cultural universals. Sociologists do not exclude its spontaneous outburst Sociologists emphasize that social control can

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Under social control is understood as the whole set of norms that determine human behavior in society, streamline the relationship between people. We have already said above that social control is a special social institution that ensures compliance with norms.
A number of researchers emphasize that social control includes the ways in which society leads citizens to normal behavior.
Social control is carried out in the following forms:
1) coercion;
2) the influence of public opinion;
3) regulation in social institutions;
4) group pressure.
How effective are these forms? As practice shows, far from always coercion, tough police measures applied to the offender contribute to the correction of behavior. It becomes much more effective for a person to make an independent conscious choice of behavior that meets the norms, and to take responsibility for it.
Sociologists emphasize that social control can be effective only if it adheres to the "golden mean" between freedom of choice and responsibility for it. The effectiveness of social control is ensured mainly not due to coercion, but due to the presence of common values that have established themselves among people and the stability of society.
It should also be highlighted internal and external social control.

Under external control science understands the totality of social mechanisms that regulate the activities of people. External control can be formal or informal.. Formal is based on instructions, prescriptions, regulations; informal control is based on the reactions of others and is not formalized.
Internal social control It is carried out by the person himself and represents self-control aimed at coordinating his behavior with accepted norms. Regulation is carried out with the help of guilt, shame. Man's own conscience becomes the law.
Signs of social control:
1) orderliness, categoricalness and formality: social norms are often applied to a person without taking into account his personal characteristics, in other words, a person must accept the norms only because he is a member of this society;
2) connection with sanctions - punishments for violation of norms and rewards for their observance;
3) collective implementation of social control (the system of social control is simply impossible without the existence of a social group and an individual as its member).
Social sanctions
Sanctions can be positive or negative. Positive sanctions represent a reward or encouragement for conforming behavior to socially approved standards. They encourage compliance. Negative sanctions- these are punishments that are aimed at eliminating negative forms of deviant behavior, or at least reducing its likelihood.
Sanctions are also divided into formal and informal . Formal ones come from the state or other official bodies, as well as from the management of firms, organizations, institutions. For example, specially authorized people (leaders, judges) have the right to impose sanctions. The source of informal sanctions are people, society.
Types of sanctions

6.10 Family as a social institution and small group
For a long time it was believed that every nation passed in its development period of matriarchy- the domination of women, which was replaced by patriarchy- male dominance. Now this version is questioned. Anyway, group marriage was supplanted by individual because people understood the importance of family education of children and the need to establish laws on marriage and the family.
Each period of human history leaves its mark on family and marriage relations. The norms and roles of family members, laws, forms and methods of raising children, ideas about the importance of the family in society are changing. One thing remains unchanged - people continue to marry, raise children, maintain relationships with relatives, take care of their parents. Let's try to figure out why, with all the changes and innovations, there is no question of abolishing the family as a form of organization and existence of society.
Family- a group of people connected by marriage or kinship, which ensures the upbringing of children and satisfies other needs (in communication, in understanding, in love, in sexual relations, etc.).
Distinguish two main forms of family organization- matrimonial and related. In a married family The participants in the relationship are the husband, wife and their children. They live separately, have their own household, and are quite independent financially. Relations with other relatives may be more or less close, but in any case there is no strong dependence on them.
With a related organization family life relatives live together with their spouses and children. This tradition is typical for many eastern peoples, who have a special relationship to kinship and their loved ones. In such families, the eldest usually play the main role, and even an adult man must unquestioningly obey his mother. In our country, as a result of an acute housing problem, we can talk about the specific nature of some families, where spouses are forced to live with their parents and relatives, while feeling like a separate family.
Let's define the main tasks of the family in society, and, perhaps, then it will be clearer why the rulers from ancient times to the present day do not forget about this, it would seem, exclusively personal sphere of human life:
1. Marriage regulates gender relations, prevents promiscuity, reduces the number of sexually transmitted diseases. Ultimately, the fidelity of the spouses can significantly limit the spread of the most dangerous disease of our century - AIDS.
2. The birth of children who must be physically and mentally healthy. The importance of this role of the family is also confirmed by the fact that, with all the negative attitudes towards divorce, many peoples allowed it because of the mental disorders of one of the spouses. The future of a group of people is still determined by a high birth rate, and its fall is a wake-up call for society.
3. Formation and education of the younger generation. Folk wisdom says that the real parent is not the one who managed to give birth, but the one who managed to educate. From time to time, people had the idea of public education of children, without the participation of the family. But all attempts to bring them to life were unsuccessful. It is the parents who become the main model of children's behavior. But if they lose their authority, then children begin to imitate street acquaintances. It has long been considered important to maintain respect for the elders in the family, which was recognized as the main condition for a morally stable younger generation.
4. Emotional discharge - every person dreams of receiving love, warmth, affection, care, attention, understanding, sympathy and much more that only a family can give. People who have been deprived of this since childhood often become criminals, are more prone to mental disorders, early death
5. Physical, economic and psychological protection of family members. In most cases, the guilt or shame for a person is shared by close relatives. They stand up for him if necessary. Especially important is psychological support, useful advice in difficult situations.
6. Establishment of close economic relations - maintaining a common economy, communication between relatives and mutual material assistance.
In our country, we can name some of the most pressing issues:
- unresolved housing issue (young families are often forced to live with their parents, numerous domestic conflicts and scandals arise, all this can lead to divorce, and in some cases to a crime - according to statistics, no less people die in family "kitchen" quarrels every year, than at the hands of street bandits);

Lack of means for subsistence (while our country is in a difficult economic situation - high unemployment, it is difficult to find a well-paid job, wage delays are not uncommon, food and medicine prices are quite high);
- insufficient number of playgrounds and hobby groups, the spread of alcoholism and drug addiction (both among parents and children), the deterioration of children's health (as a result of an unfavorable environmental situation, inherited diseases, lack of good conditions at school, the spread of computers and constant viewing television programs - this largely affects the deterioration of vision, malnutrition, lack of sports, etc.);
- a decrease in the authority of parents and adults in general (this happens not only because of material reasons, but also as a result of the inability or unwillingness of spouses to understand the world of their children, to respect their interests and views);
- an increase in the number of divorces (mostly divorces occur due to a frivolous attitude towards marriage), an inability to calmly resolve disagreements that arise (raised tones cannot in any way contribute to reaching agreement), lack of spirituality (in a family where the level of culture is low, there are no established traditions and customs, relations are impoverished by the solution of minor everyday issues, there are no joint trips to the theater, museum or just walks, which, if desired, turn into a small holiday), etc.
Psychologists see the causes of family troubles in a group of factors: 1) super-severe paternal discipline (rudeness, extravagance, misunderstanding), 2) insufficient maternal supervision (indifference, carelessness), 3) insufficient paternal affection, 4) insufficient maternal affection (coldness, hostility), 5) lack of cohesion in the family (scandals, hostility, mutual hostility).
Family Development Trends
Modern family life is undergoing major changes. We called them the main trends in the development of the family. These include:
- equal distribution of rights and responsibilities in the family;
- acceleration and early maturation;
- loss of old traditions, holidays and authority of adult family members;
- an increase in the number of divorces;
- sexual emancipation;
- striving for economic independence from relatives;
- weakening of religious influence;
- decrease in the intensity of communication in the family (small time spent together; TVs and VCRs that replace direct communication).
Let us dwell a little more on the rights of minor children and the duties of parents. The law recognizes as a child a person under the age of 18 years. He has the right to communicate with both parents, grandparents, brothers and sisters, to be protected from parental abuse (he can apply to special guardianship and guardianship authorities, and from the age of 14 to the court), to express his opinion in decisions concerning his family questions, to speak during the trial (from the age of 10, taking into account the opinion of the child is obligatory), to participate in resolving the issue of one's surname (from the age of 10, a surname can be changed only with the consent of the child). From the age of six, a child can make small transactions on his own (for example, buy something in a store, accept gifts, etc.), and from the age of 14, laws define greater freedom of action (personal property appears that a teenager can dispose of freely).
Now let us briefly list the duties of parents, which are often associated with the rights of children: to educate their children, take care of their health (physical, mental, moral and spiritual), ensure that children receive basic general education, choose educational institutions (taking into account the opinion of children), speak in protection of the interests of children, methods of education should exclude neglect, cruel, rude, degrading treatment, insult and exploitation of children.

The family performs certain functions that reflect both the social significance of the family and its individual needs in various areas. In the reproductive sphere, it supports the biological reproduction of society and satisfies the need for children; in educational- carries out socialization, creating their own cultural environment within the framework of the culture of the society; in socio-economic- protects physical health, provides material resources and household services to its members ; in social status- reproduces the social structure and satisfies the needs for social advancement.

Option number 1

1. What concept does the following definition correspond to: “A set of specific functions that a person in a social group must perform”?

socialization

social norm

social mobility

social role

2. Are the following judgments about social norms correct?

A. Social norms reflect the value representations of society.

B. Traditions and customs are varieties of social norms

only A is correct

only B is correct

both statements are correct

both statements are wrong

3. Write down the word missing in the table.

Type of social relationship

Content

social interaction

Sufficiently regular interdependent social actions of subjects directed at each other

Social

Behavior of individuals, groups when their incompatible views collide

4. Name any three "elevators" of vertical social mobility and illustrate each of them with an example.

5. What function of the family does family budget planning illustrate?

reproductive

social control

social status

economic

6. Country Z surveyed students in grades 5 and 9 about their attitudes towards reading books.

The results of the survey (in % of the number of respondents) are presented in the table.

Student responses

students
5th grade

students
9th grade

“I read because teachers and parents require it”

"No one wants to read now"

2. Grade 5 students enjoy reading more than Grade 9 students.

3. Interest in reading is instilled mainly by the media.

4. The conclusion that no one needs reading now is made mainly by poorly performing students.

7. Are the following judgments about interethnic relations correct?

The objective trend in the development of interethnic relations in the modern world is

A. the desire to preserve national identity.

B. expansion of relationships in all spheres of public life.

only A is correct

only B is correct

both statements are correct

both statements are wrong

8. When applying for a job, citizen A. filled out a questionnaire in which she indicated that she was a specialist with a higher education, comes from a family of employees, is married, has two children. Name one prescribed and two achieved statuses of citizen A., which she noted in the questionnaire. On the example of one of the named achieved statuses, indicate the status rights and obligations.

9. The K. family consists of five people. The husband is in business, the wife is

raising children. What additional information will allow us to conclude that this is a family of a patriarchal (traditional) type?

1) K. are hospitable hosts; relatives often stay in their country house.

2) K. - the owner of a company selling flowers

3) K.'s family consists of a husband, wife, two daughters and the husband's mother.

4) The husband decides on the preparation and use of the family budget.

10. Find a concept that generalizes to all the other concepts of the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.

1) Classroom; 2) labor collective; 3) parental family; 4) socialization agent; 5) MEDIA.

11. Name any three bases of social stratification and illustrate each of them with an example.

13. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.

Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.

“Sociologists emphasize that social __________ (A) can only be effective if it adheres to the “golden mean” between freedom of choice and __________ (B) for it. The effectiveness of social control is ensured mainly not due to coercion, but due to the presence of common values that have established themselves among people, and the stability of __________ (B).

It should also distinguish between internal and external social control. External control is understood in science as a set of social __________ (D) that regulate people's activities. External control can be formal or informal. Formal is based on instructions, prescriptions, __________ (D); informal control is based on the reactions of others and is not formalized.

Excessively strong, petty social control, as a rule, leads to negative results. If external control weakens for any reason, a person may generally lose the ability to control his behavior. Therefore, especially in modern society, it is important to form people's internal control, or __________ (E).”

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used one once.

Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

responsibility

society

the control

voluntariness

production

mechanism

initiative

self-control

normative act

The table below lists the letters that represent the missing words. Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.

social norms -

generally recognized or fairly common patterns, rules of human behavior, means of regulating their interaction. They protect social life from chaos and gravity, direct its flow in the right direction. The number of social norms includes moral, legal, political, aesthetic, religious, family, corporate, norms of customs, etc. Law developed much later than other normative systems and mainly on their basis. It has become more rigid and purposeful to regulate economic and other relations. Historically, law arises, as it were, to compensate for the “insufficiency” of morality, which is revealed with the emergence of private property and political power. Subsequently, the norms of law and morality were closely intertwined, interacting with other means of social regulation.<…>Therefore, it is very important to identify the close relationship between law and morality.<…>

Lawyers, by the nature of their activities, study, interpret, apply, first of all, legal norms -

this is their speciality. But to assess the behavior of the subjects of legal relations and the correct resolution of emerging conflicts, they constantly turn to ethical criteria, because morality is the basis of law. Russian jurists invariably emphasized that law is legally formalized morality. Right -

a means of realizing the moral and humanistic ideals of society. Law is inconceivable without lessons of morality, morality, ethics.

V.S. Solovyov, for example, defined law as "a coercive requirement for the implementation of a minimum good and order that does not allow a known manifestation of evil."<…>Law and morality differ in the way they are established. Legal norms are created by the state, and only the state (or with its consent by some public organizations) are canceled, supplemented, changed. In this sense, the state is the political creator of law. Therefore, law expresses not just the will of the people, but its state will and acts not just as a regulator, but as a special, state regulator.

(N.I. Matuzov)

1. Give any two functions of social norms named by the author.

2. Name any five types of social norms listed by the author, and give one example of any two of these norms.

3. Based on the text and knowledge of the social science course, name three differences between legal norms and moral norms.

4. Based on the knowledge of the social science course, name three problems, the settlement of which is possible only with the help of law.

Option number 2

1. Means of encouragement or punishment that encourage people to comply with the norms accepted in society are social

sanctions

regulations

values

traditions

2. Are the following judgments about social mobility correct?

A. Social revolutions increase social mobility.

B. The social mobility of an individual always leads to an increase in his social status.

only A is correct

only B is correct

both statements are correct

both statements are wrong

3. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social control"? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about social control.

4. Based on social science knowledge, personal experience, model a specific situation illustrating negative deviant behavior. Give three examples of informal negative sanctions that are possible in this case.

5. What characterizes a democratic (partner) family?

unquestioning obedience of the younger to the elders

limiting the role of women to housekeeping

voluntary distribution of responsibilities among family members

cohabitation of several generations of relatives

6. In the course of a sociological survey, girls and boys were asked about the need for marriage. Answer options are given in the table (in % of the number of respondents).

Answer options

How necessary is marriage?

Youths

Girls

Very important

71,9

66,4

Not very important

25,8

29,4

Not important

3,2

4,2

What conclusion can be drawn from the data in the table?

Boys and girls are equally frivolous about marriage.

More than half of young men and women consider the issue of marriage not very important.

Most boys and girls are indifferent to marriage.

Boys, to a greater extent than girls, are convinced of the need for marriage.

7. Are the following judgments about socialization correct?

A. Socialization is the process of assimilation of social norms and values.

B. In modern society, the media are one of the most important tools of socialization.

only A is correct

only B is correct

both statements are correct

both statements are wrong

8. Establish a correspondence between examples and types of sanctions: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

EXAMPLES

TYPES OF SANCTIONS

BUT)

demotion

state award

AT)

applause

refusal to shake hands

issuance of a warning by the administration of the enterprise

compliment

formal sanctions

informal sanctions

Write in the table the selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

9. What sign underlies the unification of people in such a social community as the Parisians?

social class

ethnic

demographic

territorial

10. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of "social control".

1) Comment; 2) sanction; 3) social norm; 4) political ideology; 5) condemnation; 6) spiritual culture.

Find two terms that “drop out” of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.

11. Name three characteristics that determine the ethnicity of an individual, and illustrate each of them with an example.

12. You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Socialization of the individual." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

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There are cases when one of the members of the clan violates the rules established in the family, for example, marries a representative of a different social circle, class. In this case, members of his family, clan can declare a “boycott” for him, stop all contacts and communication with him. Examples of the operation of such norms are often found in the works of English writers. The traditions of the clan among the peoples of the Caucasus are extremely important - you cannot offend a guest, refuse him shelter, food, water.

Many norms are formed in labor collectives. For example, a football team that does not like a newly appointed coach will have a negative attitude towards those players who violate the general agreement and follow the instructions of this coach for the game.

Norms that have been established in large social communities, society as a whole, are usually called general rules.

From the point of view of the scope and methods of action, social norms are usually divided as follows:

Moral standards (also called ethical) -- corresponding to people's ideas about good and evil, provided by the power of public opinion, authority.

Legal Regulations -- expressing the will of the state, formulated and enshrined in normative acts issued by the state, provided by the power of state coercion. The rules of law are generally binding.

Political norms -- extending to the relations of personality and power, power and society, relations between states.

Religious prohibitions and regulations distributed among adherents of certain faiths. These norms contain elements of moral and legal norms.

Aesthetic standards -- corresponding ideas that have developed in society about the beautiful and the ugly.

Traditions, customs, rituals, mores, habits can also be divided into a certain group. The main thing in customs and traditions is the transformation into the norm of those patterns of behavior that are repeated many times in society, pass from generation to generation.

are of particular importance to society legal regulations. Therefore, we should dwell on them in more detail. Since ancient times, people believed that the basis of law is a measure of justice and goodness, a measure of a person's freedom in society and his own, human, lack of freedom. It seems to define the frame beyond which, on the one hand, a person cannot go in his actions, and on the other hand, the state, society is limited by the same frame in its impact on the personality of a citizen. Speaking of law, we single out two of its features. First, it is a set of generally binding rules of conduct established or sanctioned by the state and enforced by it. Secondly, the right is something that we own from birth. Rights are individualized, their carriers are people - citizens. In this sense, law is what you and I can do, what we possess, use. This is our opportunity, established and guaranteed by law, to behave in a certain way in relation to society and the state. Understanding the essence and purpose of law begins with the birth of human civilization, the formation of the first states.

Lawyers distinguish the following features of law: First of all, law is the only system of rules of conduct binding on all members of society without exception. Other rules apply to certain groups of people. For example, customs are followed by people, either living in the area where customs are honored, or belonging to a certain class (Cossacks, clergy, merchants), among whom these rules are accepted. Another example can be cited - the charter of a public organization. Its provisions will apply only to members of this organization. If the Charter of the Society for the struggle for sobriety states that its members are forbidden to consume alcoholic beverages, this does not mean that people who are not members of the Society will adhere to this regulation. Religious commandments, rituals, rituals will also differ among representatives of different faiths (religions). Religious and philosophical associations and political parties have their own rituals. All this does not belong to the sphere of general obligatory, to the sphere of law.

Secondly, the right is provided and protected by the state, while all other social norms (morality, customs, religion) can only be supported by the state, or, on the contrary, rejected by it if they conflict with the operation of legal regulations. The very degree of security of the norms also differs. The rules established by public organizations can only be guaranteed and enforced by the power of the opinion of the members of the organization themselves. If they are violated, for example, a member of a political party does not pay the contributions required by the charter or does not comply with the decisions of higher authorities, the state in this case does not intervene in the conflict, remains neutral. The same applies to the non-compliance by believers of the rituals prescribed by religion. Prohibitions, rituals, ordinances are provided only by the power of the opinion of a given religious community, as well as by the church.

Thirdly, the right is established or sanctioned by the state. All other rules either arise spontaneously, in the process of people's life, existing in the form of beliefs, public opinion, morality, customs, traditions, or are developed and adopted by public organizations.

Fourth, the rules of law are necessarily expressed in a clearly defined form, enshrined in laws, court decisions, and decisions of administrative bodies. The norms of law are inherent in internal logic, unity, consistency. All other norms can exist in an unformalized form, not be fixed on paper.

6.8 Deviant behavior, its forms and manifestations

The concept of social control is closely related to the concept deviant behavior . Deviant (deviant) behavior- this is a deviation from the pattern that the norm prescribes. Deviant behavior can be perceived differently by society. Based on this, sociologists distinguish two types of deviant behavior - negative and positive.

Negative deviation -- this is a deviation that implies a low level of skills or such behavior that is associated with a violation of generally accepted norms, a contradiction with socially approved patterns. Such deviations are met with disapproval from society or the use of more serious measures of influence - sanctions.

Positive deviation -- deviation towards the most approved behavior, behavior that does not correspond to the average, mass level, significantly exceeds it. Not every person is able to become an outstanding scientist, artist, to perform a heroic deed. Positive deviation tends to be admired in society.

But both positive and negative deviant behavior is relative, as the norms of societies and social groups differ. For example, in Holland, the use of soft drugs is considered normal. They can be freely purchased at the cafe. Prostitution is also legal in Holland, it is considered an ordinary profession. In most countries, both the sale of soft drugs and prostitution are prohibited by law.

Ideas about compliance with the norm and deviations change in the process of social development. First of all, because the norms themselves change, new laws are adopted. For example, in the Soviet Union, all foreign exchange transactions were prohibited and severely punished by law. In modern Russia, every citizen can freely purchase any currency at an exchange office and obtain permission to export it outside the country. Affects the changing norms in society and fashion, changes in technology and technology, changes in the political system.

Among the types of deviant behavior, sociologists highlight delinquent behavior- Violation of norms that are especially significant for society, which are enshrined in legislation. Delinquent behavior often entails the application of the most severe sanctions, that is, criminal punishment. Delinquent behavior includes drug addiction, alcoholism, crime.

What is the difference between deviation and delinquency? First of all, the degree and sign (plus or minus) of the deviation from the norm.

What are the reasons for the formation of deviant or delinquent behavior? As a rule, deviant behavior is associated with the peculiarities of the process of socialization of a person, his upbringing, education. Children often adopt the way of behavior of parents, relatives, friends. If the parent is a criminal, then the child may develop a propensity to commit crimes.

If a child has not found sufficient understanding in his family, his behavior may also become deviant. In a modern family, even a very wealthy one, little attention is paid to children. Parents nod at the school, teachers, forgetting that their main duty is to raise their child as a full-fledged member of society, an accomplished person who is self-confident and interacts with society.

In adolescence, protest mood, unwillingness to live according to the norms and rules of "ancestors", a kind of "youth rebellion" can lead to deviation.

The cause of deviant behavior can also be a conflict of norms. For example, in a family, a child is surrounded by attention, love of loved ones, care. It is customary in his house to respect elders, to be honest and decent. But he may find himself in a group where other norms and rules have developed, where the right of the strong or the size of the wallet is respected, and not personal qualities or decency. The values instilled in the family clash with those that exist in the group. This can lead to a serious intrapersonal conflict, contribute to deviation.

6.9 Social control

Under social control is understood as the whole set of norms that determine human behavior in society, streamline the relationship between people. We have already said above that social control is a special social institution that ensures compliance with norms.

A number of researchers emphasize that social control includes the ways in which society leads citizens to normal behavior.

Social control is carried out in the following forms:

1) coercion;

2) the influence of public opinion;

3) regulation in social institutions;

4) group pressure.

How effective are these forms? As practice shows, far from always coercion, tough police measures applied to the offender contribute to the correction of behavior. It becomes much more effective for a person to make an independent conscious choice of behavior that meets the norms, and to take responsibility for it.

Sociologists emphasize that social control can be effective only if it adheres to the "golden mean" between freedom of choice and responsibility for it. The effectiveness of social control is ensured mainly not due to coercion, but due to the presence of common values that have established themselves among people and the stability of society.

It should also be highlighted interior and external social control. External control in science is understood as a set of social mechanisms that regulate the activities of people. External control can be formal and informal. Formal is based on instructions, prescriptions, regulations; informal control is based on the reactions of others and is not formalized.

Excessively strong, petty social control, as a rule, leads to negative results. A person can completely lose the initiative and independence in making decisions. Moreover, if external control weakens for any reason, a person may lose the ability to control his behavior altogether. Therefore, especially in modern society, it is important to form internal control or self-control in people.

Internal social control is carried out by the person himself and is self-control aimed at harmonizing his behavior with accepted norms. Regulation is carried out with the help of guilt, shame. Man's own conscience becomes the law.

Signs of social control:

1) orderliness, categoricalness and formality: social norms are often applied to a person without taking into account his personal characteristics, in other words, a person must accept the norms only because he is a member of this society;

2) connection with sanctions - punishments for violation of norms and rewards for their observance;

3) collective implementation of social control (the system of social control is simply impossible without the existence of a social group and an individual as its member).

Social sanctions

Social norms contain enough incentives to follow them. However, in addition to norms, to ensure that approved behavior is followed in society, social sanctions . Social sanctions are understood as means of establishing social norms.

Sanctions can be positive or negative. Positive sanctions represent a reward or encouragement for conforming behavior to socially approved standards. They encourage compliance. Negative sanctions- these are punishments that are aimed at eliminating negative forms of deviant behavior, or at least reducing its likelihood.

Sanctions are also divided into formal and informal. Formal ones come from the state or other official bodies, as well as from the management of firms, organizations, institutions. For example, specially authorized people (leaders, judges) have the right to impose sanctions. The source of informal sanctions are people, society.

Types of sanctions

Sanctions are hard and soft, direct and indirect. An example of a harsh sanction is criminal punishment.

6.10 Family and marriage as social institutions

The history of the art of housing construction in humans goes back thousands of years. The remains of the oldest known dwelling date back nearly two million years. Social relations among people who began to live in separate dwellings could not be herd, they acted in the form of family and clan relations. Scientists are still arguing about what the family was like at the dawn of mankind.

For a long time it was believed that every nation went through a period in its development. matriarchy- the domination of women, which was replaced by patriarchy- male dominance. Now this version is questioned. In any case, group marriage was supplanted by individual marriage, as people realized the importance of family education of children and the need to establish laws on marriage and the family.

Many peoples had their own ideas about family relations and the duties of relatives towards each other. The Old Testament says about the relationship between parents and children: “Honor your father and your mother, so that your days on earth will be long ... Whoever strikes his father or his mother must be put to death.” It also establishes that a woman should not wear men's clothes, and a man should not wear women's clothes, that one should not seek love from someone else's wife. The New Testament proclaims the need for wives to obey their husbands and the requirement for husbands to love their own wives. The Qur'an allows one to marry two, three or four women and requires cheating wives and husbands to be beaten with a hundred strokes.

Particular attention was paid to family life and relations between the sexes in India. The ancient treatise "Kama Sutra" demanded from the future wife the possession of beauty and good breeding, sanity, good physique, good teeth, nails, eyes, hair and ears, and the absence of health complaints. It was also established that a man should have the same qualities that he expects from his bride.

Finally, the Russian “Domostroy” (a 16th-century treatise that dealt with the rules of family life and the upbringing of children) emphasizes the importance of strictness in raising children: “Raise a child in prohibitions, and you will find peace and blessings in him; do not smile at him when playing: you will weaken in a small way - you will suffer in a big one, grieving in the future, as if you will drive splinters into your soul.

Each period of human history leaves its mark on family and marriage relations. The norms and roles of family members, laws, forms and methods of raising children, ideas about the importance of the family in society are changing. One thing remains unchanged - people continue to marry, raise children, maintain relationships with relatives, take care of their parents. Let's try to figure out why, with all the changes and innovations, there is no question of abolishing the family as a form of organization and existence of society.

Family - a group of people connected by marriage or kinship, which ensures the upbringing of children and satisfies other needs (in communication, in understanding, in love, in sexual relations, etc.).

There are two main forms of family organization - marital and related. In a married family, the partners are the husband, wife and their children. They live separately, have their own household, and are quite independent financially. Relations with other relatives may be more or less close, but in any case there is no strong dependence on them.

In kinship organization of family life, relatives live together with their spouses and children. This tradition is typical for many eastern peoples, who have a special relationship to kinship and their loved ones. In such families, the eldest usually play the main role, and even an adult man must unquestioningly obey his mother. In our country, as a result of an acute housing problem, we can talk about the specific nature of some families, where spouses are forced to live with their parents and relatives, while feeling like a separate family.

There are different approaches to creating a family. Previously, it was not customary for most peoples to ask future spouses for consent to marry, and sometimes they saw each other for the first time only at a wedding. Usually the decisive role was played by the parents who selected the “worthy” candidate, and the children could not argue with them, because their position in society and their future life depended on the will of the elders in the family. Sometimes the search for future spouses was entrusted to special people who collected all the information about possible candidates and formed couples at their own peril. In India, the date of birth sometimes played a decisive role - the compatibility of the spouses was determined by the horoscope. A hundred years ago, the wealth of the groom practically predetermined the fate of the girl, and it was not uncommon to see young wives with decrepit old men. Times are changing, and now in most countries laws prohibit forced marriage, although even now the opinion of relatives in many nations is very important and even decisive.

In the ancient world, marriages took place at a surprisingly early age for us, but the average life expectancy then was much shorter. In Mesopotamia, a girl who reached 10 years old was considered fit for marriage, and a boy had to be 13 years old to enter family life. In Rome, the minimum marriageable age was determined by law: for girls - 12 years, for boys - 14 years. Emperor Augustus even issued a decree against celibacy, according to which those who did not marry by the age of 20 could be fined or even expelled from the country. Now the state no longer interferes so much in family relations, but it also understands their importance and significance.

Let's define the main tasks of the family in society, and perhaps then it will be clearer why rulers from ancient times to the present day do not forget about this seemingly exclusively personal sphere of human life:

1. Marriage regulates gender relations, prevents promiscuity, reduces the number of sexually transmitted diseases. Ultimately, the fidelity of the spouses can significantly limit the spread of the most dangerous disease of our century - AIDS.

2. The birth of children who must be physically and mentally healthy. The importance of this role of the family is also confirmed by the fact that, with all the negative attitudes towards divorce, many peoples allowed it because of the mental disorders of one of the spouses. The future of a group of people is still determined by a high birth rate, and its fall is a wake-up call for society.

3. Formation and education of the younger generation. Folk wisdom says that the real parent is not the one who managed to give birth, but the one who managed to educate. From time to time, people had the idea of public education of children, without the participation of the family. But all attempts to bring them to life were unsuccessful. It is the parents who become the main model of children's behavior. But if they lose their authority, then children begin to imitate street acquaintances. It has long been considered important to maintain respect for the elders in the family, which was recognized as the main condition for a morally stable younger generation.

4. Emotional discharge - every person dreams of receiving love, warmth, affection, care, attention, understanding, sympathy and much more that only a family can give. People who have been deprived of this since childhood often become criminals, are more prone to mental disorders, early death

5. Physical, economic and psychological protection of family members. In most cases, the guilt or shame for a person is shared by close relatives. They stand up for him if necessary. Especially important is psychological support, useful advice in difficult situations.

6. Establishment of close economic relations - maintaining a common economy, communication of relatives among themselves and mutual material assistance.

Family relationships in the understanding of people have always been very complex and responsible. In proverbs, sayings, poems, stories, novels, anecdotes and parables, since ancient times, much attention has been paid to the relationship of spouses, the upbringing of children, and the organization of household life. L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "Anna Karenina" used the expression that later became world-famous: "All families are equally happy, each family is unhappy in its own way." Someone may disagree with the statement of the classic, but it is the problem situations in family relationships that more often become known and require help.

In family problems, the people themselves are primarily to blame, although sometimes you really want to shift the blame to your parents, the state, friends, fate, a combination of circumstances, and so on ad infinitum. When entering into marriage, one must be aware that not only happy moments are ahead, but also various difficulties.

In our country, we can name some of the most pressing issues:

The unresolved housing issue (young families are often forced to live with their parents, numerous domestic conflicts and scandals arise, all this can lead to divorce, and in some cases to a crime - according to statistics, no less people die in family "kitchen" quarrels every year, than at the hands of street bandits);

Insufficient number of playgrounds and hobby groups, the spread of alcoholism and drug addiction (both among parents and children), the deterioration of children's health (as a result of an unfavorable environmental situation, hereditary diseases, the lack of good conditions at school, the spread of computers and the constant viewing of television programs - this largely affects the deterioration of vision, malnutrition, lack of sports, etc.);

Reducing the authority of parents and adults in general (this happens not only due to material reasons, but also as a result of the inability or unwillingness of spouses to understand the world of their children, to respect their interests and views);

An increase in the number of divorces (mostly divorces occur due to a frivolous attitude towards marriage), an inability to calmly resolve disagreements that arise (raised tones cannot in any way contribute to reaching agreement), lack of spirituality (in a family where the level of culture is low, there are no established traditions and customs, relationships are impoverished in solving minor everyday issues, there are no joint trips to the theater, museum or just walks, which, if desired, turn into a small holiday), etc.

Psychologists see the causes of family troubles in a group of factors: 1) super-severe paternal discipline (rudeness, extravagance, misunderstanding), 2) insufficient maternal supervision (indifference, carelessness), 3) insufficient paternal affection, 4) insufficient maternal affection (coldness, hostility), 5) lack of cohesion in the family (scandals, hostility, mutual hostility).

Family Development Trends

Modern family life is undergoing major changes. We called them the main trends in the development of the family. These include:

Equal distribution of rights and responsibilities in the family;

Acceleration and early maturation;

Loss of old traditions, holidays and authority of adult family members;

An increase in the number of divorces;

Sexual liberation;

The desire for economic independence from relatives;

Weakening of religious influence;

Decrease in the intensity of communication in the family (small time spent together; TVs and VCRs replacing direct communication).

Let us dwell a little more on the rights of minor children and the duties of parents. The law recognizes a child as a person under the age of 18. He has the right to communicate with both parents, grandparents, brothers and sisters, to be protected from parental abuse (he can apply to special guardianship and guardianship authorities, and from the age of 14 to the court), to express his opinion in decisions concerning him family issues, to speak in court proceedings (from the age of 10, taking into account the opinion of the child is obligatory), to participate in resolving the issue of one's surname (from the age of 10, a surname can be changed only with the consent of the child). From the age of six, a child can make small transactions on his own (for example, buy something in a store, accept gifts, etc.), and from the age of 14, laws define greater freedom of action (personal property appears that a teenager can dispose of freely).

Now let us briefly list the duties of parents, which are often associated with the rights of children: to educate their children, take care of their health (physical, mental, moral and spiritual), ensure that children receive basic general education, choose educational institutions (taking into account the opinion of children), speak in protection of the interests of children, methods of education should exclude neglect, cruel, rude, degrading treatment, insult and exploitation of children.

However, do not forget that parents rarely do not wish their children happiness and kindness. Their impatience is sometimes explained by the desire to achieve good results in education as quickly as possible. What parent wants their children to smoke, drink, use drugs, and commit crimes? Only those who have lost their human appearance are capable of this, and they usually try to deprive them of parental rights.

Of course, the laws listed above are not always followed in a family, because relationships that have been established for centuries are not so easy to change. In our time, you still often meet with the opinion that the lazy parent is the one who does not use the rod when raising children. In response, let's recall the popular saying: "Children punish with shame, not with a thunderstorm and a scourge."

6.11 Demographic and family policy in the Russian Federation

In recent years, demographic and family policy has been considered as an unconditional priority of social policy in the Russian Federation. Demographic policy -- policy in the field of population development, and not only quantitative growth, but also ensuring the quality of human life in our country. Why are the problems of demography and family so acute for the leadership of the country? This is primarily due to the fact that scientists have been defining the situation with demography for many years now as an acute demographic crisis. In Russia, the population is declining, the death rate exceeds the birth rate, and the country does not even provide a simple reproduction of the population. There are several reasons for the demographic crisis in the country. These are the consequences of the two world wars that Russia experienced in the 20th century, the Stalinist genocide, in particular collectivization, which caused the degradation of the countryside, the consequences of the reforms of the early 1990s, when many people fell below the poverty line and could not have children. These are problems with the health of the nation, widespread drunkenness, drug addiction, etc. These problems can and should be addressed comprehensively at the state level.

Here is a fragment from the message of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation on May 10, 2006.

“... And now about the main thing. …About family. And about the most acute problem of modern Russia - about demography. The problems of the country's economic and social development are closely related to a simple question: for whom are we doing all this? ... We have repeatedly raised this topic, but by and large, little has been done. To solve this problem, you need the following.

The first is the reduction in mortality. The second is an effective migration policy. And the third is an increase in the birth rate. ... But no migration will solve our demographic problems if we do not create the proper conditions and incentives for the growth of the birth rate here, in our own country. We will not accept effective programs to support motherhood, childhood, and family support. ... We have laid a good foundation with you, including for solving demographic problems, but even this is unacceptably small, and you know why. The situation in this area is critical. ... I propose a program to stimulate the birth rate ...

…Today we must stimulate the birth of at least a second child. What prevents a young family, a woman from making such a decision, especially when it comes to the second or third child? The answers here are obvious and known. These are low incomes, lack of normal living conditions. This is a doubt in their own ability to provide a future child with a decent level of medical services, quality education, and sometimes a doubt, to be honest, just whether she can feed him. ... Stimulation of the birth rate should include a whole range of measures of administrative, financial, social support for a young family. Let me emphasize that all of the measures I have listed are important, but nothing will work without material support. …Of course, the implementation of the entire above-mentioned plan will require a lot of work and just a lot of money. I ask you to calculate the obligations of the state growing over the years and designate the duration of the program for at least 10 years, bearing in mind that after its expiration the state will have to make a decision based on the economic and demographic situation in the country. And, finally, the funds necessary to start the planned activities should be already provided for in the next year's budget. This mechanism should be launched from January 1, 2007. …In conclusion of this topic, I would like to note that the problem of low birth rate cannot be solved without changing the attitude of the whole society towards the family and its values”.

As we can see, the President unequivocally emphasized the relevance and priority of developing an effective demographic and family policy as a condition for overcoming the crisis state of society. Russia has developed and adopted the National Program of Demographic Policy. We present its fragments.

Priority tasks n national program :

* creating conditions for increasing the birth rate, providing support for families with children;

* improving public health and reducing mortality;

* attraction of Russian and Russian-speaking residents of the republics of the former USSR to immigration to the Russian Federation;

* Improving the balance of settlement of the population of the Russian Federation by region;

* limiting illegal immigration, especially in those regions of the Russian Federation where it can pose a threat to social stability, sovereignty, territorial integrity and national security of the country;

* formation of a system for ensuring the state demographic and family policy.

The conditions without which it is impossible to fully achieve the goals set, but which are beyond the scope of this National Program, are:

* a general increase in the income and well-being of the population, including an increase in the income of low-paid professional groups, the implementation of measures to combat poverty;

* Improving the health care system, strengthening its preventive focus, implementing measures aimed at preventing socially conditioned diseases;

* improvement of the education system;

* improvement of the ecological situation, reduction of risks of impact of adverse environmental factors on humans.

The general expected results laid down in the national program are:

* stopping the decline, stabilizing by 2015 the population of the Russian Federation at a level of at least 140-142 million people, creating conditions for its sustainable growth from 2030;

* increase in life expectancy of the population by maintaining and improving the health and quality of life of the population, reducing premature, especially preventable mortality, primarily in infancy, among adolescents and people of working age; increasing the duration of a healthy (active) life by reducing morbidity, injuries and disability, reducing the level of consumption of alcohol, drugs, and smoking;

* strengthening the social institution of the family, the revival and preservation of domestic spiritual and moral traditions of family relations, family education, the formation of the population's orientation towards expanded demographic reproduction, the improvement of the demographic indicators of the resident population;

* creation of prerequisites for increasing the birth rate by improving the reproductive health of the population and by gradually transitioning from predominantly small to medium-sized families in the reproductive behavior of families.

6.12 Youth as a social group

M youth -- a socio-demographic group, allocated on the basis of a combination of age characteristics, features of social status, due to socio-psychological properties. Youth occupies an important place in the socio-demographic structure and socio-political life of society.

Under the age limits of youth, it is customary to consider the interval from 14 to 30 years. The lower limit is associated with puberty, the end of a general education school, the beginning of vocational training. The upper limit is determined by legal age, completion of vocational training, marriage, achievement of economic independence, the birth of the first child, and this is the age of up to 30 years.

This means that youth, as a demographic category, unites the population within a 16-year age interval. The main social and demographic events in the life cycle of a person fall on the youth age: completion of general education, choice of a profession and obtaining vocational education, beginning of employment, marriage, and the birth of children.

In such a relatively short period of life, young people experience a change in their socio-demographic status several times:

Junior group: adolescents under 18 years of age (students) are dependent on their parents, continue or complete their general or special education and do not have full civil rights (voting, marriage).

Middle group: youth 18-24 years old (students, young workers). Some of them have already separated from their families of origin and live on their own income. At this age, there is an active entry into marriage, the formation of young families, the birth of the first children.

Senior group: young adults aged 25-30 are people who, as a rule, have already made a professional choice, have certain qualifications, some life and professional experience, but young families are characterized by a high level of conflict and breakdown of marriages.

Sociologists often choose the formation of a family as a social sign of the upper limit of the youth age, at which it ends. A family man or a married woman is already, as it were, not young, but quite adult people. And this is right, because the family imposes on a person completely new duties and status powers that go beyond the concept of "youth".

The youth is socially heterogeneous, and its various detachments (workers, peasants, students, urban and rural) have their own specific characteristics. They relate to value orientations, material wealth, image and lifestyle. Young workers start their working life earlier and start a family earlier than the middle class, who study five years at a university and then look for a suitable job for two or three years in order to financially provide for their future family. Therefore, youth ends earlier for some than for others. The age of a young scientist who is allowed to participate in his category in the competition of scientific projects or publications should not exceed 35 years. Thus, social-class criteria have to be added to cultural-historical criteria.

Youth is the time most favorable for choosing a profession and a spouse. Before finding themselves and gaining a foothold in the profession, young people have to try a lot. That is why she often changes jobs and sexual partners. The choice is limited if the financial situation of the young person (or parents) is difficult. He has to fight for the first place that comes across, but not his wife. In this case, the average age of marriage increases. When the economic situation in the country is favorable, unemployment is low, and the number of young people entering the working age is small, people have time to try different professions in a shorter time and gain a foothold in the workplace earlier. If unemployment is high, consolidation occurs later.

The youth and teenage period in the life of every person is a time of tireless experimentation, creative upsurge and professional self-determination. New paths in the development of science and culture were also often blazed by young people.

A. Einstein created the theory of relativity at the age of 25, W. Heisenberg was 24 years old when he, together with N. Bohr, developed the foundations of quantum mechanics. A. Pushkin began to create his quite mature works at a very young age.

A young person both physiologically and psychologically needs the experience of changing activities, hobbies, attachments, expanding the circle of acquaintances. In adulthood and especially old age, nothing of the kind is no longer required. During this period of life, we appreciate old friends, developed habits, homeliness and a comfortable sofa.

The desire to remake the world at one’s own discretion, to make a revolution and fight for social justice, seeing in it a special purpose, is called in psychology messianic complex . It consists in attributing to oneself an important role in the salvation of mankind and is a childhood or age-related disease of the developing spirit.

Each country develops a special youth policy. Its significance is explained by the fact that the future of the country depends on the aspirations and mood of the youth. Let's get acquainted with the main provisions of the Concept of the State Youth Policy of the Russian Federation.

“The need for a special policy towards youth is determined by the specifics of its position in society. Youth is not enough to understand in the traditional sense, only as a future society. It must be assessed as an organic part of modern society, carrying a special, irreplaceable by other social groups, function of responsibility for the preservation and development of our country, for the continuity of its history and culture, the life of the elders and the reproduction of subsequent generations, and ultimately for the survival of peoples. as cultural and historical communities. Young people have their own special functions in society, which cannot be replaced or implemented by any other socio-demographic group.

Young people inherit the achieved level of development of society and, due to their specific position, need to appropriate for themselves the spiritual and material benefits accumulated in society in the form of education, housing, cultural, sports facilities, etc. They immediately perceive as a given the new, developed by their predecessors in science , technology and production, in education and culture, literature and art, in all spheres of human life. Her start in life is at a higher level than that of contemporary adults and the elderly.

At the same time, young people are just entering working and social life, they are not yet fully included, less integrated into the existing socio-economic, ideological, political, family and everyday processes. It is easier for her to perceive critical epochs, but it is precisely they that do not allow her to feel the fullness of social interactions and limit her potential.

Youth is the main subject of family formation and demographic processes.

This creates opportunities for choosing the pace and direction of the entry of young people into state and public life. It is this circumstance that is the basis of its innovative activity, its creative contribution to the development of society.

The younger generation is responsible for the present and future of their state. The responsibility of the young generation is realized on the basis of the development and transformation of the system of values and norms and their implementation in activities that contribute to the revival of Russia.

The conditions for the formation of youth responsibility for the future of the state are: expanding the democratic participation of youth in the development of society; the eradication of poverty and significant socio-economic inequalities; expanding the rights of children and young citizens in the political and economic fields; support for information management, greater visibility and accountability in governance and economic and social decision-making.

The likelihood of implementing a particular concept of Russia's development largely depends on how much it is supported by the younger generation, its creative activity, what is the way of thinking and life of young people. The decrease in the population, and hence the youth, due to the deterioration of the gene pool and the spread of negative phenomena, gives rise to the need to analyze the threshold of these manifestations, after which it becomes impossible to stabilize and develop. A decrease in the population due to the size of the territory, the nature of economic development in the last decade, socio-economic processes in the youth environment, the content of employment of the able-bodied population in the foreseeable future gives rise to the need to analyze Russia's place in the world economy, in the distribution of economic roles. These are not the problems of youth, but the problems of national, state security.”

State youth policy in the Russian Federation is designed to provide:

* the strategic continuity of generations, the preservation and development of national culture, the education among young people of a caring attitude towards the historical and cultural heritage of the peoples of Russia;

* the formation of patriots of Russia, citizens of a legal, democratic state, capable of socialization in a civil society, respecting the rights and freedoms of the individual, using the possibilities of the legal system, possessing high statehood and showing national and religious tolerance, respect for the languages, traditions and cultures of other peoples , tolerance for spiritual opinion, the ability to seek and find meaningful compromises;

* the formation of a culture of peace and interpersonal relations, the rejection of forceful methods of resolving political conflicts within the country, the readiness to defend it from aggression;

*? versatile and timely development of young people, their creative abilities, skills of self-organization, self-realization of the individual, the ability to defend their rights, participate in the activities of public associations;

* the formation of a holistic worldview and a modern scientific worldview, the development of a culture of interethnic relations;

* the formation of positive labor motivation among young citizens, high business activity, successful mastery of the basic principles of professionalization, skills of effective behavior in the labor market;

* the development by young people of various social skills and roles, responsibility for their own well-being and the state of society, the development of a culture of their social behavior, taking into account the openness of society, its informatization, and the growth of the dynamism of changes.

6.13 Ethnic communities

In ancient times, people lived a closed life - each group (genus, tribe) had its own area of \u200b\u200bdwelling, its occupations, special insignia, its own language, its own beliefs. All others were considered enemies, and therefore there were constant clashes. Gradually, the situation changed - tribal unions and other associations of different groups appeared. At the same time, the special features of the former groups remained. Thus, the interaction of ethnic groups appeared.

ethnic group - a group of people who have special ethnic, that is, cultural, linguistic or racial features, who are united by a full or partial common origin and who themselves are aware of their involvement in a common group. Assimilated and perceived ethnic differences - language, culture, religion, racial traits are inherited. As a rule, numerous ethnic groups live in modern states.

A characteristic feature of an ethnic group is that its members classify themselves as a separate group with their own culture, which they strive to preserve in every way. There are 4 mandatory criteria for assigning an individual to a particular ethnic group: self-determination (assigning oneself to an ethnic group, the individual’s own desire to belong to it, classify himself as a member of a group), the presence of family ties, cultural characteristics, the presence of a social organization for internal contacts and for interaction with those around you.

Thus, ethnic group can be characterized as an association of people who have common cultural, linguistic, religious or racial traits, are characterized by a common origin and are aware of their involvement in a single group.

The main feature of such groups is to distinguish themselves from the surrounding people, understanding the characteristics of their culture and striving to preserve it by all means. Most scientists distinguish three main types of ethnic communities that have existed in the history of mankind: tribes , nationalities and nation .

Studying the history of the ancient world, you often heard about clans and tribes. Genus was an association of blood relatives with a common origin, a common place of settlement, a single language, common customs and beliefs.

The next step in bringing people together was play me - the union of several genera. It is the tribes that are historically considered the first ethnic association. Each of them had a special myth about its origin, showing originality and dissimilarity to other tribes. Many traced their ancestry from animal ancestors and tried in every possible way to resemble them - in dances they tried to repeat the habits and movements of sacred animals, painted themselves like tigers, bears or snakes. This emphasized their own position in the world around them. Now there are almost no tribes left in the world - they have survived only in some parts of Africa, on the islands of the Pacific Ocean, in the forests of South America. Their life remains the same as it was thousands of years ago, from generation to generation the ideas of ancestors about the world, traditions, way of life, manners of behavior are passed on. Representatives of these tribes have never seen cities, modern cars, they know nothing about television and cinema. Scientists study the surviving tribes and draw conclusions about what life was like in ancient times.

With the emergence of states, tribes began to turn into nationalities - larger communities with the unity of language, territory, economic and cultural ties. They often formed one state, but they themselves still remained rather disunited, because a subsistence economy dominated, in which each village produced everything necessary for life and had little need to establish trade relations. Not all nationalities were able to survive to this day - the fate of the Scythians, Etruscans, Assyrians, Khazars and many others is mysterious. And yet most of them have become nations and exist in the modern world.

Under nations is understood as a stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common origin, a single culture, living together and close communication with each other. The most important thing in the formation of nations are well-established relationships - economic, political, cultural and interpersonal. Historically, they appeared with the spread of trade relations. Historians attribute the formation of many of the European nations to the 16th-17th centuries. These groups are also characterized by the presence of their own national idea, which is understood as their answers to questions about the origin of the people, the meaning of its existence, its place in the world, relations with neighbors, features of uniqueness and features of the national character.

cultural universals. Sociologists do not exclude its spontaneous outburst Sociologists emphasize that social control can

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