1. Which scientist coined the term "ecology"?

* + E. Haeckel

2. What does ecology study?

* + patterns of relationships and interactions of all living organisms with the environment

3. Period of expansion of ecological science

* + late 18th century

4. The period of formation of environmental science as a separate independent science

* + end of XIX and middle of XX

5. The period of prosperity of environmental science

* beginning of XIX and middle of XX

* late 18th century

* mid XIX and early XX

* the beginning of the XXI century

6. Object of study of ecology:

* + biological and geographical micro and macro systems, and their life rhythm (dynamics) in time and space

7. What is the name of the section that studies the relationship between individual organisms and their natural environment?

* +autoecology

8. A branch of science that studies the community of populations belonging to different species at the level of the integrity of organisms?

* + synecology

9. A section of ecology that studies the ways of implementing human plans, constantly developing on the verge of man and the biosphere?

* +nooecology

10. Purpose of nature protection:

* + Ensuring environmental safety

11. Efficient use of nature is:

* + the most efficient and rational technologies for the use of natural resources and their renewal for humans

12. The first law of B.Commoner:

* + everything is connected to everything

13. The third law of B.Commoner

* + nature "knows" better

14. Section of ecology that relates populations, that is, organisms of the same type, with the environment:

* +demecology

15. Section of ecology that studies environmental rights and environmental problems of people:

* + human ecology

16. What is the protection of nature?

* +international, state and public measures aimed at finding effective ways against pollution, depletion and for the renewal of natural resources

17. The main goal of nature protection:

* + effectively using natural resources, to pass on to the future generation in the same form

18. Science for the protection of nature:

* + a set of state, public measures to implement the basic concepts of environmental science

19. The second law of B.Commoner:

*everything has to go somewhere

20. The fourth law of B.Commoner:

* + nothing is given for free

21. Modern ecology studies:

* + The relationship of organisms, including humans, with the environment

22. What does medical ecology study?

* + the interaction of a person as a biological and social being with a complex multi-component environment, with an ever-complicating environment

23. Direct and indirect effect of the element on the body:

* +Environmental factor

24. What are abiotic factors?

* + set of environmental conditions that affect organisms

25.

* + the influence of the vital activity of the organism on others

26. Anthropogenic factors:

* + human action that directly or indirectly affects the environment

27. Edaphic factors include:

* + chemical composition of soils

28. Trophicfood chain links- This:

* + one species feeds on living individuals, carrion or their end products

29. The metabolism in the ecosystem takes place:

* + through the producer from the consumer to the decomposer;

30. The essence of the law of optimum is that:

* + any environmental factor has certain limits of positive impact on the vital activity of organisms;

31. Law of Pessimum of Environmental Factors:

* + danger zone for the existence or distribution of organisms.

32. Fan actor that has certain limits of positive influence on the vital activity of organisms

* + limit

33. Which scientist introduced the law of tolerance?

* + W. Shelford

34. Which scientist introduced the limit factor?

* + J. Liebig

35. Ecological valence is:

* + the ability of organisms to endure quantitative fluctuations of the environmental factor

36. Relate totenobiont organisms:

* + low tolerance range for all environmental factors.

37. K evribiont organisms include:

* + high tolerance range for all environmental factors.

38. Photoperiodism is:

* + the reaction of the body to the length of the day

39. What are abiotic factors?

* + temperature, voltage, background radiation

40. What are abiotic factors?

* factors of inanimate nature

* emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere

* suspended animation, symbiosis, commensalism

* violation of soil layers

41. What are biotic factors?

42. What are biotic factors?

* + wildlife factors

43. What are anthropogenic factors?

** emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere

44. What are anthropogenic factors?

** factors created by mankind

45. A population is called:

* + a set of individuals of the same species that exchange genetic information and exist for a long time in one territory

46. Populations are divided according to the volume of the territory:

* +elementary, ecological, geographical

47. Elemental population:

* + a set of individuals of the same species existing in a small area

48. Ecological population is:

* + the position that the species occupies in the composition of the biocenosis

49. The geographic population is:

* + a set of individuals of different species that exist for a long time in one territory

50. The static characteristics of the population include:

* + abundance, density, biomass, age and sex composition

51. The dynamic characteristics of a population include:

* + ecological birth and death

52. What is the name of the nature of the temporary change in the main biological indicators of the population?

* + population dynamics

53. Ecological niche is:

* + the totality of all environmental factors within which the existence of a species in nature is possible

54. The population size is:

* + total number of organisms existing in a certain area or area

55. Population density is:

* + the ratio of the number of organisms per unit area or volume of the population

56. By type of distribution, the population is divided into:

* + random, same, group

57. What types of population reproduction exist?

* + exponential, logistic

58. What ecological communities are divided into age groups of organisms in a population?

* + pre-reproductive, reproductive, post-reproductive

59. Biocenosis is:

60. Which scientist proposed the concept of "biocenosis"?

* + K. Mobius

61. Biogeocenosis is:

* +community of vegetation, fauna, microorganisms and their habitats

62. What is related tobiogeocenosis?

* +community of vegetation, fauna, microorganisms and their habitats

63. The scientist who proposed the concept of "Biogeocenosis

* + V.N. Sukachev

64. What is the name of the formed natural system, consisting of living organisms, into which the material and energy currents of the earth continuously enter?

* +ecosystem

65. Name the ecologist who first proposed the term "Ecosystem":

* + A. Tensley

66. How to understand the term "ecosystem"?

* + biotope and biocenosis

67. The composition of the biotope, as one of the components of the ecosystem:

* + atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, pedosphere

68. Basic principles of sustainabilityecosystems:

* + metabolism, holding energy currents

69. What is formed at the first stage of all ecosystems?

* + producers

70. What is it about producers?

* + plants

71. What is formed at the second stage of all ecosystems?

* + consumers phytophages of the 1st order

72. What is formed at the third stage of all ecosystems?

* + consumer zoophages of the 2nd order

73. According to the type of nutrition, living organisms are divided into:

* + autotrophs and heterotrophs

74. Autotrophic organisms are

* + conversion of inorganic substances into organic substances

75. Heterotrophic organisms are

* + organisms that feed on ready-made organic substances

76. Ecological succession is:

* + transformation of a biocenosis into another biocenosis in one area as a result of natural factors or human actions

77. In what cases does exogenetic succession appear?

* + external biotic or anthropogenic influences

78. When does endogenetic succession occur?

* + structural change and change in community communication systems

79. Types of ecological pyramids:

* + abundance, biomass, energy

80. What is ecosystem homeostasis?

* + ability to self-maintenance and self-regulation

81. What are the names of natural substances, phenomena that people use to meet their needs to achieve goals

* + natural resources

82. Natural resources are divided into:

83. Exhaustible non-renewable resources:

* + minerals

84. Exhaustible Renewable Resources:

* + plants, animals, microorganisms

85. Inexhaustible resources:

* + solar, air, wind energy

86. Leads to a decrease in the number of species saved due to conservation measures:

* + renewed resources

87. Natural resources by use are divided into:

* + industrial, scientific, aesthetic, recreational

88. Natural resources by origin are divided into:

* +energy, raw materials, food

89. Minerals, which are non-renewable natural resources?

* + metal ores, metal-free compounds

90. Natural resources according to sources of origin and location are divided into:

* + earth, water, plant, forest

91. Natural resources by chemical nature are divided into:

* +organic, mineral

92. What is the name of the total stock of wood and non-wood forest products and their useful properties?

* + forest resources

93. natural resources from human impact are divided into:

* + 3 groups

94. Non-renewable natural resources:

* +disappearing, spreading

95. Exhaustible natural resources:

* + renewable, non-renewable, relatively renewable

96. By exhaustibility, natural resources are divided into:

* + exhaustible, inexhaustible

97. Preserves are:

* + fully protected area with a natural complex and a research area

98. How many state reserves are there in Kazakhstan

99. Reserves that have ceased operations

* + Barsakelmes-Burabay

100. The first reserve in Kazakhstan:

* + Aksu-Zhabagyly

101. In what year did the first reserve open?

102 . Reserve in South Kazakhstan:

* + Aksu-Zhabagyly

103. The reserve, which is also called the "Island of Kulans":

* + Barsakelmes

104. Reserve on the Aral Sea:

* + Barsakelmes

105. In what year was the Markakol nature reserve organized?

106. In what year was the Nauryzym reserve organized?

107. In what year was the Almaty reserve organized?

108. In what year was the Korgalzhyn reserve organized?

109. On the territory of which region is the Korgalzhyn reserve located?

* + In the North Kazakhstan

110. In which reserve is the relic gull found?

* + Alakol

111. What is forbidden to do in zoological reserves?

* + Collect plants

112. How many national reserves are there in Kazakhstan?

113. How many national parks are there in Almaty region?

114. How many nature reserves are there in Kazakhstan?

115. How many reserves are there in Kazakhstan?

116. National gardens of Kazakhstan:

* + Bayanaul, Altinemil

117. Biosphere Reserve - what is it?

* + natural complex of different regions of the earth

118. The state natural monument is:

* + a unique natural object of cultural, educational and health purposes

119. Term used for the conservation of natural conditions

* + Reserve

120. Recreational and nature protection areas:

* + National Park

Biosphere

121. Biosphere is:

* + the area of ​​active life of all living organisms on earth, water and atmosphere

122. Who introduced the term "Biosphere" into science?

* + V.I. Vernadsky

124. "Living substance" according to V.I. Vernadsky:

* + community of all living organisms, strong geological force

125. Name the functions of living organisms in the biosphere:

* +energy, destructive, concentration

126. What part of the atmosphere does the biosphere cover?

* + Troposphere

127. Types of metabolism:

* + large (biospheric), small (biological)

128. Which scientist introduced the term "Noosphere" into science?

* + E. Leroy and P.T. Chardin

129. "Noosphere" is:

* + "Intellectual" sphere

130. The geological layer of the earth where living organisms live:

* + Biosphere

131. The main difference between the biosphere?

* + Presence of living substances

132. Component of the biosphere:

* + Living organisms and biogenic, biocurve bodies

133. Vertical volume of the biosphere?

134. Pollution of the biosphere with chemicals leads to……..:

* + endemic diseases

Atmosphere

135. The atmosphere is:

* + the gaseous layer of the earth, consisting of various gas particles

136. Air pollution includes:

* + Anthropogenic, background

137. Background air pollution is:

* +Atmospheric air condition away from pollution sources

138. Anthropogenic air pollution is:

* + changes in the quality of the atmosphere as a result of human activities

139. Depending on the extent of the spread of atmospheric air pollution, there are:

* +Global, local, regional

140. Sources of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere:

* +Industrial, energy, transport enterprises

141. Chemical factors of atmospheric air pollution include:

* +gas emissions, heavy metals

142. Particularly toxic substances in atmospheric pollution include:

* + organic peroxides

143. Carcinogenic air pollutants include:

* + radionuclides, benzo(a)pyrene

144. Radioactive pollution of the atmosphere is:

* + the presence in the atmosphere of natural and artificial radioactive

145. What is background air pollution?

* + concentration of cadmium in the air as a result of volcanic activity

146. Atmospheric pollutant concentrations are expressed as:

147. Environmental consequences of global air pollution:

* + Development of the "Greenhouse effect", violation of the ozone layer, acid rain

148. According to their physical state, atmospheric air pollutants are divided into:

* + Gaseous, dust of complex chemical composition, aerosols

149. The largest anthropogenic contribution of heavy metals to atmospheric pollution is:

* + lead, antimony

150. The main sources of anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere include:

* +transport and industry

151. The main source of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere is:

* + photosynthesis process

152. On what layer of the atmosphere is the ozone screen located?

* + Stratosphere;

153. Life layer of the atmosphere:

154. Global atmospheric problems include:

* + thermal effect

155. Violation of the atmospheric ozone layer is affected by:

* + chlorine-fluorine, carbon

156. Anthropogenic influences increase the concentration of gas compounds, which leads to the rapid formation of an atmospheric thermal effect. Name these compounds:

* + carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide, freons;

157. Global problem of the atmosphere:

* + Photochemical smog

158. The share of harmful substances released into the atmosphere from cars in Almaty, from the total share of other harmful substances is:

159. What is the most dangerous gas emitted into the atmosphere:

* + carbon monoxide

160. The composition of the atmosphere includes:

* + nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide

161. Industrial emissions of enterprises by technological processes are divided into:

* + organized, unorganized, mixed

162. Cities with highly polluted atmospheric air include:

* + Almaty, Zhambyl, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Temirtau

163. Cities with polluted air include

* + Shymkent, Karaganda, Balkhash, Aktyubinsk

164. Cities with moderately polluted atmospheric air include:

* + Zhezkazgan, Kostanay, Pavlodar, Semey

165. Cities with slightly polluted atmospheric air include:

* + Astana, Uralsk, Petropavlovsk, Aktau

166. Consequences of high concentrations of cadmium on the human body:

* + Itai-itai disease and kidney damage

167. Consequences of high concentrations of chromium on the human body:

* + causes ulcers of the nasal mucosa

168. When the human body is poisoned by mercury:

* + nervous diseases, impaired kidney function

169. When the dose of copper in the human body exceeds the norm:

* + damaged capillaries of the liver, kidneys

170. Effect of lead on the human body:

* + nervous diseases, anemia, amnesia, infertility

171. Industrial emissions include:

* + Unorganized, organized, mixed

172. Gross emissions are:

* + specific air emission rate

173. What applies to organized emissions:

* + emissions through centralized routes

174. What concerns fugitive emissions:

* + emissions due to lack of containment

Hydrosphere

175. The hydrosphere is:

* + totality of seas, oceans, continental waters, glaciers, atmospheric precipitation

176. The volume of the hydrosphere in the globe:

177. The volume of seas and oceans in the hydrosphere:

178. Acid rains acidify the waters of the ecosystem, they affect:

* + to reduce biological varieties

179. Organisms freely floating on the surface of water:

* + Plankton;

180. Benthos is:

* + An organism that exists at the bottom of the sea

181. What organisms belong to benthos:

* + crustaceans, that is, aquatic crayfish;

182. Autotrophic organisms in the aquatic ecosystem:

* + algae;

183. What reaction occurs when exposed to sunlight on the leaves of plants?

* + Photosynthesis;

184. When was the Water Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted?

185. The main indicators of natural self-purification of water in reservoirs include:

* +biochemical oxygen demand, nitrification products

186. Physical water pollutants:

* + solid particles, swamp, radioactive elements

187. The main source of water surface pollution are:

* + distribution of oil and oil products

188. The main sources of groundwater pollution are:

* + places of accumulation of municipal and household waste

189. Eutrophication of water bodies is:

* + excessive intake of organic and mineral substances into water bodies

190. Radioactive sources of water pollution include:

* + nuclear test sites, accidents at nuclear power plants,

191. What method of wastewater treatment is used in the presence of acids in them:

* + neutralization

192. The totality of water resources of the globe:

* + hydrosphere

193. The total volume of the hydrosphere:

* +1455 million km3

194. Domestic wastewater is characterized by a high content of:

* +organic substances, pathogenic microflora, helminths

195. Sources of biological water pollution are:

* +Agricultural wastewater, household wastewater

196. Water pollution with chemicals can lead to:

* + diseases of bone tissue, CNS damage

197. The presence of biological contaminants in water can lead to:

* + typhoid fever

198. The main water pollutants include:

* + Chemical, physical, biological

199. Chemical water pollutants are:

* + Surfactants (Synthetic Surfactants), pesticides, acids

200. Biological water pollutants include:

* + Algae, viruses, bacteria

201. What diseases are caused by water?

* + typhoid fever, tularemia

202. Wastewater from livestock farms is characterized by a high content of:

* + ammonia, pathogenic microflora

203. risk factorswhatdiseases of the population is the mineral composition of water?

* + fluorosis, caries

204. risk factorswhatdiseases of the population is the pathogenic microflora of water?

* + hepatitis A, typhoid fever

Lithosphere

205. The earth's crust is:

* + Lithosphere

206. The ways in which chemicals enter the human body from the soil are:

* + translocation

207. During self-purification of the soil, the following are formed:

* + methane, hydrogen sulfide

208. The source of what infectious diseases are pathogenic soil bacteria?

* + anthrax, gas gangrene, cholera, botulism

209. Tpre-location route of pollution- This:

* + Migration of contaminants from soil to plants through the root system

210. What diseases can be caused by elevated concentrations of cadmium in the soil:

* + damage to bones, impaired renal function, proteinuria

211. Name the territories of Kazakhstan where soils are the poorest in iodine:

* + Southern and Eastern Kazakhstan

212. Alienation of land is:

* + use of land for non-agricultural needs

213. To prevent soil salinization, the following measures are used:

* + drainage device, sprinkler irrigation

214. Measures aimed at the formation of vegetative properties of soils:

* + reclamation

215. Edaphic factors include:

* + chemical composition of soils

216. Humus is:

* + colloidal organic fraction of the soil

217. Why is it necessary to regulate chemical pollutants in the soil:

* + to guarantee the safety and nutritional value of plants growing on the soil

Ecological problems to one degree or another have been solved spontaneously by mankind throughout natural history. Man realized early on that it is necessary to use natural resources wisely, without violating the productive physical and biological natural mechanisms and thereby preserving the basis of his existence.

The roots of ecological knowledge go back to ancient times. The rock paintings made by primitive people testify that man's interest in the world around him was far from simple curiosity.

The idea of ​​nature conservation and, in particular, the beauty of natural forests was close to the inhabitants of ancient Greece. So, the ancient Greek poet Horace, in a letter to the patrician Fuscus Avidius, says: “In your gardens there are magnificent colonnades. Were they not built to close up groves and forests? Nature, which you drive away with blows of axes, which you drive through the doors of your houses, fortunately returns back through the window.

Ancient Greek thinkers passed the baton to Roman scientists, and they "threw the bridge" in the Renaissance.

The great geographical discoveries of the Renaissance served as an impetus for the development of nature management. Scientists and travelers not only described the external and internal structure of plants, but also reported information about their dependence on growing or cultivation conditions. The description of animals was accompanied by information about their habits and habitats.

A great contribution to the formation of ecological knowledge was made by the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus (1707-1778). His works "Economy of Nature" and "Social Organization of Nature" have not lost their relevance. By "economy" the scientist understood the relationship of all natural bodies, compared nature with a human community living according to certain laws.

The French explorer of nature J. Buffon (1707-1788) in 1749 made a daring attempt for that time to present the development of the Earth, the animal world and man as a single evolutionary series. In his later works, the leading role of climatic factors in the ecology of organisms was emphasized.

Important observations that influenced the development of ecology were made by scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the course of expeditionary research conducted starting from the second half of the 18th century. Among the organizers and participants of these expeditions, S.P. Krasheninnikov (1711-1755), who became famous for his "Description of the land of Kamchatka", I.I. Lepekhin (1740-1802) - the author of "Day Notes of the Journey of the Doctor and the Academy of Sciences Adjunct Ivan Lepekhin in Different Provinces of the Russian State" in 4 volumes, Academician P.S. Pallas (1741-1811), who prepared the major work "Description of Russian-Asian animals".

One of the founders of the evolutionary doctrine J.B. Lamarck (1744-1829), who believed that the most important cause of adaptive changes in organisms, the evolution of plants and animals is the influence of external environmental conditions.

Professor of Moscow University K.F. Ruler (1814-1858). In his writings and public lectures, he strongly emphasized the need to study the evolution of living organisms, the development and structure of animals, depending on changes in their habitat. The scientist formulated the principle underlying all the sciences of the living, the principle of the historical unity of the living organism and the environment.

Of great importance for the development of ecology were the works of the zoologist N.A. Severtsov (1827-1885). He was the first to attempt to classify animals according to biological types (life forms).

A prominent German scientist A. Humboldt (1769-1859) laid the foundations of a new science - biogeography (primarily plant geography). The founder of the doctrine of life forms, Humboldt studied in detail the main climates of the Northern Hemisphere and compiled a map of its isotherms. In addition, the researcher made a great contribution to the development of geophysics, volcanology, hydrography, studied the nature of the countries of Europe, Central and South America. In the "Cosmos" pile, Humboldt attempted to summarize the achievements of the earth sciences.

And yet, at the dawn of its development, ecology was engaged in a descriptive study of nature. Great explorers and naturalists of the XIX century. left descriptions and observations of natural phenomena full of lyricism. Suffice it to name with interest the multi-volume work of A. Brehm “The Life of Animals”, which is still read today, the first volume of which appeared in 1863. The French scientist J.A. Farb in 1870 published "Notes of an Entomologist", which still amaze with the accuracy of observations of the wonderful world of insects.

The formation of ecology as a science

The key moment in the development of ecological knowledge was the emergence of the term "ecology" itself. September 14, 1866, when the German biologist E. Haeckel (1834-1919) finished writing the fundamental work "General Morphology of Organisms", can be considered the birthday, or rather "baptism", of ecology as a science. Classifying sections of biology in one of the footnotes, Haeckel first used the word "ecology" (from the Greek. oikos - house, dwelling, homeland, residence, dwelling and logos - word, teaching) in relation to scientific knowledge.

E. Haeckel gave the following definition of ecology as a science: “... the knowledge of the economy of nature, the simultaneous study of all relationships of the living with organic and inorganic components of the environment, including necessarily non-antagonistic and antagonistic relationships of animals and plants in contact with each other. In a word, ecology is a science that studies all the complex interrelationships and relationships in nature, considered by Darwin as conditions for the struggle for existence. Haeckel attributed ecology to the biological sciences and the sciences of nature, which are primarily interested in all aspects of the existence of living organisms: “By ecology we mean the science of economy, of the domestic life of animal organisms. It explores the general relations of animals to both their inorganic and organic environments, their friendly and hostile relations to other animals and plants with which they come into direct and indirect contact ... "

By the end of the XIX century. The term "ecology" began to be used by many biologists, not only in Germany, but also in other countries. In 1868 in Russia under the editorship of I.I. Mechnikov published in a concise presentation the work of E. Haeckel "General Morphology", where the word "ecology" was first mentioned in Russian.

Ecology as a science arose in the middle of the 19th century. in the depths of biological science, which by that time had become interested not only in the classification of all living things and the structure of organisms, but also in the reaction of animals and plants to the conditions of existence.

A special role in the development of ecological ideas was played by the works of the great English naturalist C. Darwin (1809-1882), the founder of the doctrine of the evolution of the organic world. Darwin's conclusion about the constant struggle for existence inherent in all living things is one of the central problems of ecology.

If Haeckel can be considered the forefather of a new science, intuitively anticipating the entire significance and global nature of ecology, then Darwin laid its biological foundation - the foundation on which ecological knowledge was built. Initially, it had the practical goal of regulating the number of economically important animal species and changing natural communities (biocenoses) in a direction beneficial to humans.

In 1859 Darwin published The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life, which revolutionized biology.

An important step on the path of ecology to the study of integral natural complexes was the introduction in 1877 by the German hydrobiologist K. Möbius (1825-1908) of the concept of biocenosis. He formulated it in the book "Oysters and the Oyster Farm", where he described the complexes of benthic animals that form the so-called oyster banks. Mobius called such complexes biocenoses, meaning associations of living organisms that correspond in composition, number of species and individuals to average environmental conditions and in which organisms are mutually dependent and are preserved due to constant reproduction in certain places.

The merit of Möbius is that he was able to reveal many patterns of formation and development of natural natural communities (biocenoses). Thus, the foundations of an important trend in ecology, biocenology, were laid.

Thus, K. Möbius was one of the first to apply a special approach to the study of wildlife objects, which today is called the systematic approach. This approach orients the researcher towards the disclosure of the integral properties of objects and the mechanisms that provide them, to the identification of diverse relationships in a biological system and the development of an effective strategy for its study. In modern science, the systemic paradigm (the dominant theoretical concept, system of views) dominates, and in ecology, the systemic approach to the consideration of wildlife objects is the main one.

As a recognized independent scientific discipline, ecology took shape around 1900.

In the process of a detailed study of the environment, a special section of ecology arose - autoecology (from the Greek autos - itself) - the ecology of individual species, organisms, studying their relationship with the environment. Autoecology is of great applied importance, especially in the field of biological methods of plant pest control, research on disease vectors and their prevention.

However, each individual species, even when studied in relation to other species that directly influence it, is only the smallest particle among the thousands of similar plant, animal and microorganism species that live in the same zone. Awareness of this fact led to the emergence in the mid-20s. 20th century synecology (from the Greek sin - together), or biocenology, which studies the relationship of populations, communities and ecosystems with the environment. At the III International Botanical Congress in Brussels in 1910, synecology officially took shape as an integral part of ecology.

Gradually, environmental scientists moved from the descriptive stage to the stage of comprehending the collected facts. Experimental and theoretical ecology has received intensive development. Precisely in the 20-40s. 20th century flourishing of theoretical ecology. The main tasks of studying populations and communities were formulated, mathematical models of population growth and their interactions were proposed, and laboratory experiments were carried out to test these models. Mathematical laws have been established that describe the dynamics of populations of interacting groups of individuals.

In the same period, the first fundamental ecological concepts appeared, such as the "pyramid of numbers", according to which the number of individuals decreases from plants (at the base of the pyramid) to herbivores and predators (at its top); "food chain"; biomass pyramid.

From the very beginning, ecologists tried to understand the subject of their activity as a holistic discipline, designed to bring many diverse facts into a coherent system, to reveal fairly general patterns, and most importantly, to explain and, if possible, make a forecast of certain natural phenomena. At this stage in the development of ecology, there was an acute shortage of a basic unit of study.

Such a unit has become an ecological system, or ecosystem. The term "ecosystem" was proposed by the English ecologist A. Tensley in 1935. It can be defined as a unity limited in time and space, a natural complex formed by living organisms (biocenosis) and their habitat (inert, for example, the atmosphere, or bio-inert - soil, reservoir, etc.), interconnected by the metabolism and energy. - one of the basic concepts of ecology, applicable to objects of varying complexity and size.

An example of an ecosystem is a pond with plants, fish, invertebrates, microorganisms, bottom sediments living in it, with its characteristic changes in temperature, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, water composition, etc. An ecosystem is a forest with forest floor, soil, microorganisms, birds inhabiting it, herbivorous and predatory mammals, with its characteristic distribution of air temperature and humidity, light, soil water and other environmental factors, with its inherent metabolism and energy. A rotting stump with organisms and living conditions living on it and in it can also be considered as an ecosystem.

The work of the outstanding Russian geochemist V.I. Vernadsky (1863-1945). He studied the processes occurring in the biosphere and developed a theory that he called biogeochemistry, which formed the basis of the modern theory of the biosphere. The biosphere is an area of ​​active life, covering the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere. In the biosphere, living organisms and their habitat are organically connected and interact with each other, forming an integral dynamic system.

The emergence and development of the doctrine of the biosphere has become a new milestone in natural science, the study of the interaction and relationships between inert and living nature, between man and the environment.

In 1926 V.I. Vernadsky published the work "Biosphere", which marked the birth of a new science of nature and the connection of man with it. In this book, the biosphere is shown for the first time as a single dynamic system inhabited and controlled by life, the living substance of the planet. In his works on the biosphere, the scientist argued that living matter, in interaction with inert matter, is part of a large mechanism of the earth's crust, due to which various geochemical and biogenic processes, migration of atoms take place, and they participate in geological and biological cycles.

IN AND. Vernadsky established that the chemical state of the outer crust of our planet is entirely under the influence of life and is determined by living organisms, with the activity of which the planetary process is associated - the migration of chemical elements in the biosphere.

In the future, the scientist comes to the conclusion that the biosphere is closely related to human activity, on which the preservation of the balance of the composition of the biosphere depends. He introduces a new concept - the noosphere, i.e. "thinking shell", the sphere of the mind. Vernadsky wrote: “Humanity, taken as a whole, is posed as a powerful geological force. Before him, before his thought and work is the question of the restructuring of the biosphere in the interests of free thinking humanity as a whole. This new state of the biosphere, to which we are approaching without noticing it, is the noosphere.”

The interrelations in living nature that scientists have to deal with are extremely wide and diverse. Therefore, ideally, an ecologist should have a truly encyclopedic knowledge, concentrated in many scientific and social disciplines. The successful solution of real environmental problems requires joint interdisciplinary work of research groups, each of which represents different branches of science. That is why in the second half of the XX century. in ecology, ecological schools of botanists, zoologists, geobotanists, hydrobiologists, soil scientists, and others have developed.

Modern ecology

The concept of "ecology" is currently acquiring a global character, however, environmental scientists themselves introduce different meanings into the definition of this term.

Some say that ecology is a branch of biology. Others claim it is a biological science. Indeed, ecology as a science was formed on the basis of biology, but at present it is an independent, separate science. Theorist of modern ecology N.F. Reimers pointed out: “Modern ecology is a biologized (as well as geographic, mathematized, etc.) biocentric science, but not biology. Its biological component is a view from the living to the environment and from this environment to the living. Dozens of sciences have such an angle of view: anthropology, ethnography, medicine, etc. But ecology is characterized by a broad systemic intersectoral view.”

The development of ecology has increased the theoretical and practical importance of such earth sciences as meteorology, climatology, hydrology, glaciology, soil science, oceanology, geophysics, and geology. The role of geography is changing significantly, which now seeks not only to give a more complete and multifaceted picture of the planet's appearance, but also to develop the scientific foundations for its rational transformation, to form a progressive concept of nature management.

However, the main thing is the integrating function of modern ecology, which has taken shape as a broad complex industry engaged in research, applied activities and promoting the development of new areas of natural, technical and social sciences. Ecology stimulates the "interdisciplinarity" of scientific activity, orients all sciences towards solving a kind of "super task" - the search for harmony between humanity and nature. In this regard, global ecology has creatively assimilated the most rational aspects of many sciences and scientific theories. Starting from the evolutionary understanding of living nature, modern ecology at the same time takes into account the specifics of the anthropogenic impact on the biosphere, unprecedented in scale and nature. This impact is largely due to the transition of the scientific and technological revolution to a higher stage of development, which objectively requires understanding many of the contradictory processes and phenomena generated by it in nature and society and weakening the most dangerous of them.

One of the real contributions of ecology to the development of science as a whole can be considered the expansion of the scope of use of a number of concepts and scientific concepts that were previously included in the arsenal of only individual, rather narrow scientific disciplines.

Thus, on the one hand, it is recognized that ecology is a science, and on the other hand, it is emphasized that it is a set of scientific disciplines. Indeed, ecology in one way or another affects almost all spheres of life of living organisms (and their combinations) and humans. Ecology is a synthetic science.

At one of the forums, ecologists tried to officially define what ecology is. Each offered their own definition. As a result, the following phrase was entered into the protocol: "Ecology is what I do, not you."

The term "ecology" and the word "ecological" derived from it turned into the end of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century. into common capacious words that cover and reflect the global changes that have occurred not only in the human environment, but also in human relationships.

Summarizing, we can give the following definition of ecology: ecology is a science that studies the relationship of organisms with each other and with their natural environment, as well as studies the structure and functioning of biological (supraorganismal) systems of various levels. Superorganismal systems include populations, biocenoses, ecosystems and the biosphere. They are also the subject of environmental study.

Ecology can also be defined as the science of the "niches" of organisms in ecological systems.

Ecology- the science of the interaction of living organisms and their systems with the environment (OS), their mutual influence and interpenetration, which allows you to determine ways to optimize and possibly change the conditions for the environment and living organisms. The environment refers to almost the entire universe. Very often the term OS is replaced by the word "nature".

Under living organisms is understood not only a person, but also all other living representatives of nature: animals, plants, protozoa.

Literally translated, the word "ecology" means the doctrine of "home" (from the Greek "oikos" - habitat, dwelling, house and "logos" - teaching). This term and the general definition of ecology were first made by the German biologist E. Haeckel in 1866.

In accordance with the history of the development of ecology, the following branches can be distinguished in it:

a) bioecology- ecology of microorganisms, fungi, protozoa, animals (the bioecology of birds, fish, etc. is considered separately), as well as paleoecology (evolutionary ecology);

b) systems ecology- tundra, deserts, semi-deserts, forests, steppes, etc. This also includes radiation and chemical ecology. The term "ecosystem" was proposed in 1935 by the English botanist A. Huxley;

in) human ecology- historical, archaeological, actually human, city (urboecology), industrial, agricultural, recreational (ecology of recreation areas), legal, economic, etc.

2. The structure of modern ecology

From a scientific point of view, it is quite reasonable to divide ecology into theoretical and applied:

theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the organization of life;

applied ecology studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man, ways to prevent this process and develops principles for the rational use of natural resources.

Ecology

dynamic;

Analytical;

General (bioecology);

Geoecology;

applied;

human ecology;

Social ecology.

autecology(autoecology) is a branch of ecology that studies the characteristics of the response and interaction of species of living organisms with environmental factors. Currently, population ecology has emerged as an independent scientific discipline in autecology, the subject of scientific research of which is a population of living organisms that exist in certain environmental conditions and under the influence of which it develops and changes.

synecology- This is a branch of environmental science that studies the patterns of development and existence of communities of living organisms (biocenoses) in specific changing environmental conditions. In recent years, such a branch of ecology as biogeocenology has been actively developing. The activation of scientific research within this direction is associated with the revealed significant influences of biogeocenotic factors on the features of the development of human communities.

Population ecology

population- a group of organisms of the same species living in a certain area. Examples of populations are all perches in a pond, common squirrels or white oaks in forests, the population in a particular country, or the population of the Earth as a whole. Populations- These are dynamic groups of organisms that adapt to changes in environmental conditions by changing their size, distribution of age groups (age structure), and genetic composition.

Biogeocenology - Homogeneous areas of land or water inhabited by living organisms are called biotopes (places of life). The historically established community of organisms of different species inhabiting a biotope is called biocenosis, or biome.

The community of organisms of the biocenosis and the inanimate nature surrounding them form a stable and dynamic system - the biogeocenosis, or ecosystem. Thus, biogeocenosis is a combination of biome and biotope.

Some authors see a difference in the terms "ecosystem" and "biogeocenosis". In this case, the difference lies in the fact that the ecosystem may not contain plant communities, and biogeocenosis is impossible without phytocenosis. The boundaries of biogeocenosis coincide with the boundaries of the plant community, which is its basis. Biogeocenosis functions as an integral, self-reproducing and self-regulating system. The composition of biogeocenosis includes the following components:

inorganic substances included in the cycle (compounds of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, mineral salts, etc.);

climatic factors (temperature, pressure, illumination, etc.);

organic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids);

producers- autotrophic organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances under the influence of sunlight (mainly green plants);

consumers- heterotrophic organisms (herbivorous and carnivorous consumers of finished organic matter). Mostly animals.

■ destructors and decomposers- heterotrophic organisms that destroy the remains of dead plants and animals (worms, wood lice, crayfish, catfish) and turn them into mineral compounds (bacteria, fungi).

global ecology(study of the biosphere)

The division of general ecology also includes: plant ecology; animal ecology; ecology of microorganisms; aquatic organisms.

Chapter geoecology considers : land ecology; fresh water ecology; sea ecology; ecology of the Far North; ecology of the highlands, etc.

Applied Ecology: industrial (engineering);technological;Agriculture;medical;field;chemical;recreational; geochemical; to nature management.

Human ecology: city ​​ecology; population ecology;

Social ecology: ecology of personality; ecology of humanity; ecology of culture; ethnoecology.

Who introduced the term "ecology" into science?

What is ecology? The term refers to the science that studies the impact of various living organisms and man with his environment. At first, this concept described only the interactions of animals and other living organisms with the so-called inanimate nature. And only later, due to the ever-increasing harmful impact on nature, ecology began to be understood as the protection of nature.

The term "ecology" was first coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel, who lived in the 19th century. At that time there were no such problems with pollution of the entire environment, so the above science was necessary to study the mechanisms of interaction between animate and inanimate nature. Later, this term was somewhat expanded due to global problems with the cleanliness of the environment, so sometimes the term "ecology" is mistakenly used only in connection with environmental issues.

At the moment, it is possible to formulate several options for deciphering such a concept as ecology. In addition to studying all the complex relationships of natural organisms, which Darwin described as conditions for the struggle of all living things for existence, ecology also studies the entire environment, as well as the laws of its existence, which, in principle, is consistent with the conclusions of Haeckel, who introduced the term "ecology" . Another version says that ecology studies the composition of various populations and communities, as well as their functioning in time and space, which has undergone changes as a result of human activity.

Regularities in the interaction of various natural organisms people began to notice in ancient times. But such a science that would be devoted to this did not appear then - all these observations were part of such a scientific direction as philosophy. Ancient people did not divide science into separate areas - a clear division into disciplines appeared much later.

Currently, the term "ecology" is a rather complex discipline associated with other sciences. The basic law of ecology is the postulate that everything in the Earth's biosphere is interconnected. Another law says that nothing can disappear without a trace and nowhere. The third law warns that the natural system is perfect, so one must intervene very carefully, and the fourth states that any intervention in nature will have its consequences.