At the end of the Congress of Vienna in the autumn of 1815, the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia were in Paris at the same time and concluded here among themselves the so-called Holy Alliance, which was supposed to ensure peace in Europe in the future. The initiator of this union was Tsar Alexander I. "The leader of the immortal coalition" that deposed Napoleon, he was now at the top of power and glory. His popularity was also supported by the fact that he was considered a supporter of free political development, and indeed, at that time his mood was rather liberal. Joining Finland in 1809 to Russia, he kept in it the estate constitution that was in force in Sweden, and in 1814 insisted that the French king LouisXVIII gave his subjects a constitutional charter. At the end of 1815, the Kingdom of Poland, newly formed at the Congress of Vienna, received a constitution from its new (Russian) sovereign. Even before that, Alexander I had constitutional plans for Russia itself, and even later, opening the first Polish Sejm in Warsaw in 1818, he said that he intended to extend the benefits of representative government to his entire empire.

But at the same time, with this liberalism, which later turned out to be insufficiently deep and strong, there was another mood in the soul of Alexander I. The grandiose events in which he had to play a role could not but affect his entire psyche, and the result of this action was the development in him of religious dreaminess, mysticism. After the fire of Moscow, by his own admission, "illuminating his soul", he, along with the pious admiral Shishkov began to diligently read the Bible, some passages of which he interpreted in the sense of prophecies about the events that had just taken place. This mood intensified in Alexander I after his acquaintance with one pietist, Ms. Krudener, with whom he often saw in 1815 in Heidelberg and Paris: she already directly applied various prophecies of the Apocalypse to Alexander I himself, called him the angel of peace, the founder of the millennium kingdom, etc. Having outlined what later became the main act of the Holy Union, the mystically inclined emperor showed her his project, on which she put the words “La Sainte Alliance” as a title.

Holy Union

The essence of the matter was that the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia made a solemn promise in all their actions to be guided by the commandments of the holy Christian faith, to be among themselves in brotherhood and "to give each other allowance, reinforcement and help", referring to their subjects and troops, how fathers of families should behave, etc. Declaring themselves “as if appointed from Providence to manage three single family branches”, the three allied sovereigns “with the most tender care urged their subjects from day to day to establish themselves in the rules and the active performance of duties” taught by the Divine Savior. In conclusion, it was pointed out that the powers that wish to solemnly recognize the "sacred rules" set forth in the act "may all be willingly and lovingly accepted into this Holy Alliance."

Having drawn up this religious and moral declaration without any definite political and legal content and without any mention of the rights of peoples, Alexander I submitted it to the Austrian emperor for consideration. FranzI and the Prussian king Friedrich WilhelmIII. Neither of them liked the project. The Austrian emperor was, however, under the unconditional influence of his minister, the prince Metternich, who fully agreed with his sovereign, finding that this "philanthropic undertaking under the guise of religion" is nothing more than an "empty and crackling document", which, however, could be very badly interpreted. It was precisely at this time that Metternich began to play the role of the first statesman of Austria, in which he then remained for more than thirty years, directing the policy of the Habsburg monarchy along the most reactionary channel. In his stubborn conservatism, he, as well as possible, approached the character of Franz I, a pedantic absolutist who believed only in the patriarchal method of government and in the need for the strictest discipline. Franz I instructed Metternich to discuss the offer of the Russian emperor with the Prussian king, and he also found the matter unsuitable, but at the same time pointed out the inconvenience of rejecting the project. Alexander I was then indicated by both allies some, in their opinion, desirable changes, and Metternich convinced the author of the project to make them, after which the document was signed by all three monarchs. For the very signing of the act of the Holy Union, its initiator chose September 26 of the new style, which in the last century coincided with September 14 according to the old style, that is, with the celebration in the Orthodox Church of the day of the Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord, which is also for Alexander I. apparently, had a special religious meaning.

In addition to the three sovereigns who signed the act of the Holy Alliance, other sovereigns also joined it. There were very few exceptions. First, dad PiusVII declared that he had nothing to adhere to the principles that he always recognized, but in fact he did not want his signature to be among the signatures of minor sovereigns. Secondly, the English Prince Regent, who replaced his mentally ill father, refused to join the union. GeorgeIII: the treaty was signed by some sovereigns, and the English constitution also requires the signature of the responsible minister. Finally, the Turkish sultan, as a non-Christian sovereign, was not at all invited to participate in this union of the “united Christian people,” as the union was directly named in the act. In addition to large and small monarchs, Switzerland and the German free cities also joined the union.

The Austrian minister, who at first found the “philanthropic undertaking” of Alexander I “at least useless”, subsequently, more than anyone else, benefited from the document, which he himself called “empty and crackling”. After the fall of Napoleon, Metternich became the most influential political figure in Europe, and even Alexander I submitted to his system, despite the fact that Austrian policy was often in conflict with the most vital interests of Russia. Of all the statesmen of this era, the Austrian chancellor embodied the principles of reactionary politics more fully than others and more steadily than anyone else put them into practice, not without reason calling himself a man of the existing. The very state tradition of the Habsburg monarchy was a tradition of political and religious reaction. On the other hand, no state needed to suppress popular movements to such an extent as Austria with its diverse population: there were also Germans in it, and therefore it was necessary to ensure that it was quiet and peaceful in Germany - and Italians, and consequently, it was necessary to watch all of Italy - and the Poles, whose fellow tribesmen in the Kingdom of Poland, to the displeasure of Metternich, had a constitution - and, finally, the Czechs, Magyars, Croats, and so on. with their particularistic aspirations. All this made the Habsburg monarchy the general center of reactionary politics, and Metternich - its leader throughout Europe. The advice of the Vienna oracle was followed not only by the petty sovereigns of Germany and Italy, but also by the monarchs of such great powers as Russia and Prussia. In particular, Alexander I often submitted to the influence of Metternich, who usually very skillfully supported the requirements of Austrian policy with references to the Holy Alliance.

In 1805, Napoleon defeated the third anti-French coalition, which was created by Great Britain with the participation of Russia, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden. The Austrians surrendered Vienna without a fight, and after the defeat of the combined Russian-Austrian troops in the Battle of Austerlitz December 2, 1805. signed peace with Napoleon. Napoleon's joy was overshadowed only by the catastrophe that befell the French at sea. October 21, 1805 the combined Franco-Spanish fleet was almost completely destroyed by the British squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson in the naval battle at Cape Trafalgar off the coast of Spain. AT 1806. a fourth anti-French coalition arose, in which Prussia took the place of Austria, which had withdrawn from the war. However, the French utterly defeated the Prussian army in the battles of Jena and Auerstedt.

At the end of October 1806, Napoleon at the head of the "great army" entered Berlin. Here he made an important decision, designed to equalize the chances of victory with Great Britain after the defeat in the battle of Trafalgar. November 21, 1806. Napoleon signed the Continental Blockade Decree. According to this decree, trade with Great Britain was prohibited in the territory of France and its dependent countries. Napoleon hoped that a continental blockade would undermine Britain's economic power. The accession of new European countries to the continental blockade became the goal of his foreign policy for the coming years.

In East Prussia, after a series of fierce battles (the French victory at Friedland on June 14, 1807 was decisive). France and Russia signed a truce in 1807. A July 7, 1807. French and Russian emperors signed an alliance treaty in Tilsit. In exchange for joining the continental blockade, Alexander 1 enlisted the support of Napoleon in the wars against Sweden and the Ottoman Empire. Here, in Tilsit, a Franco-Prussian treaty was signed, according to which Prussia also joined the continental blockade. In addition, she lost her Polish lands, captured as a result of the partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795. On these lands, the French-friendly Grand Duchy of Warsaw was formed.

In 1807, Napoleon in an ultimatum demanded that Portugal join the continental blockade. The French army invaded this country. A multi-year war began, during which British troops arrived to help the Portuguese. In 1808, the war engulfed the entire Iberian Peninsula. In an attempt to finally subjugate Spain, Napoleon placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. But the Spaniards rebelled and launched a guerrilla war against the invaders - guerrilla. Austria decided to take advantage of the failures of the French in the Iberian Peninsula. AT 1809. she formed with Great Britain fifth coalition. However, in the battle of Wagram, Napoleon defeated the Austrians and forced them to sign peace in October 1809. Austria lost a number of territories, including access to the Adriatic Sea, reduced its army, paid large indemnities and joined the continental blockade.

Napoleon, at his own discretion, redrawn the political map of Europe, changed governments, put monarchs on the thrones. "Subsidiary" republics were partially abolished and annexed to France. As a result of these annexations, the "Great Empire" arose, the population of which by 1811 reached 44 million people. Along the perimeter of its borders. Napoleon formed a continuous band of states subject to himself. For the most part, a monarchical form of government was established in them, and persons appointed by Napoleon ruled, as a rule, his relatives - brothers, sisters, nephews, etc., or local dynasties or officials (at the same time, N.B. assumed the powers of a protector). From dependent countries, Napoleon sought, first of all, support for his foreign policy, including participation in campaigns of conquest. In addition, as a man of enlightenment culture, he sought to reform the subject countries "according to the French model." For example, the Napoleonic Code was in force in all territories annexed by France.

In 1812, having not completely defeated the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, Napoleon began a new war with Russia. This was prompted by the exorbitant ambition and increasingly independent policy of Alexander I, who neglected his allied obligations - did not support France in the war against Austria (in 1809), encouraged smuggling trade with Great Britain.

Napoleon's "Great Army" invaded Russia June 12 (24), 1812 It numbered over half a million people, significantly outnumbering the Russian army. Two-thirds of the army consisted of soldiers allied or dependent on France - Germans, Poles, Italians, Spaniards - most of whom went to war without much enthusiasm

The biggest battle of this campaign took place August, 26th(September 11) 1812 near the village of Borodino, when the French approached Moscow at a distance of only a few tens of kilometers. By that time, due to the heavy losses suffered by the Napoleonic army, the forces of the opponents were almost equal. However, the battle of Borodino did not give a significant advantage to either side. The commander-in-chief of the Russian army, M. I. Kutuzov, decided to retreat and surrender Moscow to the enemy without a fight. Most Muscovites left the city after the army.

Shortly after the arrival of the French, fires broke out in the city, in which two-thirds of all feed was burned. The army was threatened with starvation. After waiting in indecision for a month, Napoleon on October 7 (19) withdrew the army from Moscow and tried to break through to Kaluga, where the food warehouses of the Russian army were located. But having received a rebuff, he was forced to retreat.

The defeat of the "Great Army" in Russia served as a signal for the creation of a new anti-French coalition. Along with Russia and Great Britain, it included Prussia, Sweden and Austria. The start of the 1813 campaign proved unsuccessful for the Allies. In May, the French achieved victory at the battles of Lützen and Bautzen in Saxony. But already in August, the prominent Napoleonic commanders MacDonald and Oudinot were defeated separately, in September Ney. And in "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig October 16-19 the main forces of the Napoleonic army were also defeated.

The defeat at Leipzig marked the decline of the political and military power of Napoleonic France. The last allies left her. The peoples of Europe, one by one, shook off foreign domination. Twenty years of almost continuous warfare, beginning in 1792, had bled France dry. Its direct irretrievable losses amounted to about one million people. The country is tired of war. The youth avoided military service. The 350,000-strong Allied army, which in December 1813 entered French territory. Napoleon was able to oppose her with only about 70 thousand soldiers.

During the campaign of 1814, Napoleon showed off his military talent for the last time. Particularly successful for him was mid-February, when he won seven victories in eight days. But these victories were of local importance and could not change the general course of the war. On March 1, in the city of Chaumont, lying halfway from the Rhine to Paris, Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed an alliance treaty providing for a war with France until complete victory.

On March 30, Allied troops approached the walls of Paris. On the same day, its defenders, who feared the fate of Moscow, laid down their arms. The next day, Emperor Alexander I and the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III entered the French capital at the head of their armies.

Napoleon, whom these events found in the castle of Fontainebleau, did not lose hope of maintaining power. He was still surrounded by 60,000 loyal soldiers. But marshals Ney, Berthier, Lefebvre lost faith in victory and advised the emperor to abdicate in favor of his son, the King of Rome. Napoleon hesitated for several days, but on April 6 he nevertheless signed the abdication. But on April 1, at the suggestion of Talleyrand, the Senate formed a provisional government, and on April 3 announced the deposition of Napoleon, who was guilty of “violating the oath and encroaching on the rights of the people, since he recruited into the army and levied taxes in circumvention of the provisions of the constitution.” On April 6, the Senate offered the crown to Louis XVII. April 11, 1814 The Allies signed a treaty at Fontainebleau giving Napoleon the island of Elba in the Mediterranean for life.

"Holy Union" - Russian attempt to save Christian Europe

The Holy Union of Monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia arose in 1815 after the Russian army liberated Europe from the "usurper" Napoleon.

The initiator of the Holy Alliance was the Russian Emperor Alexander I (1855-1881), he was supported by the Austrian Emperor Franz I and the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III. On September 14 (September 26, New Style) they signed the "Act of the Holy Alliance" in Paris. In November, King Louis XVIII of France joined this Union, and then many other European countries. The form of action of the Holy Alliance was all-European meetings at the level of monarchs, less important - at the level of foreign ministers, at the level of ambassadors.

Congress of Vienna. Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819

The Holy Alliance was a continuation of the Congress of Vienna. In 1820, it was decided to allow a military invasion of any country where a revolution began. In the early 1920s, the union ceased to exist due to the controversial Eastern Question. The goal of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist uprisings in Europe - echoes of the anti-Christian French Revolution - and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I intended, through such an alliance, to also eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance swore to observe the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations “high truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior”, “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith” and “respect yourself by all as if members of a single Christian people”. The Act of the Holy Union was symbolically signed on the Orthodox feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross.

Thus, the Russian Emperor, being the liberator of Europe from Napoleonic influence and the strongest Sovereign in it, did not dictate his will to the Europeans, annex their lands, but generously offered a peaceful Christian brotherhood to serve God's truth. Such behavior of the winner in a difficult defensive, actually World War (after all, "twelve languages" - the whole of Europe - participated in the invasion of Russia along with the French) is unique in the history of international relations!

Alexander I
George Doe, 1825

Alexander I explained the great mission of the Holy Union in the Supreme Manifesto on December 25, 1815:

“... Having learned from the experience of the disastrous consequences for the whole world that the course of the previous political relations between the powers did not have the basis of those true principles on which the Wisdom of God in His Revelation affirmed the peace and prosperity of the peoples, We, together with Their Majesties, the August Emperor Franz Joseph I and King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia, to establish an alliance between us, inviting other powers to this, in which We undertake mutually, both among ourselves and in relation to Our subjects, to accept the rule leading to this, by the only means, drawn from the words and teachings of our Savior Jesus Christ, who proclaims to people to live, like brothers, not in enmity and malice, but in peace and love. We wish and pray to the Almighty to send down His grace, that this Holy Union be established among all the powers, for their common good, and that no one dare, forbidden by the unanimity of all others, to fall away from it. For this sake, with this list of this Union. We order it to be made public and read in the churches.”

In fact, the Russian Tsar, inviting the European sovereigns "to live, like brothers, not in enmity and malice, but in peace and love", hoped to make a "reactionary" Christian coup in European affairs - which was "wild" and unacceptable for "advanced" Europe . After all, the French Revolution was not an accidental breakdown of anti-Christian malice and violence, but grew out of a pan-European process of apostasy, which could not be stopped by the crushing of the "usurper" Napoleon. The European "public", fed by Jewish newspapers, treated the Holy Alliance precisely as a "reaction", suspecting in this also the intrigues of the Russian Tsar.

The statement of mutual assistance of all Christian sovereigns, signed on September 14 (26), 1815, was later gradually joined by all the monarchs of continental Europe, except for the Pope and the Turkish Sultan. Austrian and Prussian specialist diplomats from the very beginning reacted to this highly binding and "unprofessional" text with aloofness and even hostility. The European monarchs who signed the Act themselves interpreted it not as a treaty of international law, but only as a simple declaration of its signatories. Friedrich Wilhelm signed the Act out of courtesy, so as not to upset Alexander I, the liberator of Prussia; later joined by Louis XVIII - to equate France with the leading powers of Europe. The Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph frankly declared: “If this is a religious document, then this is the business of my confessor; if political, then Metternich, ”the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Metternich also confirmed that this “undertaking”, which should “even according to the thought of its culprit be just a simple moral manifestation, in the eyes of the other two sovereigns who gave their signatures, did not even have such a meaning.” Metternich wrote in his memoirs that "this Union was the only expression of the mystical aspirations of Emperor Alexander and the application to politics of the principles of Christianity."

Subsequently, Metternich only skillfully used the Holy Alliance for his own selfish purposes. After all, obliging the Sovereigns to always “give each other allowance, reinforcement and assistance,” the document did not specify in which cases and in what form this obligation should be carried out - this made it possible to interpret it in the sense that assistance is obligatory in all those cases. when subjects will show disobedience to their "legitimate" sovereigns. The suppression of revolutionary uprisings took place in Spain (1820-1823) - with the participation of France; in Naples (1820-1821) and Piedmont (1821) - with the participation of Austria. But with the approval of the European powers, the uprising of the Greeks against Turkish domination (1821) was also suppressed, although the Turkish sultan was not accepted as a member of the Union as a non-Christian sovereign. In this case, the offer of Russia to support the Christian Greek people against the infidel invaders was not taken into account by the allies (after all, a similar uprising of enslaved Slavs could happen in Austria) and Tsar Alexander I was forced to submit to a formal general interpretation, although the Christian spirit of the Union was lost. (It was only under Emperor Nicholas I that Russia supported the Greek uprising and made a decisive contribution to Greece's independence.) It seemed that the Union was doomed to failure. However, the overthrow of the monarchy in France in 1830 and the explosion of revolutions in Belgium and Warsaw forced Austria, Russia and Prussia to return to the traditions of the Holy Alliance. Russia crushed the revolution in Hungary in 1849.

During the existence of the union, the leaders of friendly countries met at international congresses to discuss the most pressing issues - the development of a mechanism for interfering in the internal affairs of states in order to suppress revolutionary movements.

Congresses of the Holy Alliance:

Aachensky, 1818 (the issues of the withdrawal of the occupying troops from France were resolved, the construction of a system of international relations between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia.

Troppausky, 1820 (the right to intervene in countries to suppress revolutions). Thus Austria suppressed the Neapolitan revolution in 1821 and the revolution in Piedmont in the same year by bringing its troops there.

Laibachsky, 1821 (on the restoration of the absolute monarchy in Naples).

Veronsky, 1822 (decision on armed intervention in the affairs of Spain. In 1823, France invaded Spain, absolutism was restored)

Nevertheless, the geopolitical and moral contradictions between the members of the Union turned out to be so great that its preservation was impossible. The Crimean War (1853–1856), in which European states opposed Russia (or withheld assistance) in alliance with Muslim Turkey, buried all hopes of a possible Union of Christian Monarchs. The Western Christian apostasy civilization and the Russian Christian retaining civilization have finally diverged. The “Land of Holy Wonders” (A.S. Khomyakov), which the first Slavophiles still idealized Europe, hoping to save it from destruction by fraternal Russian influence (I.V. Kireevsky), ceased to exist for them. The book by N.Ya. Danilevsky "Russia and Europe".

In the future, Russia's foreign policy proceeded mainly from the fact that in Europe "Russia has no friends and allies, except for the Russian army and navy" (Alexander III). Russia's participation in coalitions of some European powers against others was dictated by pragmatic considerations: to contain the most aggressive rival (which, in the end, the Jewish media and money "made" neighboring Germany) in alliance with the less aggressive ones (which looked like territorially distant England and France) .

But the "less aggressive" democratic allies turned out to be more cunning and betrayed Russia in the World War they unleashed in order to clash with the main European monarchies, the former participants in the Holy Alliance. Their mutual contrition and the triumph of Judeo-Masonic power in Europe became a clear lesson and a logical "alternative" to the unfulfilled desire of the Russian monarchy "to subordinate the international relations of Christian powers to the lofty truths inspired by the law of God the Savior".

In 1833 the Holy Alliance broke up. The monarchs tried to restore the union by adopting the Munchen Greek Convention, but these attempts were unsuccessful.

Reasons for the collapse of the Holy Alliance:

The Union prevented the establishment of bourgeois orders

Strengthening the isolation of monarchical regimes

The divergence of interests of Russia and Austria in relation to Turkey

Strengthening contradictions between Austria, Prussia and Russia

Continuation of the revolutionary movement in Europe: in 1830 there were revolutions in Belgium, in France, in Poland - an uprising against tsarism, the inability to stop them with the forces of the Holy Alliance.

The Significance of the Holy Alliance

The Holy Alliance also played a positive role in history. He ensured for some time peace in Europe after a series of constant Napoleonic wars. Despite the fact that the Holy Alliance lasted only the first ten years, Russia regularly performed the duties of the "gendarme of Europe" until 1848, suppressing more than one revolution that broke out in Europe. Only after the defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 did the government of the empire realize the need for change, and five years later the fetters of serfdom fell in Russia.

Congress of Vienna and the "Holy Alliance"

Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815

After the victory over the Napoleonic Empire in 1814, a congress of European states gathered in Vienna. The main role was played by Russia, England, Austria and Prussia. The authorized representative of France was also admitted to backstage meetings. All important issues were decided at these meetings. The main goals of the congress participants were to restore, if possible, the former dynasties and the power of the nobility, to redistribute Europe in the interests of the victors and to fight against the emerging new revolutionary movements. Regardless of the people, the winners shredded the map of Europe in their own interests, England retained the island of Malta and the former Dutch colonies - the island of Ceylon off the coast of India and the Cape in southern Africa. The main success of England was the weakening of her main enemy - France, the consolidation of British superiority at sea and in colonial conquests. Russia secured most of Poland.

The fragmentation of Germany was much reduced. Instead of more than two hundred small states, a German Confederation of 39 states was created. The largest of them were Austria and Prussia. The German Confederation had no government, no money, no army, no influence on international affairs.

The rich and economically developed provinces - the Rhineland and Westphalia - moved to the possessions of Prussia. Some of the bourgeois orders introduced during Napoleon's time have been preserved there. The western Polish lands were also recognized as the possession of Prussia.

The territory of Austria increased significantly - her former possessions in Italy and a number of other lands again departed to it. In Piedmont, the former dynasty was restored, and in the small states of northern Italy, the Austrian dukes reigned.

The secular power of the pope over the Roman region was restored, and the former Bourbon dynasty was installed on the throne in the Kingdom of Naples. The pope and the Neapolitan king ruled with Swiss mercenaries.

In Spain, absolute monarchy and the Inquisition were restored. The persecution and execution of patriots - participants in the revolution of 1808 - 1814 began.

Belgium was annexed to the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Switzerland regained the mountain passes leading to Italy and was declared eternally neutral.

The territory of the Sardinian kingdom was increased, the main part of which was Piedmont with the city of Turin.

Under the peace treaty with France, concluded in 1815, its territory was returned to its former borders. An indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed on her. Until it was paid, the north-eastern part of France was to remain occupied by the Allied forces.

England, Russia, Austria and Prussia renewed the military alliance with the obligation to prevent the restoration of the Bonaparte dynasty in France and to convene congresses from time to time to safeguard the order established after the Napoleonic wars in Europe.

"Holy Union"

In order to consolidate absolutism and noble reaction, European sovereigns, at the suggestion of Alexander I, in 1815 concluded the so-called "Holy Alliance" against revolutionary movements. Its participants pledged to help each other in the suppression of revolutions, to support the Christian religion. The Act of the "Holy Alliance" was signed by Austria, Prussia, and then almost all the monarchs of European states. England did not formally join the Holy Alliance, but in fact supported the policy of suppressing revolutions.

In the early 20s. in Spain, the Kingdom of Naples and Piedmont, bourgeois revolutions led by advanced officers broke out against absolutism. By decision of the Holy Alliance, they were suppressed - in Italy by the Austrian troops, and in Spain - by the French army. But it was impossible to perpetuate the absolutist feudal order. Revolutions and national liberation wars covered more and more new countries and continents.

Political map of Europe in 1815 (after the Congress of Vienna)

1815. On September 26 (September 14 O.S.), the Holy Alliance of Russia, Prussia and Austria was concluded at the Congress of Vienna in order to maintain the inviolability of post-war borders in Europe and prevent revolutionary uprisings.

Jean-Baptiste Isabey. Congress of Vienna. 1819

“After the second expulsion of Napoleon, Alexander I in some way (as the most authoritative sovereign) took his place on the continent. "The Russian Emperor - Agamemnon, the king of 59 kings!" exclaimed Madame J. de Stael, enchanted by him. Flatterers from the retinue of the king took a note higher: "pacifier of the universe." These doxologies corresponded to the formal, truly universal exaltation of the name of the king, but obscured his actual role, which V.O. Klyuchevsky defined it as follows: "the guard sentry of foreign thrones against the peoples." It was in this role that Alexander created and led the Holy Alliance.

The historic act on the birth of the Holy Alliance of Monarchs of Europe was signed in Paris on September 14 (26), 1815. The Tsar himself wrote the act, persuaded Friedrich Wilhelm III and Franz I to approve it, and more than anyone, tried to get everyone to join him European states. What were the principles of the Union - in words and in deeds? The monarchs pledged to "encourage their subjects to fulfill the duties in which God the Savior has instructed people," and "in any case and in every place to give each other help." In fact, as all congresses of the Holy Alliance showed, such vague phraseology covered up a specific goal - to jointly crush "in every place" in Europe "every case" of resistance to new (more precisely, restored old, pre-revolutionary) regimes.

Portrait of Alexander I. Unknown artist, circa 1825

Portrait of Friedrich Wilhelm III, King of Prussia. First floor. 19th century

From now on, the Holy Alliance became the main concern of Alexander I. It was the tsar who convened the congresses of the Union, proposed issues for the agenda and largely determined their decisions, which allowed Marx and Engels to qualify the Holy Alliance as "a disguise of the tsar's hegemony over all the governments of Europe." This opinion is more consistent with the facts than the widespread version that the head of the Holy Alliance, the "coachman of Europe" was the Austrian chancellor K. Metternich, and the tsar was supposedly a decorative figure and almost a toy in the hands of the chancellor. Metternich really played an outstanding role in the affairs of the Union and was his (and not all of Europe) "coachman", but according to this metaphor, Alexander must be recognized as a rider who trusted the coachman while he was driving in the direction the rider needed.

At all congresses of the Holy Alliance, the main question was the same - about the struggle against the revolutionary movement of the peoples of Europe, because the peoples, freed from Napoleon, did not want to put up with the old-regime monarchs, who were seated everywhere by the Congress of Vienna and now protected by the Holy Alliance.