Lexical-syntactic devices. Syntactic means of artistic expressiveness of speech
SYNTAXIC TECHNIQUES OF RHYTHMIZATION IN OLD RUSSIAN WORKS (ON THE EXAMPLE OF "DANIEL'S PRAYER" AND "THE STORY ABOUT SORRY-MAILFACE")
Kalinin Konstantin Andreevich
4th year student, Department of Russian Language and Literature, NISPTR, Russian Federation, Naberezhnye Chelny
Glukhova Olga Petrovna
scientific supervisor, Ph.D. philologist. Sciences, Associate Professor, NISPTR, Russian Federation, Naberezhnye Chelny
This work is devoted to the study of the texts of Old Russian works from the point of view of their rhythmic organization.
As is known, the sense of rhythm was not alien to the ancestors of Russian people in ancient times. One can recall at least Russian epics, historical and everyday songs, fairy tales, proverbs and sayings, etc. Some of these works were sung or sung in a singsong voice. This required a special rhythmic organization of the literary text.
A significant part of the literature of Ancient Russia was also rhythmic. Many researchers of ancient Russian literature noted this property of it. This is especially evident in the works of solemn and instructive eloquence, in the monuments, which are characterized by great emotionality, lyricism, in hagiographic works. Also, the phenomenon of rhythmization is clearly manifested in such ancient Russian works that arose at the junction of the book element and folklore.
The purpose of this work is to analyze and describe the main syntactic methods of rhythmization in Old Russian texts.
The choice of works for analysis is also not accidental. The first work that we chose for analysis, "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener", refers to the end of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century, to the period when book literature came into contact with folklore and new genres began to form at the junction of ancient Russian literature and folklore. Another work, The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, was written in the second half of the 17th century. This is also a literary work created in the traditional style of oral folk poetry. Thus, both works are good material for studying rhythmization techniques.
The methodological basis of our study was the work of D.S. Likhachev, V.V. Vinogradova, V.M. Zhirmunsky, V.V. Kolesova, V.V. Ivanova and others. The material for the study was the tests of ancient Russian works: "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" and "The Tale of Grief-Misfortune."
The novelty of the study lies in the fact that this topic has not been sufficiently studied in the syntactic aspect. V.M. Zhirmunsky wrote about it this way: "The problem of the rhythm of prose still remains unresolved, although Russian theorists of verse have repeatedly raised it." His words, in our opinion, are still relevant today.
The concept of "rhythm" is important for many areas of human knowledge: physics, logic, music, architecture, painting, literature. A special place for the study of rhythm is given in the theory of versification. To create a rhythmically organized poetic work, a special construction of lexical and syntactic material is necessary. As Russian Grammar notes, “the word order in poetic speech is more variable and free compared to prose speech. The same provision, with some degree of caution, can also be attributed to rhythmic prose.
The phenomenon of rhythm also occupies a special place in the study of prose works. The presence of rhythm in some prose works is an obvious phenomenon, noticed by many researchers.
Rhythmic prose in the broadest sense of the word is phonetically organized prose with a perceptible pattern of alternation of certain sound elements (long and short, stressed and unstressed syllables, etc.). It is an integral element of a part of literary texts, it can play a genre, style or semantic function. It can be created by writers consciously or intuitively.
The specially organized rhythm of prose, as V. Zhirmunsky notes, should not be confused with the "natural rhythm" that occurs in speech quite randomly and chaotically. Rhythmic prose, on the other hand, is organized specifically for a special impact on the listener or reader.
This feature of prose is of interest to literary critics and linguists. In Russian literature, the most significant, from the point of view of the rhythmic organization of the text, are the works of I.S. Turgenev, N.V. Gogol, M.V. Lomonosov, N.M. Karamzin, A.S. Pushkin, N.S. Leskova, I.A. Bunina and others.
In Russian science, various theories of rhythm formation were developed by the outstanding poet-theorist A. Bely (“hundred-point” theory), scientists A.M. Peshkovsky (settlement of the number of measures in phonetic sentences), B.V. Tomashevsky (equalizing by the number of syntagmas in prose passages), etc.
V.M. Zhirmunsky, denying the principles of these theories as rhythm-forming, in his article "On Rhythmic Prose" offers his theory of the organization of rhythmic text, based on the artistic ordering of syntactic groups, on the element of repetition and syntactic parallelism. He notes that the rhythmic organization in poetic speech is based not only on the alternation of feet, but also includes the semantic side of the work, syntactic articulation within the framework of a verse, period, stanza, lexical and syntactic parallelism, alliteration, assonance, all kinds of repetitions, internal rhyme and etc. We believe that this approach to the study of this problem is the most successful, since it most fully reflects the principles of organizing a rhythmic prose text. This is also confirmed by our study.
Researchers of Old Russian literature have repeatedly noted the presence of the phenomenon of rhythmization in some works of Old Russian literature. In his article "The principle of rhythmic organization in the works of solemn eloquence of the older period" L.I. Sazonova notes that ancient Russian prose “perhaps is much more rhythmic than modern as a whole. The rhythmic sound of some monuments of ancient Russian literature, and especially such outstanding ones as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of Law and Grace" by Hilarion, "The Prayer of Daniil the Zatochnik", is aesthetically conscious and undoubted.
Poems, in the truest sense of the word, began to appear only in the 17th century. However, the sense of rhythm was not at all alien to ancient Russian authors. The need for verse was satisfied by folklore (Russian fairy tale verse, paradise verse) and church song art (hymnography, penitential verses).
Rhythmic prose in ancient Russian literature reaches its apogee in the style of “weaving words”, which arose under the influence of the “second South Slavic influence”. As the researchers note, the rhythmization of such works is achieved with the help of repetitions and syntactic parallelism.
To analyze the methods of rhythmization in Old Russian texts, we chose two works: "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" and "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune". For convenience, we will accept conditional abbreviations: MDZ and PGZ, respectively.
One of the most important methods for creating rhythm in a text is syntactic parallelism (Greek parallelos - walking beside) is a construction in which several adjacent sentences built with the same syntactic structure are arranged in the same sequence: " chirs and stockings - all taken off, // shirt and trousers - all shriveled"(PGZ). Syntactic parallelism divides a large syntactic construction into several smaller ones that are parallel to each other. Thus, there is a sense of rhythm: " Let us sound the trumpet, brethren, like a golden-forged trumpet, into the understanding of our mind and begin to beat the silver hargans as a message of wisdom, and we will strike the tambourines of our mind, singing in divinely inspired flutes ..."(MDZ). Here, the beginning of each passage begins with a plural future tense verb with words dependent on it, and there is also a repeating conjunction with it. If you look closely at this passage, you will notice that the passages are built according to similar constructions, both semantically and grammatically.
Syntactic parallelism can be combined with repetition: " from the beginning of the human age. // And at the beginning of the perishable age"(PGZ). Prepositional case form of a noun Start manages R.p. the words century, with which the adjective in R.p.
Syntactic parallelism can be combined with inversion: " Poverty tamed my eloquent tongue, / sadness dried up my face and white body» (PGZ): the predicate in this example precedes the subject.
In ancient Russian monuments, there are a huge number of examples of syntactic parallelism, which give the text rhythm: “ Their own bores are bright, the same speeches are honest"(MDZ); " Do not look at my outer, but look at my inner"(MDZ); " I will not drain the sea by half, nor exhaust your house with our possessions"(MDZ); " The fellow made fifty rubles, // he got himself fifty friends"(PGZ); " an angelic name on itself, but a prodigal disposition, hierarchical names on itself, but obscene by custom"(MDZ), etc.
Thus, on the example of two Old Russian texts, we saw the important organizing role of syntactic parallelism in Old Russian texts.
Repetitions also play a huge role in creating rhythm in the Old Russian text.
In the passage " Woe is not a chase for the naked, // yes, no one is attached to the naked, // but to the naked, barefoot to make noise robbery» (PGZ) rhythmization is achieved in parallel with grammatical rhyme by repeating prepositional-case constructions of the word naked: for the naked(T.p.), to the naked(D.p.), naked(D.p.).
The whole phrase can be repeated with a change in one element: “ To be you, grass, cut,// lie to you, grass, cut"(PGZ). This gives the text rhythm and integrity.
A phrase that creates an epiphora can be repeated, with the inclusion of another word in it: “ It is better for us to eat like this, end our belly, than, having perceived the image of an angel, lie to God. Lie bo, speech, peace, and not to God: God cannot lie, nor play on high"(MDZ). This passage combines anaphora with grammatical rhyme ( lie - play).
In addition to words, phrases, whole expressions can be repeated in a slightly modified form: relied // on his brother named' and after seven lines “He hoped for the brother named"(PGZ). This technique creates a rhythmic completeness of a fragment of the Old Russian text.
Repetition can exist not only within a small passage, but the entire work. So in the "Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" twenty-one times at the beginning of large syntactic constructions, consisting of one or more sentences, the phrase " Princes, sir!". This is a vivid example of the author's consistent use of anaphora throughout the entire work.
The repetition of prepositions can also organize the text rhythmically: He went, a good fellow jumped // along the steep, along the red along the bank, // along the yellow sand"(PGZ); " and I will go with you arm in arm under the right"(PGZ), etc. This technique is very common in folk speech.
One of the varieties of repetition is anadiplosis - a kind of repetition, which is a junction (pickup) or repetition of the last word (group of words) of a verse at the beginning of the following: Is my child well in other ports? - // but in other ports there is no price!"(PGZ).
Anaphora and epiphora, which are widely represented in the works we study, are a special kind of repetition.
The use of anaphora creates rhythm in ancient Russian texts: “ Rise, my glory, rise, psalter and harp"(MDZ). In the excerpt" bowed to the Unclean Mountain - // bowed to the Mountain of the damp earth”(PGZ) anaphora creates lexical redundancy, but it is not unjustified verbosity here, but creates a rhythmization of this passage.
Anaphora in the Old Russian text can be combined with another anaphora, together they create a special rhythm of the passage based on parallelism: “ A rich husband is known everywhere and in a foreign city; but the wretched man walks unseen in his own city. A rich husband will speak - they will be silent and his word will be lifted up to the clouds; and the wretched husband will speak, then everyone will exclaim at him"(MDZ).
If syntactic constructions of the same type are repeated (at the beginning of separate parts of the utterance), then a syntactic anaphora appears: “ Don't go, child to feasts and brothers, // don't sit down you are in a bigger place, / / do not drink, child, two spells for one! // More, baby don't go to the eyes of the will, // don't be fooled child, on good red wives ...(PGZ)
Syntactic parallelism can be combined with epiphora: " put them in great misfortune, // allowed great sorrows on them"(PGZ).
Along with the syntactic anaphora, there is also a syntactic epiphora. In the example, at the end of parallel syntactic constructions, a noun is repeated, formed with the suffix ost, standing in the form R.p. and acting in the sentence as a definition with a possessive singular pronoun in the form R.p .: “ Turn the cloud of your mercy to the land of my evilness"(MDZ).
Syntactic parallelism can be combined with both anaphora and epiphora at the same time: “ We'd better to see your foot in the lynette in your house, rather than in black sapoz in the nobleman's yard; we'd better in deryuze serve you, rather than in scarlet in the boyars' yard "(MDZ). This technique of using anaphora and epiphora at the same time is called simplock.
Thus, various repetitions play a huge role in the creation of rhythmic prose in Old Russian texts.
Along with other methods of organizing rhythmic speech, rhyme is of no small importance: it divides the text into certain syntactic constructions and creates the effect of text integrity.
Parallel (grammatical) rhyme is formed by using the words of one part of speech in the same grammatical form: “ from sleep, the young man wakes up, // at that time, the young man looks around"(PGZ). Lexical repetition is also used here, which enhances the rhythm of the passage.
It is necessary to be very careful when determining the grammatical rhyme in the Old Russian text. One of the important conditions for creating a rhyme is the single place of stress in rhyming words. Difficulties may arise in identifying rhymes in Old Russian texts, since it is not always clear where the stress fell in certain words. The development of historical accentology is being carried out, for example, by V.V. Kolesov, but she meets many difficulties and contradictions on her way. One of the main problems is that we cannot hear the sound of the Old Russian text. Thus, it is necessary to be very careful and attentive to the Old Russian texts, in particular, in identifying rhymes.
One can cite a huge number of uses of grammatical rhyme in Old Russian tests: “ but he doesn’t drink, he doesn’t eat, not a teshitza - // and there’s nothing to boast about at the feast"(PGZ); " I am poor in combat, but rich in mind"(MDZ); " and from there, choosing the sweetness of words and copulating wisdom, like sea water in fur"(MDZ); " and I, Woe, passed from them, // but the Unfortunate ones remained in the grave. // Still blazed, I, Woe, attached to others"(PGZ); " genus and tribe will report, // all friends away unlock"(PGZ); " It would be better for me to work with iron than to be with an evil wife"(MDZ), etc.
To enhance expressiveness and create rhyme, words that are very close to each other can rhyme in the text: get rich stva and worse stva do not let me, Lord; having enriched, I will perceive proudly st and buoy st "(MDZ). In this example, words of the same part of speech are rhymed, formed in the same way and standing in the same grammatical form: in the first case, nouns singularia tantum in the form of R.p., formed using the suffix estv (stv) with the meaning of an abstract attribute; in the second - nouns singularia tantum in the form of V.p., formed with the help of the suffix is (awn) with the meaning of an abstract feature or state.
Rhyme can be organized not only at the end of parallel syntactic constructions, but also within them. Thus, an internal grammatical rhyme appears: in the passage " Many are friends with me, stretch ayushche own hands in salto, enjoy ayushche your larynx with bee talent ...» (MDZ) syntactic anaphora creates an internal dactylic grammatical rhyme. A similar scheme is used in the passage " oars yasya sweet drink, cloud asya into the beauty of your garments"(MDZ).
The history of Russian rhyme, as you can see, went from parallel (grammatical) to the emergence of non-grammatical. They began to rhyme not the same grammatical forms of the word, but consonant phonetic combinations. Several such examples can be found in the texts we are studying. In the passages “ Like a pavoloka, dotted with many sholkas"(MDZ); " and his father and mother loved him, // they taught him to teach, to punish, // to instruct him in good deeds"(PGZ); " although you will go into the blue sea as a fish, // and I will go with you arm in arm under my right” (PGZ) the effect of rhythmization is achieved by repeating the same sound combinations at the end of small segments, but not by repeating words of the same grammatical form. And we can talk about the presence of individual cases of the use of rich, non-grammatical rhyme in Old Russian texts.
Thus, rhyme is one of the important rhythm-forming devices in Old Russian texts.
In this work, we analyzed the texts of Old Russian literature from the point of view of their rhythmic organization. Texts of this type are created both in the Old Russian period and in modern Russian literature. After analyzing "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener" and "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune", we have identified the main syntactic methods of rhythmization in them.
First, syntactic parallelism plays an important role in the design of rhythmic prose. Secondly, various repetitions (lexical, anaphora, epiphora, simplex) play an important role in the organization of rhythmic prose. And, finally, rhyme creates the effect of the rhythm of the text, it organizes it into a single whole. Initially, in ancient Russian texts there was a parallel (grammatical) rhyme, the appearance of which is also associated with the technique of syntactic parallelism.
All these syntactic devices, combined with each other, organize the Old Russian text into rhythmic prose.
Bibliography:
- Vinogradov V.V. Selected works. On the language of artistic prose / V.V. Vinogradov. M.: Nauka, 1980. - 360 p.
- Zhirmunsky V.M. Theory of verse / V.M. Zhirmunsky. L.: Soviet writer, 1975. - 664 p.
- Kuskov V.V. History of Old Russian Literature: textbook for universities / V.V. Kuskov. M.: Higher school, 1982. - 296 p.
- Prokofiev N.I. Ancient Russian literature. Reader / N.I. Prokofiev. M.: Enlightenment, 1980. - 399 p.
- Russian grammar. Volume 2. Syntax. M.: Nauka, 1982. - 709 p.
- Sazonova L.I. The principle of rhythmic organization in the works of solemn eloquence of the older period (Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace, Domentian's Praise to St. Simeon and St. Savva) by L.I. Sazonova // TODRL. L .: Nauka, - 1974. - T. 28. - S. 30-46.
For modern oratorical speech, a combination of logical-analytical and emotional-figurative language means is characteristic. The practice of the best speakers shows that a dry business speech, reduced to the transfer of "bare" information in a modern, well-informed audience, as a rule, remains unattended, and often causes boredom and even irritation.
No matter how interesting the topic is, the attention of the audience dulls over time. It must be supported by the following oratory techniques:
Question-answer reception. The speaker raises questions and answers them himself, raises possible doubts and objections, clarifies them and comes to certain conclusions.
The transition from a monologue to a dialogue (controversy) allows you to involve individual participants in the discussion process, thereby activating their interest.
Reception of creation of a problem situation. Listeners are offered a situation that raises the question: "Why?", which stimulates their cognitive activity.
The reception of novelty of information, hypotheses makes the audience assume, reflect.
Reliance on personal experience, opinions that are always interesting to listeners.
Showing the practical significance of information.
Using humor allows you to quickly win over an audience.
A short digression from the topic gives the listeners the opportunity to "rest".
Slowing down with a simultaneous decrease in the strength of the voice can draw attention to the responsible places of the speech (the "quiet voice" technique).
Reception of gradation - an increase in the semantic and emotional significance of the word. Gradation allows you to strengthen, give them emotional expressiveness to a phrase, a formulated thought.
The technique of inversion is a speech turnover, which, as it were, deploys the usual, generally accepted train of thought and expressions to the diametrically opposite one.
Acceptance of an appeal to one's own thoughts.
Among the techniques of oratory, which significantly increase its effectiveness and persuasiveness, lexical techniques should be highlighted. In almost all guides to oratory, among lexical devices, it is recommended to use the so-called paths.
Tropes are speech turns and individual words used in a figurative sense, which allow you to achieve the necessary emotional expressiveness and imagery. Tropes include comparisons, metaphors, epithets, hyperbole, etc.
Comparison is one of the most frequently used techniques, which has great persuasive power, stimulates associative and figurative thinking in the audience, and thus allows the speaker to achieve the desired effect.
Metaphor is the transfer of the name of one object to another, it is the verbal convergence of 2 phenomena by similarity or contrast. For example: "The locomotive of history cannot be stopped..."
An epithet is a figurative definition of an object, a phenomenon that reveals its essence. For example: "A student is not a vessel to be filled with knowledge, but a torch to be lit!.."
Allegory - allegorically depicts something. For example: “Once a passer-by asked the builder: “What are you doing?” He thought and answered: “Don’t you see? I drive stones." The second builder answered the same question: "I earn money!"
Hyperbole is a kind of trope, consisting in a deliberate exaggeration of the properties, qualities of objects and phenomena. For example: "A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper."
An effective means of contact are special words and expressions that provide feedback. These are personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person (I, you, we, we are with you), verbs in the 1st and 2nd person (let's try to understand, make a reservation, note, please, mark for yourself, think, specify, etc.), appeals (dear colleagues, my dears), rhetorical questions (you want to hear my opinion, don't you?). The specificity of oral speech is manifested in the construction of phrases and whole sentences. It is believed that in public speaking, preference should be given to shorter sentences, they are better perceived by ear and remembered. In addition, a short sentence allows for a more variant approach to changing intonation.
Poetic Syntax- a combination of words in a sentence, a syntactic way of forming artistic speech. It is designed to convey the author's intonation, the artist's strengthening of certain feelings and thoughts.
Rhetorical question- this is a poetic turn in which the emotional significance of the statement is emphasized by an interrogative form, although this question does not require an answer.
Rhetorical exclamation- designed to enhance a certain mood.
Rhetorical address- not designed for direct response. Inversion- violation of the usual, natural for a given language, word order.
Syntax parallelism- identical or similar construction of adjacent fragments of a literary text.
Antithesis- reception of opposition. It is actively used in verbal art. Ellipsis- omission of words, the meaning of which is easily restored from the context. Amplification- the technique of stylistic amplification of any emotional manifestation, the technique of "piling up" feelings: a) non-union - the technique of skipping unions between members of a sentence or sentences. b) multi-union - a technique opposite to non-union. The repetition of one union is used, with the help of which the parts of the sentence are connected. c) pleonasm - a method of verbosity, which creates the impression of an excessive accumulation of one sign. d) gradation - a method of gradually increasing meaning.
Anacoluthon- reception of a violation of the syntactic norm. Serves to create the speech of characters in order to convey excitement or satirical portrayal of them as illiterate people.
Often used in art repeat. It happens: simple, anaphora (repetition of a word at the beginning of a phrase or verse), epiphora (repetition of a word at the end of a verse or phrase), anadiplosis (repetition of one or more words at the end of the previous verse and at the beginning of the next), prosapodosis (repetition of a word at the beginning and end of the line), refrain (a verse repeated after each stanza or a certain combination of them).
Poetic phonetics- sound organization of artistic speech. Sound coherence is manifested primarily in the combination of certain sounds. In verbal art, techniques are widely used assonance- repetition of vowel sounds alliteration- repetition of consonants. With the help of sound consistency, poets and writers enhance the pathos - the "tonality" of the artistic content of the work. belongs to the field of phonics. paronymy, or paronomasia- a play on words that sound similar. Artists make extensive use of onomatopoeia. Thus, poetic phonetics plays a certain role in the organization of the artistic whole. The positions of phonics in poetry are especially significant.
30. The concept of "poetic line". Strophic. Solid forms of strophics. Rhyme.
A feature of the genus-genre form of the lyrics is yavl. Verse- a certain way organized sound series, poetic line. This is a unit of division of artistic speech in lyrical works, as well as in works written in poetic form.
Stanza is a group of verses united by a formal feature, and this feature is repeated. The main types of stanzas: European poetry includes an even number of lines - distich, quatrain, octave, odic stanza. Tercet is a stanza consisting of 3 lines. This stanza is included in the sonnet.
solid poetic form possesses the sonnet genre (14 lines). The sonnet consists of 2 quatrains (with two rhymes) and 2 terzets (with two or three rhymes). Historically, 2 types were formed - Italian and French, which differ in rhymes. Although there are quite a few variants of the sonnet: English (4 + 4 + 4 + 2), tailed - with additional terts, headless - devoid of the first quatrain, sonnet with a coda - an additional line, overturned - first terts, then quatrains. The pinnacle of skill is the wreath of sonnets - a cycle of 14 sonnets in which the last verse of each previous poem is repeated as the first verse of the next.
Rhyme is the sound consistency of the end of verses. The classification of rhyme in the syllabic-tonic system of versification is based on the principle of the stressed syllable in the last group of syllables. Rhymes are:
masculine - the stress falls on the last syllable.
feminine - to the previous syllable.
dactylic - on the third syllable from the end of the verse.
hyperdactylic - on the fourth syllable from the end of the verse.
They also distinguish between exact rhymes (coincidence of all sounds - from the last stressed vowel to the end of the verse) and inaccurate (differ in mismatch of vowels).
Rich rhymes are rhymes with the same base vowels and consonants. These are rhymes with a homogeneous grammatical row. Homonymous rhymes are considered rich when, with the same sound and the same (close) spelling, the meaning of the words is different. Tautological rhymes arise when one word or its variant is repeated. Compound rhymes - suggest the phonetic coincidence of one word and another word as part of the first. There are substituted rhymes, approximate, truncated.
There are several types of rhyme:
1.adjacent (aavv)
2.cross (awaw)
3. ring (abba)
There are also mixed rhymes. Since the Middle Ages, a verse has been known that does not have a meter and rhyme - free verse. In Russian culture, this is more often a kind of free white verse - an unrhymed accent verse. It is obvious that free verse is close to a poem in prose. Blank verse is a phenomenon of new European culture; rhymed verse in syllabic and syllabic-tonic versification.
You have probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the way the speech is made. Expressive means make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without the use of special lexical figures, because the speech will sound poor and ugly.
Let's figure out what are the means of expressiveness of the Russian language and where to find them.
Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t go”, the words were chosen with difficulty, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a clear thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are laid in the head with the reading of books. However, only they are not enough to write interesting, colorful and easy. You need to develop your skills through practice.
Just compare the next two columns. On the left - text without means of expression or with a minimum of them. On the right is rich text. These are often found in the literature.
It would seem that three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be painted! The expressive means of language help the viewer to see the picture that you are trying to describe. Using them is an art, but it is not difficult to master it. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to interesting techniques used by the author.
For example, in the paragraph of text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the subject instantly appears bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat commander cat? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. Yes, and there will be no such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly be white, but the reader has long imagined him as gray!
So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, substantiate, draw information and engage the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for written, but also for oral speech. Especially if the speech or text is composed in . However, both there and there means of expression in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of making his way through such a "jungle".
Existing means of expression
There are a lot of such special techniques, and it is unlikely that you know everything about them. To begin with, you do not need to use all the means of expression at once - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but do not be stingy. Then you will achieve the desired effect.
Traditionally, they are divided into several groups:
- phonetic - most often found in poems;
- lexical (tropes);
- stylistic figures.
Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print it out and hang it on the wall to reread it from time to time. That way you can learn them unobtrusively.
Phonetic tricks
The most common phonetic devices are alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that consonants are repeated in the first case, vowels are repeated in the second.
This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. Yes, and poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to “see” the picture.
Suppose we need to describe a swamp. Rustling reeds grow in the swamp. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but it's not enough to complete the picture.
Do you hear, as if silently rustling and hissing reeds? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonants are repeated.
Similarly, with assonance, the repetition of vowels. This one is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. By this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. In explaining what assonance is, the table will help.
Lexical devices (tropes)
Lexical devices are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that often people use them unconsciously. For example, we can say that our heart is lonely. But the heart, in fact, cannot be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help to emphasize the deep meaning of what was said.
The main lexical devices include the following tropes:
- epithet;
- comparison as a means of expressive speech;
- metaphor;
- metonymy;
- irony;
- hyperbole and litote.
Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips in everyone's speech - this means of expression has firmly entered everyday life, so you need to use it wisely.
Metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we don't compare slow death to cigarettes using the word "as if". We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression "dry clouds". Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. The epithet and metaphor often overlap, so it is important not to confuse them when analyzing a text.
Hyperbole and litote are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred fires” is a clear hyperbole. And “quietly, quieter than a stream” is a litote. These phenomena are also firmly embedded in everyday life.
Metonymy and paraphrase are interesting phenomena. Metonymy is an abbreviation of what is said. For example, there is no need to speak of Chekhov's books as "the books that Chekhov wrote." You can use the expression "Chekhov's books", and this will be a metonymy.
A paraphrase is a deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.
Although, with proper skill, tautology can also be a means of expression!
Also, lexical means of expression in speech include:
- archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
- historicisms (lexicon related to a specific historical period);
- neologisms (new vocabulary);
- phraseological units;
- dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.
| means of expression | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Epithet | A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively. | Bloody sky. (Speaks of the sunrise.) |
| Comparison as a means of expressive speech | Comparison of objects with each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa. | Means of expression, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech. |
| Metaphor | "Hidden comparison" or figurative. More complex than a simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used. | Seething anger. (Man gets angry). Sleepy city. (Morning city, which has not yet woken up). |
| Metonymy | Substituting words to shorten a clear sentence or avoid tautology. | I read Chekhov's books (and not "I read books by Chekhov's authorship"). |
| Irony | An expression with the opposite meaning. A hidden laugh. | You are a genius, of course! (Ironically, here "genius" is used in the sense of "stupid"). |
| Hyperbola | Deliberate exaggeration. | Brighter than a thousand lightning bolts. (Dazzling, bright show). |
| Litotes | Deliberate reduction of what was said. | Weak as a mosquito. |
| paraphrase | Substitution of words in order to avoid tautology. The replacement can only be a related word. | The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of animals, etc. |
| Allegory | An abstract concept that helps to reveal the image. Most often - an established designation. | A fox in the meaning of cunning, a wolf in the meaning of strength and rudeness, a turtle in the meaning of slowness or wisdom. |
| personification | The transfer of properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one. | The lantern seemed to sway on a long thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack. |
Stylistic figures
Stylistic figures often contain special grammatical constructions. The most commonly used include:
- anaphora and epiphora;
- compositional joint;
- antithesis;
- oxymoron or paradox;
- inversion;
- parceling;
- ellipsis;
- rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals;
- asyndeton.
Anaphora and epiphora are often referred to as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such methods of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora - the same beginning of several lines, epiphora - the same endings. Most often used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize the drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.
The compositional junction is a deliberate "building up" of the conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The Word helped me become who I am. This technique is called a compositional joint.
Antithesis is the opposition of two antipodes: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Of the interesting techniques, one can note the parcelling, which is used to increase the conflict and change the pace of the story, as well as the ellipsis - the omission of a sentence member. Often used in exclamations, calls.
| means of expression | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Anaphora | The same beginning of several lines. | Let's join hands, brothers. Let's join hands and unite our hearts. Let's take up swords to end the war. |
| Epiphora | Same ending for multiple lines. | I wash it wrong! I look wrong! All wrong! |
| Composite joint | One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it. | I didn't know what to do. To do in order to survive in this storm. |
| Antithesis | opposition | I revived with every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to show drama). |
| Oxymoron | Use of concepts that contradict each other. | Hot ice, peaceful war. |
| Paradox | An expression that does not have a direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning. | The dead man's hot hands were more alive than all the others. Hurry up as slowly as you can. |
| Inversion | Intentional rearrangement of words in a sentence. | I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in this world. |
| Parceling | Breaking words into separate sentences. | He waited. Again. Stooping, weeping. |
| Ellipsis | Intentional omission. | Go ahead, get to work! (Missed the word "take"). |
| gradation | Increase in expression, the use of synonyms according to the degree of increase. | His eyes, cold, unfeeling, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to show drama). |
Features of the use of means of expression
We should not forget that gestures are also used in oral Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than the usual means of expression, but in a skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and bright.
Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into speech as possible. It won't make the word richer, but it will make you feel like you've "put on" too much jewelry and become uninteresting. Means of expression - like a skillfully selected accessory. It happens that you don’t even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.
To enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech, special syntactic constructions are used - the so-called stylistic (or rhetorical) figures.
A stylistic figure is a figure of speech, a syntactic construction used to enhance the expressiveness of an utterance (anaphora, antithesis, inversion, epiphora, ellipsis, rhetorical question, etc.).
|
4. Ellipsis - a stylistic figure, consisting in the omission of any implied member of the sentence |
We villages - into ashes, hailstones - into dust, into swords - sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky) |
|
5. Parceling - dividing the sentence into separate segments (words) |
And again Gulliver. Costs. slouching. (P. Antokolsky) |
|
6. Gradation - a stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of words in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often - decreasing) meaning |
Arriving home, Laevsky and Alexandra Fyodorovna went into their dark, stuffy, boring rooms. (A. Chekhov) I won’t break, I won’t flinch, I won’t get tired, I won’t forgive my enemies a grain. (O. Bergholz) |
|
7. Inversion - the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order (violating the so-called direct order) in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech |
With horror I thought what all this would lead to! And with despair I recognized his power over my soul. (A. Pushkin) |
|
8. Silence - a turn of speech, consisting in the fact that the author deliberately does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader / listener to guess what was not said |
No, I wanted ... perhaps you ... I thought it was time for the master to die. (A. Pushkin) |
|
9. Rhetorical appeal - a stylistic figure consisting in an underlined appeal to someone or something |
Flowers, love, village, idleness, field! I am devoted to you in soul. (A. Pushkin) |
|
10. Rhetorical question - a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the question is posed not in order to get an answer to it, but in order to draw the attention of the reader / listener to a particular phenomenon |
Do you know Ukrainian night? (N. Gogol) Or we argue with Europe new? Has the Russian lost the habit of victories? (A. Pushkin) |
|
11. Polyunion - the intentional use of repeating unions in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech |
Thin rain sown on the forests, and on the fields, and on the wide Dnieper. (N. Gogol) |
|
12. Unionlessness - a stylistic figure, consisting in the intentional omission of connecting unions in order to give dynamism, expressiveness to the described |
Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts, Drum beat, clicks, rattle, The thunder of cannons, the clatter, the neighing, the groan. (A. Pushkin) |
№ 256*.
In these examples, determine the syntactic means of expressiveness of speech.
1) Do I wander along the noisy streets, / Do I enter a crowded temple, / Do I sit among the foolish youths, / I indulge in my dreams. (A. Pushkin) 2) Dear friend, and in this quiet house // Fever beats me. // I can't find a place in a quiet house // Near a peaceful fire! (A. Blok) 3) But you pass - and you don’t look, you meet - and you don’t recognize. (A. Blok) 4) You are in the cabins! You are in the pantries! (V. Mayakovsky) 5) Flerov - he can do everything. And Uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too. (M. Gorky) 6) I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar) 7) The month came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages. (B. Neverov) 8) But listen: if I owe you. I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus. (A. Pushkin) 9) Hush, speakers! Your word, Comrade Mauser! (V. Mayakovsky) 10) Who is not affected by novelty? (A. Chekhov) 11) The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and
thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity. (V. Korolenko) 12) Booths, women, boys, shops, lanterns, palaces, gardens, monasteries flash by. (A. Pushkin)
Final work No. 8
- 1. This offer is a period:
- Place punctuation marks in direct speech and determine which example each scheme corresponds to.
- Replace direct speech with indirect speech.
- Replace indirect speech with direct speech.
- Correct the punctuation error made in the design of direct speech.
- Imagine the text in the form of a dialogue - you will get a poem by N. Gumilyov "Dream (morning chatter)" (quotes and dashes are not intentionally put):
II. Work with text.
Write an essay based on the read text according to a given compositional scheme (problem, comment, author's position, reasoned opinion on the relevance of the problem and agreement / disagreement with the position of the author).
to this department. I climbed not by three or four paved steps, but by hundreds and even thousands of them - unyielding, steep, frozen, from darkness and cold, where I was destined to survive, and others - maybe with a great gift, stronger than me - died. Of these, only a few I myself met in the Gulag Archipelago. Those who have sunk into that abyss already with a literary name are at least known, but how many are unrecognized, never publicly named! And almost no one managed to return. A whole national literature remained there, buried not only without a coffin, but even without underwear, naked, with a tag on its toe.
And today, accompanied by the shadows of the fallen and with bowed head letting myself go ahead to this place of others worthy of earlier, I today - how to guess and express what they wanted to say?
In tedious camp crossings, in a column of prisoners, in the haze of evening frosts with translucent chains of lanterns - more than once came up in our throats that we would like to shout out to the whole world, if the world could hear one of us. Then it seemed very clear: what our lucky messenger would say - and how immediately the world would respond responsibly.
And astonishingly for us, “the whole world” turned out to be completely different from what we expected, as we hoped: living “in the wrong direction”, going “in the wrong direction”, exclaiming on the swampy swamp: “What a charming lawn!” - on concrete neck blocks: “What a sophisticated necklace!” - and where some indestructible tears roll, there others dance to a careless musical.
How did it happen? Why did this abyss widen? Were we insensitive? Is the world insensitive? Or is it - from the difference of languages? Why is it that people are not able to hear each other's speech? Words resonate and flow like water - no taste, no color, no smell. Without a trace.
As I understood this, the composition, meaning and tone of my possible speech changed and changed over the years. My speech today.
(From the Nobel lecture of the Nobel Prize winner A. I. Solzhenitsyn)
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
Self-esteem - what is it: concept, structure, types and levels
Cassandra's Path, or Pasta Adventures War on Earth and Underground