentrated on what -something his.
The next day, the king pays one more, last, visit to Richelieu. They talk face to face for an hour. Louis XIII left the room of the dying man very excited about something. True, some of the witnesses claimed that the king was in a cheerful mood. Priests gather at the bedside of the cardinal, one of whom gives him communion. In response to the traditional appeal in such cases to forgive his enemies, Richelieu says: "I had no other enemies, except for the enemies of the state." Those present are surprised by the clear, clear answers of the dying man. When the formalities were over, Richelieu said with complete calm and confidence in his innocence: "Very soon I will appear before my Judge. From the bottom of my heart I will ask him to judge me by that measure - whether I had other intentions than the good of the church and state. "
In the early morning of December 4, Richelieu receives the last visitors - the messengers of Anne of Austria and Gaston of Orleans, who assure the cardinal of their best feelings. The Duchess d'Aiguilon, who appeared after them, with tears in her eyes, began to tell that the day before, a Carmelite nun had a vision that His Eminence would be saved by the hand of the Almighty. "Complete, complete, niece, all this is ridiculous, one must believe only the Gospel."
They spend some time together. Somewhere around noon, Richelieu asks his niece to leave him alone. “Remember,” he says to her in parting, that I loved you more than anyone else in the world. It will not be good if I die in front of you ... “The place of d” Aiguilon is taken by Father Leon, who gives the dying man the last absolution. Lord, into your hands," whispers Richelieu, shudders and falls silent. Father Leon brings a lighted candle to his mouth, but the flame remains motionless. The cardinal is dead."
Richelieu died in Paris on December 5, 1642, short of his triumph at Rocroi and broken by numerous illnesses. Richelieu was buried in a church on the grounds of the Sorbonne, in memory of the support given to the university by His Eminence the Cardinal.
Achievements of Cardinal Richelieu.
Richelieu contributed in every possible way to the development of culture, trying to put it at the service of French absolutism. At the initiative of the cardinal, the reconstruction of the Sorbonne took place. Richelieu wrote the first royal edict on the creation of the French Academy and handed over to the Sorbonne, according to his will, one of the best libraries in Europe, created the official propaganda organ of Theophrastus Renaudo's Gazette. In the center of Paris, the Palais Cardinal grew up (later it was presented to Louis XIII and has since been called the Palais Royal). Richelieu patronized artists and writers, in particular Corneille, encouraged talents, contributing to the flourishing of French classicism.
Richelieu, among other things, was a very prolific playwright, his plays were published in the first royal printing house opened on his initiative.
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On the whole, Richelieu directed by no means "in a Hamletian way." He reconciled the French (Catholics and Huguenots) among themselves and, thanks to the "pistol diplomacy", quarreled their enemies, having managed to create an anti-Habsburg coalition. To divert the Commonwealth from the Habsburgs, he sent messengers to the Russian state to the first of the Romanovs, Mikhail, with a call to trade duty-free.
Richelieu had a strong influence on the course of European history. In domestic politics, he eliminated any possibility of a full-scale civil war between Catholics and Protestants. He failed to put an end to the tradition of dueling and intrigue among the provincial nobility and courtiers, but through his efforts, disobedience to the crown was considered not a privilege, but a crime against the country. Richelieu did not introduce, as was customary to say, the positions of quartermasters to carry out government policy on the ground, but he significantly strengthened the position of the royal council in all areas of government. The trading companies he organized to deal with overseas territories proved ineffective, but the protection of strategic interests in the colonies of the West Indies and Canada opened a new era in the creation of the French Empire.
Steady service to clearly conscious goals, a broad practical mind, a clear understanding of the surrounding reality, the ability to use circumstances - all this provided Richelieu with a prominent place in the history of France. The main activities of Richelieu are formulated in his "Political Testament". The priority of domestic policy was the fight against the Protestant opposition and the strengthening of royal power, the main foreign policy task was to increase the prestige of France and fight against the hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. "My first goal was the greatness of the king, my second goal was the power of the kingdom," the famous musketeer fighter summed up his life path.
1. Robert Knecht. Richelieu. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
2. All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe / under the tutelage K. Ryzhova. - Moscow: Veche, 1999.
3. Encyclopedia "The World Around Us" (cd).
4. Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2000 (cd).
Armand Jean du Plessis Richelieu
Duke Richelieu. Engraving of Gedan.
Several generations of Russian readers know Cardinal Richelieu thanks to the book by Alexandre Dumas "The Three Musketeers" and a later film of the same name, in which the role of a cunning clergyman was played by the wonderful artist Trofimov. True, the assessments of Richelieu's political activity - in the mass consciousness and in official historiography - radically diverged. The public led by Dumas was hostile to the cardinal, and official historians, on the contrary, saw in him an objectively "progressive" political force, and in the person of the king - "reactionary". True, these were Marxist historians. In order for readers of CHRONOS to compare different points of view, I give below several versions of the biography - from the Diplomatic Dictionary edited by Vyshinsky, from the Soviet military and from the American encyclopedias, the Soviet historical encyclopedia and others. Compare.
Richelieu (Bichelieu) Armand Jean du Plessis (5. 9. 1585, Paris, - 4.12. 1642, ibid.), French statesman, supporter absolutism, cardinal (since 1622). He was awarded the title of Generalissimo. Since 1607 he became a bishop in Luzon (in Poitou). In 1614 he was elected a member of the States General from the clergy, which contributed to his political career. In 1616-1624 he was Secretary of State for Military and Foreign Affairs. From 1624 to 1642, being the first minister Louis XIII, was the de facto ruler of France. Richelieu's policy was aimed at strengthening absolutism and the international position of France. In the interests of external expansion, the army was reorganized, a navy was created, which contributed to the victory of France in the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. Richelieu sought to expand the French colonies in North America (Canada), the Antilles, Saint-Domingue, Senegal, Madagascar. In an effort to strengthen royal power, he decided to fight separatist groups, especially the Huguenots. On his instructions, noble castles were demolished (with the exception of border ones). A supporter of absolutism, Richelieu brutally suppressed numerous popular uprisings. Under Richelieu, the French Academy, a number of lyceums were founded, and the Sorbonne was reorganized. In his "Political Testament" he outlined the basic principles of the policy of French absolutism.
Used materials of the Soviet military encyclopedia in 8 volumes, vol. 7: Radio control - Tachanka. 688 p., 1979.
Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis (5.IX.1585 - 4.XII.1642), - French statesman. Cardinal (since 1622), duke-peer (since 1631). Since 1624 - the first minister of Louis XIII and the de facto ruler of France. In an effort to strengthen absolutism, Richelieu destroyed the political organization of the Huguenots; after the capture of La Rochelle (1628) and the southern fortresses (1629), he deprived the Huguenots of the political rights granted to them by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, but left freedom of religion and retained many privileges of the Huguenot bourgeoisie (the “peace of mercy” of 1629). In 1632, he suppressed a feudal rebellion in Languedoc and executed the governor, the Duke of Montmorency. By order of Richelieu, noble castles were demolished (except for border ones). Richelieu strengthened control over provincial governors and severely limited the rights of provincial states, parliaments, and counting chambers, transferring provincial administration to government-appointed commissaries. In foreign policy, he considered the fight against the Habsburgs to be the main task, with whom he first waged a “hidden” war, supporting their enemies (German Protestant princes, Holland, Denmark, Sweden). In 1635 he involved France in the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. The French victories were facilitated by the creation of a navy under Richelieu and the reorganization of the army. Richelieu expanded the territory of France by annexing Alsace and part of Lorraine. In the field of economics, he pursued a policy of mercantilism, expanded the French colonization of Canada, and intensified the activities of French trading companies in the Antilles, Saint-Domingue, Senegal, and Madagascar. To strengthen absolutism and expand foreign policy, Richelieu extremely increased the tax burden and brutally suppressed the popular movements caused by it (numerous urban uprisings of the 20-40s, the uprisings of the Crocans of 1624, 1636-1637, the uprising of the "barefoot" of 1639). Under Richelieu, the French Academy, a number of lyceums were founded, the Sorbonne was reorganized, and the Palais Cardinal (later the Palais Royal) was built. In his "Political Testament" ("Testament ... politique", (P., 1643), scientific ed. - P., 1947) outlined the basic principles of the policy of French absolutism.
Richelieu's domestic and foreign policy has attracted the close attention of historians. Associating the triumph of absolutism with Richelieu, some of them saw in Richelieu the largest progressive figure (O. Thierry, who considered Richelieu a genius who cleared the way for bourgeois society; G. Fagnez, who highly appreciated his foreign policy, etc.), others gave Richelieu a sharply negative characterization (J. d "Avenel, who considered Richelieu the root cause of revolutions, the death of the French aristocracy; J. Michelet, who condemned Richelieu for fighting the Huguenots, etc.). Some historians generally denied the leading political role of Richelieu (for example, T. Mommsen, J. Pages In the works of Soviet historians who evaluate Richelieu as the greatest figure in absolutism, his activities are considered in connection with the general problems of the history of French absolutism (V. V. Biryukovich, A. D. Lyublinskaya), with the history of popular movements (B. F. Porshnev) .
A. I. Korobochko. Leningrad.
Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 12. REPARATIONS - SLAVES. 1969.
Literature: Lyublinskaya A.D., Richelieu in the East. literature of the 19th-20th centuries, VI, 1946, No. 10; her, France in the beginning. XVII century., L., 1959; her, Franz. absolutism in the first third of the 17th century, M.-L., 1965; Hanotaux G., Histoire du cardinal de Richelieu, t. 1-6, P., 1932-47; Hauser H., La pensée et l "action économiques du cardinal de Richelieu, P., 1944; Saint-Aulaire C. de, Richelieu, (2 ed.), P., 1960; Mongrédien G., 10 novembre 1630. La journée des Dupes, P., 1961; Ranum O. A., Richelieu and the councilors of Louis XIII, Oxf., 1963; Méthivier H., Le siècle de Louis XIII, P., 1964; Burckhardt K. J., Richelieu, Münch., 1966.
Richelieu Armand Jeandu Plessis (1585-1642), cardinal, duke - French statesman. R. came from ordinary nobles. In 1606 he was appointed Bishop of Lucien. From 1624 to 1642 R. - the first minister of Louis XIII.
R. sought to strengthen the absolute monarchy in France and the establishment of French hegemony in Europe. The main direction of R.'s foreign policy was the destruction of the power of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs.
In the unification of Germany under a single imperial authority, R. saw a great danger to France and fought against it all his life. In resolving this problem, R. preferred diplomatic means, by which he fomented wars outside of France.
The Thirty Years' War, in which almost all the major European states were involved, contributed to the implementation of R.'s plans. The resistance of the court party and the struggle against the Huguenots tied R. for some time, but then he won a number of major diplomatic victories. Considering that all means are good in order to achieve the goal, the first minister of the Catholic kingdom supported the German Protestant princes in their struggle against the emperor and the Catholic princes. For his help to the Protestant princes, R. expected to receive from them German territories up to the Rhine. R.'s agents were supposed to cause a rupture between Austria and Bavaria. R. put together coalitions, hired foreign monarchs for the war against the emperor and Spain.
In 1625, R. succeeded in obtaining the provision of English and Dutch subsidies to the Danish king Christian IV, who led the Protestant princes. At the same time, Holland waged war against Spain on French subsidies. When the German commander Wallenstein defeated the Danes, R.'s closest assistant, the monk Joseph, frightening the German Catholic princes with the prospect of strengthening the emperor's power, achieved the resignation of Wallenstein and the dissolution of his troops at the Regensburg Congress of Electors (1630).
The next success of R.'s policy was the signing of an agreement with Sweden (1631), which, with the financial support of France, put up a large army against the emperor. At the same time, R. took advantage of the fact that the princes of West Germany, frightened by the rapid successes of the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, sought protection from France, and strengthened his position in Alsace.
In 1635, when the belligerents were already weakened, R. rallied all the opponents of the emperor around him, and the French armies began to take a direct part in the war. Hostilities against Spain began even earlier, and in 1630 a treaty favorable to France was concluded at Casalo. Spain lost Roussillon, after the death of R. finally assigned to France.
R. in every possible way contributed to the aggravation of relations between Spain and England, hoping to win England over to his side in the Thirty Years' War. R. insisted on a marriage alliance between the French and English royal houses. However, relations between France and England were not strong, because England of the Stuarts did not pursue a purposeful policy at that time and moved closer to Spain, then to France and its allies. For his part, R. was in touch with the opponents of the English king - the Scottish Presbyterians. R.'s attempt to establish his own resident-informant in Moscow failed.
Although the first years of the French military operations in Germany were unsuccessful for them, R.'s diplomacy delivered possession of Alsace and part of Lorraine to France.
Diplomatic Dictionary. Ch. ed. A. Ya. Vyshinsky and S. A. Lozovsky. M., 1948.
Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis (1585–1642), French statesman. Full name and title - Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal, Duke de Richelieu, nicknamed the "Red Cardinal" (l "minence Rouge). The son of Francois du Plessis, seigneur de Richelieu (who, however, did not belong to the highest nobility), who advanced under Henri III and became great provost, and Suzanne de la Porte, daughter of a member of the Parisian parliament (highest judicial council).Born September 9, 1585 in Paris or in the castle of Richelieu in the province of Poitou.Until the age of 21, it was assumed that Armand, the youngest of three brothers, will follow in his father's footsteps and become a military and courtier, but in 1606 the middle brother went into a monastery, renouncing the bishopric in Lucon (30 km north of La Rochelle), which was usually inherited by members of the Richelieu family.The only thing that could keep the family in control over the diocese, this is the entry of young Arman into a spiritual rank, which happened on April 17, 1607.
States General 1614–1615. Richelieu spent several years in Luzon. The opportunity to attract attention presented itself in 1614, when the States General were convened in Paris - an assembly of estates established in the Middle Ages and still occasionally meeting by the king on one occasion or another. The delegates were divided into the first estate (clergy), the second estate (secular aristocracy) and the third estate (bourgeois). The young Bishop of Luzon was supposed to represent the clergy of his native province of Poitou. Already soon Richelieu was noticed thanks to the dexterity and cunning shown by him in establishing compromises with other groups and eloquent defense of church privileges from the encroachments of secular authorities. In February 1615, he was even instructed to deliver a ceremonial speech on behalf of the first estate at the final session. The next time the Estates-General would convene was 175 years later, on the eve of the French Revolution.
Elevation. At the court of the young Louis XIII, they noticed the 29-year-old prelate. Richelieu's talents made the greatest impression on the queen mother, Marie de Medici, who still actually ruled France, although in 1614 her son had already come of age. Appointed as the confessor of Queen Anne of Austria, Richelieu soon achieved the location of the closest adviser to Maria Concino Concini (also known as Marshal d'Ancre). In 1616, Richelieu joined the royal council and took the post of secretary of state for military affairs and foreign policy.
However, in 1617 Conchini was killed by a group of "friends of the king". The instigator of this action, the Duc de Luyne, now began to play a leading role at court. Luyne suggested that Richelieu remain at his post, but he decided to follow the Queen Mother to Blois, seeing in her position the best guarantees for the future. For seven years, part of which had to be spent in exile, Richelieu was in active correspondence with Maria Medici and Louis. During this time, he wrote two theological works - Defense of the Fundamentals of the Catholic Faith and Instructions for Christians. In 1619, the king allowed Richelieu to join the queen mother in the hope that he would have a pacifying effect on her. In 1622, as part of the king's compromise with Mary, Richelieu was granted the dignity of cardinal. Finally, in 1624, the king allowed his mother to return to Paris; Richelieu also arrived there, to whom Louis continued to treat with distrust. A few months later, in August, the current government collapsed and, at the urging of the Queen Mother, Richelieu became the King's "First Minister", a post he was destined to hold for 18 years.
First Minister. Despite his fragile health, the new minister achieved his position through a combination of patience, cunning and an uncompromising will to power. Richelieu never ceased to use these qualities for his own advancement: in 1622 he became a cardinal, in 1631 a duke, all the while continuing to increase his personal fortune.
From the very beginning, Richelieu had to deal with many enemies and unreliable friends. At first, Louis himself was among the latter. As far as one can judge, the king never found sympathy for Richelieu, and yet, with each new turn of events, Louis became increasingly dependent on his brilliant servant. The rest of the royal family remained hostile to Richelieu. Anna of Austria could not stand the ironic minister, who deprived her of any influence on state affairs. The Duke of Orleans Gaston, the king's only brother, wove countless plots to increase his influence. Even the queen mother, always ambitious, felt that her former assistant stood in her way, and soon became his most serious opponent.
The curbing of knowledge. Various factions of rebellious courtiers crystallized around these figures. Richelieu responded to all challenges thrown to him with the greatest political skill and brutally suppressed them. In 1626, the young Marquis de Chalet became the central figure in the intrigue against the cardinal, who paid for it with his life. Just a few weeks before his death in 1642, Richelieu uncovered the latest conspiracy, the central figures of which were the Marquis de San Mar and Gaston d'Orléans. The latter, as always, was saved from punishment by royal blood, but San Mar was beheaded. In the period between these two conspiracies, the most dramatic test of the strength of Richelieu's position was the famous "day of the fools" - November 10, 1631. On this day, King Louis XIII promised to dismiss his minister for the last time, and rumors spread throughout Paris that the Queen Mother defeated her enemy. However, Richelieu managed to obtain an audience with the king, and by nightfall all his powers were confirmed and his actions were sanctioned. The “fooled” were those who believed false rumors, for which they paid with death or exile.
Resistance, which manifested itself in other forms, met with no less resolute rebuff. Despite his aristocratic tastes, Richelieu crushed the rebellious provincial nobility by insisting on their obedience to royal officials. In 1632, he achieved the death sentence for participation in the rebellion of the Duke de Montmorency, Governor-General of Languedoc and one of the most brilliant aristocrats. Richelieu forbade parliaments (the highest judicial bodies in cities) from questioning the constitutionality of royal legislation. In words, he glorified the papacy and the Catholic clergy, but by his deeds it was clear that the head of the church in France was the king.
Suppression of Protestants. Another important source of opposition, crushed by Richelieu with his usual decisiveness, was the Huguenot (Protestant) minority. Conciliatory Edict of Nantes Henry IV dated 1598 guaranteed the Huguenots complete freedom of conscience and relative freedom of worship. He left behind them a large number of fortified cities - mainly in the south and south-west of France. Richelieu saw this semi-independence as a threat to the state, especially in times of war. The participation taken by the Huguenots in 1627 in the attack of the British from the sea on the coast of France served as a signal for the government to take action. By January 1628, the fortress of La Rochelle, a stronghold of the Protestants on the shores of the Bay of Biscay, was besieged. Richelieu took personal leadership of the campaign, and in October the recalcitrant city capitulated after c. 15 thousand of its inhabitants died of starvation. In 1629, Richelieu ended the religious war with a generous reconciliation - a peace agreement in Ala, according to which the king recognized for his Protestant subjects all the rights guaranteed to him in 1598, with the exception of the right to have fortresses. The Huguenots lived in France as an officially recognized minority until 1685, but after the capture of La Rochelle, their ability to resist the crown was undermined.
Thirty Years' War. By the end of the 1620s, the French government was in a position to become more involved in international affairs, prompting Richelieu to take action. By the time Richelieu came to power, the grandiose (called the Thirty Years) War in Germany between the Catholic sovereigns, led by the Holy Roman Emperor, and the union of Protestant princes and cities was already in full swing. The House of Habsburg, including the ruling families in Spain and Austria, was the main enemy of the French monarchy for more than a century, but at first Richelieu refrained from interfering in the conflict. Firstly, in this case, the Protestant powers were supposed to become allies of France, so the cardinal and his chief adviser, the monk of the Capuchin order, Father Joseph (nicknamed, in contrast to his boss, l "minence grise, i.e. "Gray Cardinal") understood that it is necessary to have a clear and legal justification for such a step.Secondly, the freedom of action outside the country has long been constrained by the turbulent situation inside France itself.Thirdly, the main threat to French interests did not come from the Austrian Habsburgs, but from the even more powerful Spanish branches, prompting the French to focus on the Pyrenees and Spanish possessions in Italy rather than Germany.
Nevertheless, France was still involved in the war. By the end of the 1620s, the Catholics had achieved such impressive victories within the Empire that it seemed that the Austrian Habsburgs would become complete masters of Germany. In the face of the threat of Habsburg dominance in Europe, Richelieu and Father Joseph argued that for the good of the papacy and the spiritual well-being of the church itself, France should oppose Spain and Austria. The opportunity to take part in German affairs was provided immediately after the suppression of the nobility and rebellious Huguenots inside the country, since King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden was going to speak on the side of the Lutherans. When his army landed in northern Germany (July 1630), significant Spanish forces began to move into Germany - to support the Catholics.
Now Richelieu found it necessary to intervene, indirectly for the time being. On January 23, 1631, after lengthy negotiations, Richelieu's envoy signed an agreement with Gustavus Adolf in Berwald. Under this agreement, the French Catholic prelate provided the Swedish Lutheran warrior king with financial means for waging war against the Habsburgs in the amount of one million livres per year. Gustav promised France that he would not attack those states of the Catholic League ruled by the Habsburgs. Nevertheless, in the spring of 1632, he turned his troops to the east against just such a state - Bavaria. Richelieu tried in vain to keep his ally. Only with the death of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Luzen (November 16, 1632) was the cardinal's difficult dilemma resolved.
At first, Richelieu had a glimmer of hope that monetary subsidies to the allies would be enough to save his own country from the risk of an open conflict. But by the end of 1634, the Swedish forces remaining in Germany and their Protestant allies were defeated by the Spanish troops. In the spring of 1635, France formally entered the war, first against Spain and then, a year later, against the Holy Roman Empire. At first, the French suffered a series of unfortunate defeats, but by 1640, when the superiority of France began to manifest itself, she began to overcome her main enemy - Spain. Moreover, French diplomacy was successful, causing an anti-Spanish uprising in Catalonia and its fall (from 1640 to 1659 Catalonia was under French rule) and a full-scale revolution in Portugal, which ended the rule of the Habsburgs in 1640. Finally, on May 19, 1643 under Rocroix in the Ardennes the army of the Prince de Conde achieved such a crushing victory over the famous Spanish infantry that this battle is considered to be the end of Spanish dominance in Europe. Richelieu died in Paris on December 5, 1642, not having lived to see his triumph in Rocroi and broken by numerous illnesses.
Achievements. Richelieu had a strong influence on the course of European history. In domestic politics, he eliminated any possibility of a full-scale civil war between Catholics and Protestants. He failed to put an end to the tradition of dueling and intrigue among the provincial nobility and courtiers, but through his efforts, disobedience to the crown was considered not a privilege, but a crime against the country. Richelieu did not introduce, as was customary to say, the positions of quartermasters to carry out government policy on the ground, but he significantly strengthened the position of the royal council in all areas of government. The trading companies he organized to deal with overseas territories proved ineffective, but the protection of strategic interests in the colonies of the West Indies and Canada opened a new era in the creation of the French Empire.
Materials of the encyclopedia "The world around us" are used.
Read further:
The feudal-absolutist system during the reign of Richelieu (chapter from the book: History of France. (Ed. A.Z. Manfred). In three volumes. Volume 1. M., 1972).
Historical persons of France (rulers).
France in the 17th century (chronological table).
Literature:
Cherkasov P.P. Richelieu. - Questions of History, 1989, No. 7
Cherkasov P.P. Cardinal Richelieu. M., 1990
Albina L.L. Books that belonged to Cardinal Richelieu. - Sat: Book. Research and materials, Sat. 4. M., 1990.
Lyublinskaya A.D., Richelieu in the East. literature of the 19th-20th centuries, VI, 1946, No. 10;
Lyublinskaya A.D., France at the beginning. XVII century., L., 1959;
Lyublinskaya A. D., Franz. absolutism in the first third of the 17th century, M.-L., 1965;
Hanotaux G., Histoire du cardinal de Richelieu, t. 1-6, P., 1932-47;
Hauser H., La pensée et l "action économiques du cardinal de Richelieu, P., 1944;
Saint-Aulaire C. de, Richelieu, (2nd ed.), P., 1960;
La journee des Dupes, P., 1961;
Ranum O. A., Richelieu and the councilors of Louis XIII, Oxf., 1963;
Méthivier H., Le siècle de Louis XIII, P., 1964;
Burckhardt K. J., Richelieu, Münch., 1966.
Armand-Jean du Plessis de Richelieu, later nicknamed the "Red Cardinal", was born on September 9, 1585 in Paris or in the castle of Richelieu in the province of Poitou in an impoverished noble family. His father, François du Plessis, was the chief judicial officer of France under Henry III, and his mother, Suzanne de la Porte, came from a family of a lawyer in the Parlement of Paris. Armand-Jean was the youngest son in the family. When Jean was only five years old, his father died, leaving his wife alone with five children, a dilapidated estate and considerable debts.
Philippe de Champaigne (1602–1674).Armand-Jean du Plessis, cardinal de Richelieu.1640
The difficult years of childhood affected the character of Jean, since all his subsequent life he sought to restore the lost honor of the family and have a lot of money, surround himself with the luxury that he was deprived of in childhood. From childhood, Armand-Jean was a sickly and quiet boy who preferred books to games with friends. In September 1594, Richelieu entered the College of Navarre in Paris and began to prepare for a military career, inheriting the title of Marquis du Chille. Since childhood, Richelieu dreamed of becoming an officer of the royal cavalry.
The main source of the family's material wealth was the income from the position of the Catholic clergyman of the diocese in the La Rochelle area, granted to Plessy by Henry III in 1516. However, in order to keep it, someone from the family had to take the monastic order. Until the age of 21, Armand, the youngest of three brothers, was expected to follow in his father's footsteps and become a military and courtier.
But in 1606 the middle brother retired to a monastery, renouncing the bishopric in Luçon (30 km north of La Rochelle), which was usually inherited by members of the Richelieu family. The only thing that could keep the family in control of the diocese was the entry of young Arman into a spiritual rank.
Portrait of Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu by Philippe de Champaigne scanned from the book Jan Baszkewicz "Richelieu", edited by Państwowy Insttytut Wydawniczy, 1984
Since Jean was too young to take the priesthood, he needed the blessing of Pope Paul V. Having gone to the pope in Rome as an abbot, he initially hid his too young age from Pope Paul V, and after the ceremony he repented. The Pope's conclusion was: "It is fair that a young man who has discovered wisdom beyond his age should be promoted early." On April 17, 1607, the twenty-two-year-old Armand-Jean du Plessis took the name of Richelieu and the rank of Bishop of Luson. The church career at that time was very prestigious, and was valued above the secular one. However, Jean Richelieu, on the site of the once flourishing abbey in Luzon, found only ruins - a sad memory of the Wars of Religion. The diocese was one of the poorest and the funds delivered by it were not enough for a more or less decent life. But the young bishop did not lose heart.
The dignity of the bishop made it possible to appear at the royal court, which Richelieu was not slow to take advantage of. Very soon, he completely fascinated King Henry IV with his mind, erudition and eloquence. Heinrich called Richelieu none other than "my bishop." But, as happens in such cases, some influential persons did not like such a rapid rise of the provincial bishop, and Richelieu had to leave the capital.
Louis XIII et le cardinal de Richelieu, victorieux devant La Rochelle
Estates General 1614-1615.
Richelieu spent several years in Luzon. There, Bishop Richelieu was the first in France to reform the economy of the monastery, and was also the first Frenchman to write a theological treatise in his native language, which reflected the state of affairs in the country destroyed by the Wars of Religion.
All his free time, Richelieu was engaged in self-education, that is, he read. In the end, he read to the point that until the very end of his days he was tormented by terrible headaches.
Henry IV - King of France and Navarre
The assassination of Henry IV by Catholic fanatic Ravaillac in 1610 unleashed the hands of the separatists. The government of Marie de Medici, Queen Mother, regent under Louis XIII, was corrupt to the core. The collapse was reinforced by the failures of the military, so the royal court went to negotiations with representatives of the armed masses.
The Bishop of Luson (Richelieu) acted as an intermediary in the negotiations, which was the reason for his election as a representative to the Estates General from the clergy of Poitou in 1614. States General - a collection of estates, established in the Middle Ages and still occasionally meeting the king on one occasion or another. The delegates were divided into the first estate (clergy), the second estate (secular aristocracy) and the third estate (bourgeois). The young Bishop of Luzon was supposed to represent the clergy of his native province of Poitou. In the conflict between the clergy and the third estate (artisans, merchants and peasants) over the relationship between the crown and the Pope, Bishop Richelieu took a neutral position, giving all his strength to bring the parties to a compromise.
Already soon Richelieu was noticed thanks to the dexterity and cunning shown by him in establishing compromises with other groups and eloquent defense of church privileges from the encroachments of secular authorities. In February 1615, he was even instructed to give a ceremonial speech on behalf of the first estate at the final session. The next time the Estates-General would convene was 175 years later, on the eve of the French Revolution.
Philippe de Champaigne (1602-1674). Portrait of Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu.1636
Rise of Richelieu at the royal court.
At the court of young Louis XIII drew attention to the 29-year-old bishop.
Richelieu's talents made the greatest impression on the queen mother, Marie de Medici, who still actually ruled France, although in 1614 her son had already come of age. Appointed as the confessor of Queen Anne of Austria, the young wife of Louis XIII, Richelieu soon achieved the location of the closest adviser and favorite of Maria Concino Concini (also known as Marshal d'Ancre).
Marie de Medici - Queen Mother
Attributed to Frans Pourbus the younger (1569–1622) .Maria de "Medici, Königin von Frankreich (1575–1642)
In 1616, Richelieu joined the royal council and took the post of secretary of state for military affairs and foreign policy. The new post required Richelieu to actively participate in foreign policy, to which he had not been related until then. Richelieu's first year in power coincided with the outbreak of war between Spain, then ruled by the Habsburg dynasty, and Venice, with which France was in a military alliance. This war threatened France with a new round of religious strife.
However, in April 1617, Concini was assassinated by a group of "friends of the king" - opponents of the regency of Marie de Medici. The instigator of this action, the Duc de Luynes, now became the favorite and adviser of the young king. Richelieu was first returned to Luçon and then exiled to Avignon, Papal States, where he struggled with his melancholy by reading and writing. For two years, Richelieu studied literature and theology in complete seclusion. During this time, he wrote two theological works - "Defense of the Fundamentals of the Catholic Faith" and "Instructions for Christians".
The French princes of the blood - Conde, Soissons and Bouillon - were indignant at the arbitrary actions of the monarch and rebelled against him.
Louis XIII - King of France
Jean Morin Link back to Creator infobox template
After Philippe de Champaigne (1602–1674) / Engraved Portrait of Louis XIII of France
Louis XIII had to retreat. In 1619, the King allowed Richelieu to join the Queen Mother in the hope that he would have a pacifying effect on her. For seven years, part of which had to be spent in exile, Richelieu was in active correspondence with Marie de Medici and Louis XIII.
However, the dowager queen was not such a person to immediately forget everything after reconciliation. As it should be for any woman, especially a regal one, she broke down a little more before agreeing to a final reconciliation. And when she decided that it was time, she demanded that her son appoint Richelieu a cardinal. On September 5, 1622, Bishop Richelieu received the rank of cardinal. And if someone was appointed a cardinal, then in the Royal Council, the then French government, he certainly had to be included, especially since the ministers of Father Louis XIII, almost all had already died.
The queen mother Marie de" Medici demanding Cardinal Richelieu"s dismissal to her son, king Louis XIII of France, in a stormy scene in the Luxembourg Palace, on November 10, 1630, known as Day of the Dupes.1846
But only in 1624, Marie de Medici was returned to Paris, and with her Richelieu, without whom she could no longer take a step. Louis continued to treat Richelieu with distrust, as he understood that his mother owed all diplomatic victories to the cardinal. When on April 29, 1624, Richelieu first entered the meeting room of the French government, he looked at those present, including the chairman, the Marquis La Vieville, in such a way that it immediately became clear to everyone who was now the boss here. A few months later, in August, the current government collapsed, and at the urging of the Queen Mother, on August 13, 1624, Richelieu became the "first minister" of the king - a post in which he was destined to stay for 18 years.
Philippe de Champagne (1602–1674). "Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu". circa 1637
Cardinal Richelieu - First Minister of France.
Despite his fragile health, the new minister achieved his position through a combination of patience, cunning and an uncompromising will to power. Richelieu never ceased to use these qualities for his own advancement: in 1622 he became a cardinal, in 1631 a duke, all the while continuing to increase his personal fortune.
From the very beginning, Richelieu had to deal with many enemies and unreliable friends. At first, Louis himself was among the latter. As far as one can judge, the king never found sympathy for Richelieu, and yet, with each new turn of events, Louis fell into more and more dependence on his brilliant servant. The rest of the royal family remained hostile to Richelieu. Anna of Austria could not stand the ironic minister, who deprived her of any influence on state affairs. Duke Gaston of Orleans, the king's only brother, plotted innumerable plots to increase his influence. Even the queen mother, always ambitious, felt that her former assistant stood in her way, and soon became his most serious opponent.
Philippe de Champaigne (1602-1674). Portrait of Cardinal de Richelieu
Date 1637 or 1642
Suppression of the nobility under Richelieu.
Various factions of rebellious courtiers crystallized around these figures. Richelieu responded to all challenges thrown to him with the greatest political skill and brutally suppressed them. In 1626, the young Marquis de Chalet became the central figure in the intrigue against the cardinal, who paid for it with his life.
Duke Gaston of Orleans - brother of King Louis XIII and constant opponent of Richelieu
Gaston, Duke of Orleans, painting by van Dyck
The king himself felt like an instrument in the hands of the cardinal and, apparently, was not without sympathy with the last attempt to overthrow Richelieu - the conspiracy of Saint-Mar. Just a few weeks before his death in 1642, Richelieu uncovered a final conspiracy centered on the Marquis de Saint-Mar and Gaston d'Orléans. The latter, as always, was saved from punishment by royal blood, but Saint-Mar, a friend and favorite of Louis, was beheaded. In the period between these two conspiracies, the most dramatic test of the strength of Richelieu's position was the famous "day of the fools" - November 10, 1631. On this day, King Louis XIII promised for the last time to dismiss his minister, and rumors spread throughout Paris that the Queen Mother had defeated her enemy. However, Richelieu managed to obtain an audience with the king, and by nightfall all his powers were confirmed and his actions were sanctioned. "Fooled" were those who believed false rumors, for which they paid with death or exile.
Resistance, which manifested itself in other forms, met with no less resolute rebuff. Despite his aristocratic tastes, Richelieu crushed the rebellious provincial nobility by insisting on their obedience to royal officials. In 1632, he secured the death sentence for participation in the rebellion of the Duke de Montmorency, governor-general of Languedoc, who was sent against Richelieu by Marie de Medici, and one of the most brilliant aristocrats. Richelieu forbade parliaments (the highest judicial bodies in cities) from questioning the constitutionality of royal legislation. In words, he glorified the papacy and the Catholic clergy, but by his deeds it was clear that the head of the church in France was the king.
Cold, prudent, very often severe to the point of cruelty, subordinating the sense of reason, Richelieu firmly held the reins of government in his hands and, with remarkable vigilance and foresight, noticing the impending danger, warned her at the very appearance. In the fight against his enemies, Richelieu did not disdain anything: denunciations, espionage, gross forgeries, previously unheard-of deceit - everything went into action. His heavy hand in particular crushed the young, brilliant aristocracy that surrounded the king.
Louis XIII, Anne of Austria, and their son Louis XIV, flanked by Cardinal Richelieu and the Duchesse de Chevreuse.
Wife of Louis XIII - Anna of Austria
One conspiracy after another was drawn up against Richelieu, but they always ended in the most deplorable way for Richelieu's enemies, whose fate was exile or execution. Maria Medici very soon repented of her patronage of Richelieu, who completely pushed her into the background. Together with the king's wife, Anna, the old queen even took part in the plans of the aristocracy against Richelieu, but without success.
From the very first day in power, Richelieu became the object of constant intrigues on the part of those who tried to “hook him up”. In order not to become a victim of betrayal, he preferred not to trust anyone, which caused fear and misunderstanding of those around him. "Whoever knows my thoughts must die," said the cardinal. Richelieu's goal was to weaken the position of the Habsburg dynasty in Europe and strengthen the independence of France. In addition, the cardinal was an ardent supporter of absolute monarchy.
Philippe de Champaigne (1602–1674) / Cardinal de Richelieu / 1642
Suppression of the Huguenot Protestants under Richelieu.
Another important source of opposition, crushed by Richelieu with his usual decisiveness, was the Huguenot (Protestant) minority. The conciliatory Edict of Nantes by Henry IV of 1598 guaranteed the Huguenots complete freedom of conscience and relative freedom of worship. He left behind them a large number of fortified cities - mainly in the south and south-west of France. Richelieu saw this semi-independence as a threat to the state, especially in times of war. The Huguenots were a state within a state, they had strong supporters in the cities and a powerful military potential. The cardinal preferred not to bring the situation to a crisis, but the fanaticism of the Huguenots was fueled by England, the eternal rival of France. The participation taken by the Huguenots in 1627 in the attack of the English from the sea on the coast of France served as a signal for the government to take action. By January 1628, the fortress of La Rochelle, a stronghold of the Protestants on the shores of the Bay of Biscay, was besieged.
Richelieu took personal leadership of the campaign, and in October the recalcitrant city capitulated after about 15,000 of its inhabitants starved to death. In 1629, Richelieu ended the religious war with a magnanimous reconciliation - a peace agreement in Ala, according to which the king recognized for his Protestant subjects all the rights guaranteed to him in 1598, with the exception of the right to have fortresses. True, the Huguenots were deprived of political and military privileges. But their freedom of worship and judicial guarantees put an end to the wars of religion in France and did not give rise to disagreements with Protestant allies outside the country. Protestant Huguenots lived in France as an officially recognized minority until 1685, but after the capture of La Rochelle, their ability to resist the crown was undermined.
Władysław Bakałowicz (1833–1904).Kardynał Richelieu
Administrative and economic reforms under Richelieu.
In an effort to strengthen the sovereignty of royal power in the field of domestic and foreign policy and finance, Richelieu initiated the codification of French laws (the Michaud Code, 1629), carried out a number of administrative reforms (the establishment of quartermaster positions in the provinces appointed by the king), fought against the privileges of parliaments and nobility (prohibition of duels, destruction of fortified noble castles), reorganized the postal service. He stepped up the construction of the fleet, which strengthened the military position of France at sea and contributed to the development of foreign trade companies and colonial expansion. Richelieu developed projects for the financial and economic recovery of the country in the spirit of mercantilism, but internal and external wars did not allow them to be implemented. Forced loans led to an increase in tax oppression, which, in turn, caused riots and peasant riots (the "Krokan" uprising of 1636-1637), which were brutally suppressed.
As far as economics was concerned, Richelieu knew practically nothing about it. He declared wars without thinking about the supply of the army, and preferred to solve problems as they came. The cardinal followed the doctrine of Antoine de Montchristien and insisted on the independence of the market. At the same time, he emphasized the production of goods for export and prevented the import of luxury goods. In the sphere of his economic interests were glass, silk, sugar. Richelieu advocated the construction of canals and the expansion of foreign trade, and he himself often became a co-owner of international companies. It was then that the French colonization of Canada, Western Western India, Morocco and Persia began.
Robert Nanteuil (1623–1678)Engraved portrait of Cardinal Richelieu (1582-1642)
Date 1657
French Wars under Richelieu.
By the end of the 1620s, the French government was in a position to become more involved in international affairs, prompting Richelieu to take action. By the time Richelieu came to power, the grandiose (called the Thirty Years) War in Germany between the Catholic sovereigns, led by the Holy Roman Emperor, and the union of Protestant princes and cities was already in full swing. The House of Habsburg, including the ruling families in Spain and Austria, was the main enemy of the French monarchy for more than a century, but at first Richelieu refrained from interfering in the conflict. Firstly, the Protestant powers were supposed to become allies of France in this case, so the cardinal and his chief adviser, the monk of the Capuchin order, Father Joseph (nicknamed, in contrast to his boss, l "Eminence grise, i.e. "Gray Cardinal") understood that it is necessary to have a clear and legal justification for such a step.Secondly, the freedom of action outside the country has long been constrained by the turbulent situation inside France itself.Thirdly, the main threat to French interests did not come from the Austrian Habsburgs, but from the even more powerful Spanish branches, prompting the French to focus on the Pyrenees and Spanish possessions in Italy rather than Germany.
Nevertheless, France was still involved in the war. By the end of the 1620s, the Catholics had achieved such impressive victories within the Empire that it seemed that the Austrian Habsburgs would become complete masters of Germany.
Pope Urban VIII.Pietro da Cortona (1596–1669)/Portrait of Pope Urban VIII (1568-1644)
In the face of the threat of Habsburg dominance in Europe, Richelieu and Father Joseph argued that for the good of the papacy and the spiritual well-being of the church itself, France should oppose Spain and Austria. The opportunity to take part in German affairs presented itself immediately after the suppression of the nobility and rebellious Huguenots inside the country, since King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden was going to speak on the side of the Lutherans. When his army landed in northern Germany (July 1630), significant Spanish forces began to move into Germany - to support the Catholics.
During the Richelieu siege of the fortress of La Rochelle, the Spaniards managed to mobilize forces in northern Italy and capture the fortress of Casal. Then Richelieu showed extraordinary mobility: immediately after the fall of La Rochelle, the French army was thrown over the Alps and caught the Spaniards by surprise. In 1630, in the course of complex intrigues, Richelieu refused to sign the Peace of Regensburg, in response, Spain turned to Pope Urban VIII with a request to excommunicate Louis XIII from the church. Richelieu was on the verge of failure, because his relationship with the king was very difficult, and the zealous Catholic Maria Medici simply fell into hysterics. When Richelieu returned to France, she demanded the resignation of the cardinal, but Louis did not agree to this, seeking to maintain political independence from his mother. Richelieu was the only one who could help him in this, so he retained the rank of cardinal and the position of first minister. The offended queen mother left the court and went to the Netherlands, which was under the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs, taking with her the younger brother of the king, Gaston of Orleans.
Overcoming the opposition of the pro-Spanish "party of saints", Richelieu pursued an anti-Habsburg policy.
King Charles I by Sir Anthony Van Dyck (died 1641).
He counted on an alliance with England, arranging the marriage of Charles I of England to Henrietta Maria of France, sister of Louis XIII, which was concluded on June 12, 1625. Richelieu sought to strengthen French influence in northern Italy (expedition to Valtelina) and in the German lands (support for the league of Protestant princes). He managed to keep France from direct participation in the Thirty Years' War for a long time.
After the landing of the Swedish king in Germany, Richelieu found it necessary to intervene, indirectly so far. On January 23, 1631, after lengthy negotiations, the envoy of Richelieu signed an agreement with Gustavus Adolf in Berwald. Under this agreement, the French Catholic prelate provided the Swedish Lutheran warrior king with financial means for waging war against the Habsburgs in the amount of one million livres per year. Gustav promised France that he would not attack those states of the Catholic League ruled by the Habsburgs. Nevertheless, in the spring of 1632, he turned his troops east against just such a state - Bavaria. Richelieu tried in vain to keep his ally. Only with the death of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Luzen (November 16, 1632) was the cardinal's difficult dilemma resolved.
At first, Richelieu had a glimmer of hope that monetary subsidies to the allies would be enough to save his own country from the risk of an open conflict. But by the end of 1634, the remaining Swedish forces in Germany and their Protestant allies were defeated by the Spanish forces.
In 1635, Spain occupied the Bishopric of Trier, which caused the unification of French Catholics and Protestants, who stood hand in hand against the external enemy - Spain.
Swedish King Gustav II Adolf. Gustav II Adolf (1594-1632)
This was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War for France.
In the spring of 1635, France formally entered the war, first against Spain and then, a year later, against the Holy Roman Empire. At first, the French suffered a series of unfortunate defeats, but by 1640, when the superiority of France began to manifest itself, she began to overcome her main enemy - Spain. Moreover, French diplomacy was successful, causing an anti-Spanish uprising in Catalonia and its fall (from 1640 to 1659 Catalonia was under French rule) and a full-scale revolution in Portugal that ended Habsburg rule in 1640. Finally, on May 19, 1643, at Rocroix in the Ardennes, the army of the Prince de Conde achieved such a crushing victory over the famous Spanish infantry that this battle is considered to be the end of Spanish dominance in Europe.
In the last years of his life, Cardinal Richelieu was involved in yet another religious conflict. He led the opposition to Pope Urban VIII, as France's plans included expanding its sphere of influence in the Holy Roman Empire. At the same time, he remained devoted to the ideas of absolutism and fought against the Gallicans, who encroached on the Papal power.
Death of Cardinal Richelieu.
In the autumn of 1642, Richelieu visited the healing waters of Bourbon-Lancy, for his health, undermined by many years of nervous tension, was melting before his eyes. Even being ill, the cardinal, until the last day, dictated orders to the armies, diplomatic instructions, orders to the governors of various provinces for several hours until the last day. On November 28, there was a sharp deterioration. Doctors make another diagnosis - purulent pleurisy. Bloodletting did not give a result, only weakened the patient to the limit. The cardinal at times loses consciousness, but, having regained consciousness, tries to work more. These days, his niece, the Duchess d'Aiguilon, is inseparably next to him. On December 2, Louis XIII visits the dying. “Here we say goodbye,” Richelieu says in a weak voice. steps of glory and unprecedented influence, while all your enemies are defeated and humiliated. The only thing I dare to ask Your Majesty for my labors and my service is to continue to honor my nephews and relatives with your patronage and your favor. I will give them my blessing only on the condition that they will never break their loyalty and obedience and will be devoted to you to the end."
Then Richelieu ... names Cardinal Mazarin as his only successor.
Cardinal Mazarin - Richelieu's successor. Portrait of Giulio Mazarin, cardinal and first minister of France, by Bouchard
"Your Majesty has Cardinal Mazarin, I believe in his ability to serve the king," the minister says. Perhaps this is all he wanted to say to the king in parting. Louis XIII promises to fulfill all the requests of the dying man and leaves him...
Left with the doctors, Richelieu asks to be told how much he still has left. The doctors answer evasively, and only one of them - Monsieur Chicot - dares to say: "Monsignor, I think that within 24 hours you will either die or get on your feet." - "Well said," Richelieu said quietly and concentrated on what -something his.
Paul Delaroche (1797–1856).The State Barge of Cardinal Richelieu on the Rhone.1829
The next day, the king pays one more, last, visit to Richelieu. They talk face to face for an hour. Louis XIII left the room of the dying man very excited about something. True, some of the witnesses claimed that the king was in a cheerful mood. Priests gather at the bedside of the cardinal, one of whom gives him communion. In response to the traditional appeal in such cases to forgive his enemies, Richelieu says: "I had no other enemies, except for the enemies of the state." Those present are surprised by the clear, clear answers of the dying man. When the formalities were over, Richelieu said with complete calm and confidence in his innocence: "Very soon I will appear before my Judge. From the bottom of my heart I will ask him to judge me by that measure - whether I had other intentions than the good of the church and state. "
Cardinal-Richelieu-1829-right. Delaroche Paul.
In the early morning of December 4, Richelieu receives the last visitors - the messengers of Anne of Austria and Gaston of Orleans, who assure the cardinal of their best feelings. The Duchess d'Aiguilon, who appeared after them, with tears in her eyes, began to tell that the day before, a Carmelite nun had a vision that His Eminence would be saved by the hand of the Almighty. "Complete, complete, niece, all this is ridiculous, one must believe only the Gospel."
They spend some time together. Somewhere around noon, Richelieu asks his niece to leave him alone. “Remember,” he says to her in parting, that I loved you more than anyone else in the world. It will not be good if I die in front of you ... “The place of d” Aiguilon is taken by Father Leon, who gives the dying man the last absolution. Lord, into your hands," whispers Richelieu, shudders and falls silent. Father Leon brings a lighted candle to his mouth, but the flame remains motionless. The cardinal is dead."
Philippe de Champaigne (1602–1674) .Cardinal Richelieu on his deathbed
date circa 1642
Richelieu died in Paris on December 5, 1642, short of his triumph at Rocroi and broken by numerous illnesses. Richelieu was buried in a church on the grounds of the Sorbonne, in memory of the support given to the university by His Eminence the Cardinal.
Achievements of Cardinal Richelieu.
Richelieu contributed in every possible way to the development of culture, trying to put it at the service of French absolutism. At the initiative of the cardinal, the reconstruction of the Sorbonne took place. Richelieu wrote the first royal edict on the creation of the French Academy and handed over to the Sorbonne, according to his will, one of the best libraries in Europe, created the official propaganda organ of Theophrastus Renaudo's Gazette. In the center of Paris, the Palais Cardinal grew up (later it was presented to Louis XIII and has since been called the Palais Royal). Richelieu patronized artists and writers, in particular Corneille, encouraged talents, contributing to the flourishing of French classicism.
Richelieu, among other things, was a very prolific playwright, his plays were published in the first royal printing house opened on his initiative.
Premiere salle du Palais-Royal 1643 engraving by van Lochun
On duty, having given a vow of loyalty to "the church - my wife", he found himself in difficult political relations with Queen Anna of Austria, in fact the daughter of the Spanish king, the head of the "Spanish" country hostile to the national interests, that is, to some extent, "Austrian" , parties at the court. To annoy her for preferring Lord Buckingham to him, he - in the spirit of Prince Hamlet - in the course of the court plot wrote and staged the play "Worlds", in which Buckingham is defeated not only on the battlefield (under the Huguenot La Rochelle), and forced the queen to watch this performance. The book contains information and documents that formed the basis of Dumas' novel "The Three Musketeers" - from fighting duels (one of which killed the cardinal's brother) to using Buckingham's retired mistress Countess Carlyle (the notorious Milady) in a successful spy role at the English court and the very juicy details of the dates between the Queen and Buckingham.
On the whole, Richelieu directed by no means "in a Hamletian way." He reconciled the French (Catholics and Huguenots) among themselves and, thanks to the "pistol diplomacy", quarreled their enemies, having managed to create an anti-Habsburg coalition. To divert the Commonwealth from the Habsburgs, he sent messengers to the Russian state to the first of the Romanovs, Mikhail, with a call to trade duty-free.
Richelieu had a strong influence on the course of European history. In domestic politics, he eliminated any possibility of a full-scale civil war between Catholics and Protestants.
Salle du Palais-Cardinal with Richelieu 1641 - Jacquot 1964
Beijer identifies the figures in the picture: the theatre's owner, Cardinal Richelieu (who died December 4, 1642), is depicted seated on a chair, holding his hat in his right hand. To his left, in the chair of Louis XIII, his queen (Anne of Austria), the dauphin (the future Louis XIV, born September 5, 1638), and in the hands of two ladies, the dauphin of Philip's younger brother (the future Philip I, Duke of Orleans, who was born on 21 September 1640). The engraving known as Le Soir by Michael Van Lochom, which is most likely based on this grisaille, is frequently reproduced. For example, it appears in the new Grove Dictionary of Opera (though reversed from left to right). Instead of Cardinal Richelieu, Van Lochom's engraving is believed to be from Powell to depict Gaston, Duke of Orléans (younger brother of Louis XIII).
He failed to put an end to the tradition of dueling and intrigue among the provincial nobility and courtiers, but through his efforts, disobedience to the crown was considered not a privilege, but a crime against the country. Richelieu did not introduce, as was customary to say, the positions of quartermasters to carry out government policy on the ground, but he significantly strengthened the position of the royal council in all areas of government. The trading companies he organized to deal with overseas territories proved ineffective, but the protection of strategic interests in the colonies of the West Indies and Canada opened a new era in the creation of the French Empire.
Henri Motte (1847-1922).Richelieu La Rochelle.1881
Steady service to clearly conscious goals, a broad practical mind, a clear understanding of the surrounding reality, the ability to use circumstances - all this provided Richelieu with a prominent place in the history of France. The main activities of Richelieu are formulated in his "Political Testament". The priority of domestic policy was the fight against the Protestant opposition and the strengthening of royal power, the main foreign policy task was to increase the prestige of France and fight against the hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. "My first goal was the greatness of the king, my second goal was the power of the kingdom," the famous musketeer fighter summed up his life path.
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