Lexico-grammatical categories of the verb. Linguodidactic description of reflexive verbs in Russian and French
Morphology of the Russian literary language*
VERB
Ranks of verbs
Meaning and forms of the verb
Verbs are words with the meaning of the process, i.e. words expressing the signs they designate as an action (read, chop, go) condition (sick, lie down) or becoming (be young, grow old).
Verbs have a rich system of mutually opposed syntactic forms, the totality of which is called conjugation. Of the syntactic forms, the most characteristic of the verb are those that serve to express the predicate in the sentence, the so-called predicative forms. The presence of these forms makes it possible to oppose the verb to the rest of the speech, which, having no form of predicate, cannot, unlike the verb, themselves act as a predicate in the sentence.
The predicative forms of the verb are expressed by mood forms, which indicate differences in the statement expressed by the predicate in relation to its reality or unreality, possibility (cf. he worked, he works and he would work, work). Predicative forms are opposed attributive forms- participle and participle, which are forms in which the verb acts as a secondary member of the sentence - definitions or circumstances (working, working, working).
Contrasting with each other, predicative and attributive forms are combined in the sense that, while expressing a process, they at the same time indicate that this process belongs to a person or object (cf. he works, you would work, factory-working brother; engineer working in a factory designing a car model etc.). All these forms, i.e. predicative and attributive in their totality, in turn, is opposed by the so-called indefinite form, or infinitive (work), in which there is no indication that the process is related to a person or object. Representing a negative form in its grammatical meaning, the infinitive is neither a predicative nor an attributive form.
In addition to syntactic forms of conjugation, verbs have non-syntactic forms recurrence and irreversibility and forms kind. According to the non-syntactic formal meanings expressed by these forms, verbs are divided into grammatical categories correlative to each other: firstly, into verbs returnable and irrevocable, secondly, on verbs perfect and imperfect species.
The division of verbs into reflexive and irrevocable depends on whether the intransitive meaning of the process is expressed grammatically or not. Reflexive verbs are verbs with a grammatically expressed intransitivity, i.e. they indicate that the process they express is not, and cannot be, reversed to the direct object expressed by the noun in wine. pad. without a preposition, for example: wash, dress, meet, get angry, knock, blacken etc. Unlike them, non-reflexive verbs do not indicate the intransitivity of the process, and therefore they can be both transitive: wash(arms), dress(child) meet(delegation) get angry(father), and intransitive: knock, blacken and etc.
The division of verbs into perfective and imperfective verbs is determined by how they express the course of the process in relation to its completeness. Perfective verbs express the process in its completeness, at the moment the process reaches the limit or result: write, decide, start, get dressed, take a walk etc. Imperfective verbs express the process without indicating its completeness, completeness: write, decide, start, dress, walk etc.
The ways of forming verb forms are extremely diverse. The main grammatical means of their formation are various affixes: prefixes, suffixes, endings. But, in addition, in the formation of verb forms, a change in the stem is used much more widely compared to other parts of speech, expressed in various alternations of phonemes, compare, for example: assigns - assigns, asks - asks, twist - twist, draw - draw, knit - knit, plow - plow, carry - drive, wear - wear etc.
When forming conjugation forms, along with syntactic forms common to the grammatical structure of the Russian language, i.e. forms in which real and formal meanings are expressed in one word, a number of verb forms are formed analytically with the help of special auxiliary particles and words that express the syntactic formal meanings of a given form, while only real and non-syntactic formal meanings are denoted by a conjugated verb. So, for example, the conditional mood is formed (would work), the future tense of imperfective verbs (they will work) and some other forms.
The formation of verb forms basically corresponds to the general inflectional structure of the Russian language. Indeed, the syntactic formal meanings of verbs are indicated not only by affixes, but also by a change in the stem of the word (cf. love'-at - love'u). Affixes usually designate not one, but several formal meanings (cf. I love and love'-at, where the endings indicate the person and number of the verb), finally, the same formal meaning can be expressed by different suffixes (cf. go-ut and shout-at). However, the formation of some forms of the verb is not inflectional, but agglutinative, i.e. they are formed by "gluing", stringing identical single-valued suffixes. Such, for example, is the formation of forms of the imperative mood (cf. learn, learn, learn, learn, learn, learn, learn, learn).
Reflexive and non-reflexive verbs
Depending on the presence or absence of grammatical features in verbs that indicate the intransitivity of the process, verbs in Russian are divided into two categories: reflexive and non-reflexive verbs. In other words, the division of verbs into reflexive and irrevocable is determined by whether or not the very form of the verb indicates that the process it denotes is not reversed, not directed to a direct object, which is expressed by nouns in wine. pad. without a suggestion.
Reflexive verbs are those that, by their form, indicate that the process they designate is not and cannot be reversed to a direct object: appear, return, rush, share, call, knock and others, i.e. reflexive verbs are verbs with a grammatically expressed intransitive.
As opposed to reflexive verbs non-reflexive verbs do not contain in their form grammatical features indicating the intransitivity of the process: wash, return, rush, smoke, call, knock etc. Therefore, these are verbs with grammatically unexpressed intransitiveness.
The opposition of reflexive and non-reflexive verbs to each other, as verbs with expressed and unexpressed intransitivity, corresponds to purely external formal features. Reflexive verbs are characterized by the presence of a special suffix, the so-called reflexive particle -sya, -sya, through which the intransitivity of the process denoted by the verb is expressed: to meet, to meet. On the contrary, non-reflexive verbs do not have a reflexive particle, and at the same time there is no grammatical indication of the intransitivity of the process: meet, knock. Thus, formally reflexive and non-reflexive verbs are opposed to each other, like verbs with a reflexive particle and verbs without a reflexive particle.
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Expressing a process without indicating its intransitiveness, irreflexive verbs can have both transitive and intransitive meanings. This does not contradict their definition as verbs with unexpressed intransitiveness, since the mere absence of grammatical features indicating the intransitive meaning of the process does not mean that the process must necessarily be transitive. Indeed, although some irrevocable verbs have a transitive meaning, others have an intransitive meaning, and therefore they are divided into verbs transitional and intransitive.
The division of irrevocable verbs into transitive and intransitive is based on their meaning. Intransitive verbs express a state, becoming and action that is not and cannot, by its very nature, be directed to a direct object: A lone sail turns white.(M. Lermontov), Blacken huts here and there. (A. Pushkin), Factory chimneys are smoking, Birds are flying, A steamboat is floating on the river, Rifle shots are crackling etc. In contrast, transitive verbs express only an action, and such an action that is directly addressed to a direct object: The old man was fishing with a net, the old woman was spinning her yarn. (A. Pushkin), The people broke the chains of the king.(V. Mayakovsky), I write poetry and, dissatisfied, burn. (N. Nekrasov), Waves with white claws scrape the golden sand.(S. Yesenin), etc. This difference in the meaning of transitive and intransitive verbs is not always sharply manifested, since the action denoted by the transitive verb can be expressed in a distraction from the object to which it is directed, cf .: I write in my room, I read without a lamp.(A. Pushkin), Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts.(A. Pushkin) - and then it approaches the meaning of intransitive verbs. But still, in this case, transitive verbs denote a potentially transitive action.
The meaning of transitive verbs determines the possibility of connecting with them in speech nouns in the accusative case without a preposition denoting a direct object, i.e. the object on which the action is directed. This connection is possible precisely because the verb itself denotes an action directed at an object. In other words, transitive verbs can govern the accusative case of nouns with the meaning of a direct object. Intransitive verbs do not control the accusative case, they do not connect with it, since they do not have the meaning of transitivity. However, if a noun in the accusative case does not denote a direct object, but the duration of an action in time or space, then it can also be used with intransitive verbs: The storm raged all night, The whole summer was bad weather, All the way they walked in silence..
The possibility of forming passive participles in them is also connected with the meaning of transitive verbs: read - readable, read - read, build - built, love - beloved, warm - warmed etc. However, it should be noted that not all transitive verbs have passive participles. More or less regularly, they are formed only in perfective verbs, since they form passive past participles, which are productive forms. Many transitive verbs of the imperfect form, which form only passive participles of the present tense, which are forms of little productive, have no passive participles. On the other hand, although intransitive verbs, as a rule, do not have passive participles, they can be formed in individual intransitive verbs, cf .: threaten - threatened, neglect - neglected, depend - dependent, manage - controlled.
The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs in most cases is not indicated by any grammatical features. One can only note the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs, which are formed from adjectives by means of derivational suffixes -et and -it. By means of a suffix -et intransitive verbs are formed denoting state and becoming (the process of gradual development of a feature), for example: to turn white, to turn black, to turn red, to turn golden and etc.; with the same suffix -it from the same adjectives verbs denoting a transitive action are formed: whiten, blacken, redden, gild etc. Most of the remaining verbal suffixes are used in the same way to form both transitive and intransitive verbs, and therefore they cannot serve as signs of distinguishing between transitive and intransitive verbs. In some cases, with the help of prefixes from intransitive verbs, transitive ones are formed, cf .: walk and go out(sick) sit and serve time(leg) sit out(chair), sit out(chickens), etc. However, intransitive verbs become transitive only with a few prefixes (cf. to come, to walk, to enter, to go; to sit, to sit etc.), and, in addition, many intransitive verbs either rarely combine with prefixes, or, even if they are combined, retain their intransitiveness.
Due to the absence of signs that would indicate the transitive or intransitive meaning of non-reflexive verbs, in casual colloquial speech, intransitive verbs are often used in the meaning of transitive ones, for example: He broke the glass, don't tremble, take a walk baby, I'm sunbathing my feet etc. Although such use is usually perceived as erroneous, incorrect, as a "slip of the tongue", but it clearly indicates the grammatical indistinguishability of transitive and intransitive verbs. It is significant that this kind of "reservation" is impossible with reflexive verbs, as verbs with grammatically expressed intransitiveness.
Meaning and formation of reflexive verbs
All reflexive verbs are intransitive. This is their common grammatical property. Therefore, like other intransitive verbs (irreflexive), they cannot control the accusative case of nouns with the meaning of a direct object and do not form passive participles.
The intransitive meaning of reflexive verbs is grammatically indicated by a special affix, the so-called reflexive particle. This particle, being an inseparable element of the verb, is attached to the end of the word and is preserved in all forms that are formed in reflexive verbs. It comes in two versions - -sya and -ss. In forms of the verb ending in a consonant, the variant is used -sya: wash-sya, washed-sya, wash-sya, wash-sya, my-sya(moj-sya), and in forms ending in a vowel - a variant -s: wash-s, wash-s, wash-s, wash-s, my-s. However, in participles, both in consonantal and in vowel forms, the reflexive particle is always presented in the variant -sya, compare: washable and washable, washable and washing, washing and washed etc. By adding such a particle, reflexive verbs can be formed from both transitive and intransitive non-reflexive verbs.
Attaching a reflexive particle to transitive verbs is a means by which their transitive meaning is eliminated: verbs from transitive become intransitive. At the same time, in addition to eliminating transitivity, the reflexive particle introduces additional meanings into the reflexive verbs formed from transitive verbs, which denote differences in relation to the process to the person or object it defines. These meanings largely depend on the syntactic conditions for the use of reflexive verbs, due to which the same verb in different syntactic contexts can denote different relations of the process to the person or object it defines. The most important of these values are:
common-return value, indicating that the process is designated in abstraction from the object, as occurring in the object itself, as a property, the state of this object: he gets angry, languishes, pouts, rejoices, frightened, the cow butts, the dog bites, the problem is not solved, the matter is easy to wash, dye etc.
self-return value, showing that the action is addressed to the actor himself, who is, as it were, his own object of action: I wash, dress, she puts on makeup, powders, smears, he defends himself etc. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are used with nouns denoting "animate" objects.
mutual value, denoting that the action takes place between two or more actors, each of which, in relation to the other, is the object of the action: they squabble, kiss, fight, meet etc.
passive meaning, denoting that the action is directed from the side of some actor to the object defined by the verb, which, therefore, is the object of the action. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are used mainly with inanimate nouns, and the protagonist in this case is expressed by animate nouns in the instrumental case: the house is painted by painters, the locomotive is controlled by the driver, the problem is solved by the students, the model is designed by engineers etc. It should be noted, however, that such phrases with the instrumental case of the actor are rather artificial book formations and are relatively unused. More commonly, the use of reflexive verbs in a passive sense without indicating the producer of the action, in abstraction from him: Soon the fairy tale is told, but the deed is not soon done, The floors are washed once a week, New cities are built etc., but in this case the passive meaning is not so clearly revealed and may be completely lost, cf.: Problem solved by students and Problem solved(can be solved) Linen is washed by a laundress and Linen doesn't wash well(does not become clean, white), etc.
Joining irrevocable intransitive verbs, the reflexive particle forms reflexive verbs, which for the most part have an impersonal meaning, expressing the process in abstraction both from the object of the action and from the person performing this action. They usually denote various states experienced by a person against his will and desire, and the person himself, experiencing this or that state, can be expressed with an impersonal verb by a noun in the dative case: I can’t sleep, I can’t sit at home, he didn’t work, didn’t walk, I felt sad etc. Most often, such impersonal verbs are used with negation (particle not). A similar kind of reflexive verbs with an impersonal meaning can also be formed from transitive verbs: I think I want to, I can't wait to find out and etc.
Of the other meanings that are introduced by the reflexive particle into reflexive verbs when they are formed from intransitive verbs, an amplifying value should be noted. With this meaning, reflexive verbs are formed from intransitive verbs into -et (-eyut), denoting a continuing state, for example: show red from blush(“to be, to be red”, but not from blush in the meaning of "become red"), turn white from turn white, blacken from turn black etc. This also includes verbs such as: smoke from smoke, brag from brag etc. In these formations, the intransitive meaning, not grammatically expressed in the main verb, is expressed through the reflexive particle -sya, which thus emphasizes and enhances the intransitivity of the process.
In a number of cases, reflexive verbs differ from the corresponding non-reflexive ones not only in the meanings that are usually introduced by the reflexive particle, but also in greater or lesser differences in the very real meaning of the verbs, cf., for example: knock, call and knock, call(“make yourself known by knocking or ringing”), look and look("look at your reflection"), forgive and say goodbye, break and tear("seek"), carry and mess around etc. Many reflexive verbs do not have corresponding irreflexive ones at all: to be afraid, to be proud, to be lazy, to hunt, to hope, to laugh, to doubt, to try, to boast and etc., unwell, gloomy. Some of them have irrevocable verbs only with prefixes: laugh - ridicule, fight - overcome, agree - determine, admire - fall in love with and etc.
Verb types
Depending on how the verb expresses the course of the process in relation to its completeness, verbs in Russian are divided into categories called types. There are two types: perfect and imperfect.
Perfective verbs, denoting a particular process, express it as complete, completed: finish, start, decide, build, push, take a walk etc. In contrast, imperfective verbs express a process without indicating its completeness, cf. with the above verbs: finish, start, decide, build, push, stroll. Due to the absence of an indication of the completeness of the process, imperfective verbs can express this process in its very course, as unfolding in time (he wrote, writes a letter). On the contrary, perfective verbs, expressing the process in its completeness, show this process only at the moment it reaches the limit or result in abstraction from its course. (he wrote, will write a letter). This difference between perfective and imperfective verbs is clearly seen, for example, in negative answers to a question like: "Did you write a letter?" - "No, I didn't write"(the very fact of the action is denied) and "No, I didn't write"(it is not the action that is denied, but its result, that it has achieved its goal), cf. also: write a letter(the impulse is directed to the action itself) and write a letter(the motivation is directed not to the action, but to its result), etc. The verbs of the perfect and imperfect form present a similar difference in meaning in all the forms that they form.
Verbs of the perfect and imperfect types have a number of differences in the formation of conjugation forms. So, perfective verbs form two forms of tense: past (decided, said, pushed) and future(decide, say, push), while imperfective verbs have three forms: past (decided, spoke, pushed), the present (decides, speaks, pushes) and future (will decide, will speak, will push). At the same time, for imperfective verbs, the future tense is formed analytically, by combining the personal form of the auxiliary verb be with the infinitive of the conjugated verb (I will decide, you will decide, will decide), and for perfective verbs, the future tense is a synthetic form that coincides with the present tense form of imperfective verbs, cf. perfect view resh-u, resh-ish, resh-it and imperfect view knock-y, knock-ish, knock-it etc.
Then, imperfective verbs form two forms of real participles: read - reading, reading, while perfective verbs have only one form of the past tense: read - read. There are some other differences in the formation of conjugation forms, but they will be discussed below.
As a rule, each verb belongs to any one form: either perfect or imperfect. However, some verbs in the literary language can be used in the meaning of both types, i.e. sometimes as perfective verbs, sometimes as imperfective. These are, first of all, many borrowed verbs that are introduced into the Russian language with the help of suffixes -ovate, -from-ovate, -ir-ovate, -from-irovat: attack, arrest, organize, mobilize, telegraph, subscribe, requisition, nationalize etc. (for example: “The troops attacked the bridgehead” can mean: “made attacks” and “made an attack”). In addition to them, some non-borrowed verbs have the same indefinite aspectal meaning: bestow, command, influence, marry, execute, confess, use, pass, inherit, spend the night, form, examine, injure, investigate, give birth, combine.
Since all these verbs are used in the sense of both the perfect and imperfect aspects, their personal forms (for example, arrest, organize, order, spend the night etc.) can have the meaning of both the future and the present, cf.: I order you, I order you to do it and I order the ax to sharpen and sharpen, I order the executioner to dress and dress up, I order the big bell to ring. (M. Lermontov) Therefore, in the meaning of the future tense, these verbs use two forms: attacking and I will attack, telegraph and I will telegraph, I will spend the night and I will spend the night etc. However, from some of them the analytical forms of the future tense, i.e. with auxiliary verb be, are not formed: arrest, command, form(can't say: I will arrest, order, form).
The formation of verbs that differ in aspect
Verbs of different kinds, no matter how close in meaning they are, are not forms of the same verb, but different words. A change in the aspectual meaning of verbs occurs when derivatives of verbs are formed from them through prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes and suffixes introduce additional semantic shades into the real lexical meaning of the verb, resulting in derivative verbs with a meaning different from the meaning of the main verb, i.e. the verb they are derived from.
There are 22 verb prefixes in the literary language. Of these, 18: in-, vz-, you-, to-, for-, from-, on-, over-, o- (ob-), from-, re-, over-, under-, at-, pro-, times -, s-, u-- are productive, with the help of which you can again form derivative verbs. The rest of the prefixes are Church Slavonic in origin: air-, bottom-, pre-, pre-,- unproductive; by means of them derivative verbs are no longer formed again.
The meanings of prefixes are very diverse. A common semantic feature of prefixes is that they complicate the real meaning of the verb with various circumstantial signs that limit the process in time and space or indicate the way and degree of manifestation of the process. Different verbs can have different meanings for the same prefix. Compare, for example, the added value that the prefix adds with-, on the one hand, into verbs go, ride, fly and, on the other hand, in verbs walk, ride, fly. From the first verbs are formed: get off, move off, fly off, denoting movement from top to bottom, from the second - verbs: go, go, fly, denoting movement somewhere with a return back ( go to Crimea means "to go and come back"). But the prefix can have a different meaning even when it is attached to the same verb, cf., for example: go to co-op and go down the stairs, go down the mountain and move out of the apartment.
Not all verbs are equally capable of connecting with prefixes. Non-derivative verbs are most easily combined with them. From many such verbs derived verbs are formed with almost any prefix; cf., for example, from the verb to take - to pick up, to pick up, to pick up, to take away, to choose, to recruit, to rob, to select, to sort out, to pick up, to tidy up, to disassemble, to assemble, to remove. On the contrary, other verbs, for example, intransitive, formed from other parts of speech, borrowed verbs, derived verbs, formed from the main ones by means of a suffix -well, or rarely connected with prefixes, or not connected with them at all: turn white, turn into a rage, dominate, rob, arrest, liquidate, knock, go around etc.
To form verbs from the verbs themselves, as already mentioned, in addition to prefixes, suffixes are also used. These are, first, the suffix -well and secondly, synonymous suffixes -iva-t (-yva-t), -a-t, -va-t. The last two are always accented.
With suffix -well usually from verbs denoting a process that can consist of a number of separate acts following one after another, verbs are formed with the meaning of instantaneous, one-time: push - push, jump - jump, prick - prick, gasp - gasp, speculate - speculate etc. Instead of this suffix, the suffix is often used, mainly in oral speech. -anu-th, which has, in general, the same meaning as the suffix -well, but formations with it differ in a shade of rudeness, familiarity: Let's play how he pushes me.
Through suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wa-th from prefixed verbs of the perfect form, verbs of the imperfect form are formed, usually with the meaning of duration. In the modern language, of these three suffixes, only -iva-th and -a-th, the third suffix is unproductive: with its help, formations of this kind no longer occur. Of the productive suffixes, the most common suffix is -ive-be: push out - push out, beat - beat, assign - appropriate, dispossess - dispossess, skip - skip etc. another suffix, -ah, as a productive one, it is currently used exclusively for the formation of verbs from prefixed verbs with an accented suffix -it, For example: to deepen - to deepen, to ground - to ground, to land - to land, to sharpen - to sharpen, to degrade - to degrade etc., but even in this case there may be formations with -iva-th. Unproductive suffix -wa-th occurs mostly in verbs formed from verbs with a non-derivative stem into a vowel, for example: for-du-be - blow-wat, shoe-be - shoe-wat, ass-be - ass-wat, from-sta-be - lag behind, get stuck - get stuck(written get stuck), sing - sing, put on - put on, push - tap - tap, swim - swim, but see also: inspire - inspire, sow - sow, master - master, stun - stun and etc.
With the same suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th and -wa-th from non-prefixed verbs, so-called multiple verbs are also formed, denoting the indefinite repetition of the process, usually the repetition is not in the near past, since these verbs are used mainly in the form of the past tense: He flew to where the raven did not sew bones, We went to my sister to dispel boredom. (N. Nekrasov), I tore at his ears, yes, apparently, not enough. (A.Griboyedov), Here's a sight of mice: we caught and ruff. (I. Krylov), Often I took from the battle what in my opinion should have been rightfully mine. (A. Pushkin) Currently, only the suffix serves as a productive means of forming multiple verbs -iva-th, the other two -a-th and -wow, are unproductive.
Formation of verbs by means of suffixes -iva-th and -a-be sometimes accompanied by an alternation of phonemes in stems. So, when formed by means of a suffix -iva-th in derivative verbs there is a change of vowel about into a vowel a, compare: asks - asks, wears out - wears out, appropriates - appropriates, doubles - doubles. However, such an alternation is not necessary, cf.: outlines, postpones, reconciles etc. For verbs with a suffix -a-th in certain cases the root is a vowel and (s), which in the verb from which the verb is formed on -a-th, correspond to vowels - e(fluent), about or zero sound, cf.: pick up (take away) - pick up, tear off (tear off) - rip off, erase (erase) - wash, dry - dry out, rest - rest, oversleep - wake up, wait - wait, see also: start (start) - start, clamp (clamp) - clamp, take (take) - occupy etc. When forming verbs with suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th from verbs to -it, in which the stem of the present tense ends in a consonant, there is an alternation of consonants. Namely, the consonants in front of these suffixes are replaced: dental - with hissing: twist - twist, clear - clear, plant - plant, taste - eat, immerse - immerse; labial - on combinations of labials with l': flood - flood and to flood, to feed - to feed, to carry out - to carry out, to scatter - to splurge etc. In words of Church Slavonic origin t is replaced by sch, a d- on the railway: turn - turn, illuminate - illuminate, plant - plant, excite - excite.
Prefixes and suffixes, in addition to changing the real meaning of the verb, resulting in a different verb with a different meaning, at the same time change its aspectual meaning. At the same time, the roles of prefixes in changing the form, on the one hand, and suffixes, on the other, are different. Prefixes are the main means of converting imperfective verbs into perfective verbs. The suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wa-th, i.e., therefore, all suffixes serving verbal word formation, except -well, are a means of changing perfective verbs into imperfective verbs. The only exception, therefore, is the suffix -well, which has the same function with prefixes in this respect.
Most of the non-derivative verbs in Russian are imperfective. There are very few non-derivative perfective verbs. These are some monosyllabic verbs: give, child, lie down, fall, sit down, become; a number of verbs in -it: quit, finish, buy, deprive, forgive, let go, decide, step, grab, reveal etc. For all other perfective verbs, even for those for which it is impossible to find corresponding non-derivative verbs, a prefix can be distinguished, and, therefore, these verbs are derivatives. So, for example, the verb get stuck the prefix stands out behind- by matching it with a verb shake up, or for verbs clothe, clothe the prefix stands out about- by comparing them, on the one hand, with verbs having the same prefix with the same meaning: dress, put on, wrap and others, and on the other hand, with such verbs as: draw in, draw in, draw in, draw in etc.
When formed from non-derivative verbs in a certain sequence of derivative verbs, verbs are obtained that differ in appearance:
1. From non-derivative verbs imperfect. species through prefixes are formed verbs perfect. type: push - push, play - beat, draw - paint, stab - stab, mark - mark, graph - graph, get wet – get wet, sing - sing etc. Also perfect. species are obtained verbs, if they are formed with a suffix -well or -anu-th: push - push(or colloquial push), prick - prick, shoot - shoot, play - play(colloquial), etc.
2. From derivative verbs perfect. species with prefixes, you can again form imperfect verbs. species through suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wah-th: push out - push out, beat - beat, paint - paint, stab - stab, note - mark, scribble - scribble, get wet - get wet, sing - sing, blow - blow etc.
3. Finally, in some cases it is possible to imperfect from prefixed verbs. species with suffixes -iva-th, -ah-th, -wa-th re-form verbs perfect. view with attachments on-, re-: push - push, beat - replay.
Thus, the change in the aspectual meaning of verbs can be represented schematically in the form of a chain and a ladder, on the steps of which verbs are successively formed from each other, differing in appearance:
The formation of derivative verbs is not limited to the indicated sequence, but this is where the change in their aspectual meaning ends. With any other way of forming verbs, their appearance remains the same as it was. This follows from the very way of changing the aspectual meaning of verbs. Namely, through suffixes (except -well) perfective verbs change their form to imperfective. Therefore, if these suffixes are attached to verbs imperfect. form, then, naturally, the form of such verbs will remain the same, i.e. derived verbs will be imperfect. the same kind. So, for example, from non-derivative verbs imperfect. species can be formed by the suffix -iva-th (-yva-th) derivative verbs with multiple meanings: push - push, read - read, sit - sit, walk - walk etc. However, the form of verbs does not change: verbs with multiple meanings are imperfect. species, like those from which they are derived. In turn, prefixes (together with the suffix -well) serve as the main means by which the imperfect form of verbs is changed to perfect. Therefore, the form of verbs does not change when prefixes are attached to perfect verbs. kind, for example, to verbs of the 1st stage of verbal production with the suffix -well, compare: push and push, push, push; shout and scream, shout etc.; or to the verbs of the 1st degree, formed by means of prefixes: push out - push out, beat - outplay, outplay and etc.
Not all verbs can form the whole chain of aspectual changes. In non-derivative verbs perfect. In appearance, it begins with a form corresponding to the 1st degree of derivative verbs formed from imperfect verbs. type: quit(st. v.) - 1st stage throw(St. W.), 2nd stage throw(nsv. v.), 3rd stage throw(St. V.). A chain of aspectual changes is also formed in derivative verbs perfect. form formed from nouns or adjectives using prefixes: bazaar– 1st stage squander(St. W.), 2nd stage squander(nsv. v.), 3rd stage squander(St. V.); or: 1st step to land(St. W.), 2nd stage land(nsv. v.), 3rd stage land(St. V.). In this case, therefore, the change in aspect occurs as if the formation of derivative verbs began with a non-existent non-prefixed verb market, land. On the contrary, verbs are imperfect. species formed from nouns and adjectives (with or without prefixes) form a chain of aspectual changes similar to non-derivative verbs imperfect. type: soap - wash(sv. v.) - 1st stage lather(St. W.), 2nd stage lather(NSV. V.). Finally, some verbs may often lack a form corresponding to the 1st stage of verbal production: sing– 2nd stage hum(1st stage sing along- No), dance– 2nd stage dance(verb dance- No), to swallow– 2nd stage swallow (swallow- No), bite– 2nd stage crack open (crack open- No).
Changing the aspectual meaning of verbs of motion
Some features in the formation of species are observed in verbs denoting motion. They form two parallel rows, differing in meaning. Some of them denote a movement made in a certain direction or at a certain time, for example: run, fly, ride. These are the so-called definite movement verbs. They correspond verbs of indefinite motion: run, fly, ride, which denote movement in different directions or movement at different points in time. Verbs of definite and indefinite movement form correlative semantic pairs: run - run, wade - wander, carry - carry, drive - drive, ride - ride, go - walk, roll - roll, climb - climb, fly - fly, carry - wear, swim - swim, crawl - crawl, drag - carry.
When deriving verbs from verbs of a certain movement, as usual, perfect verbs are obtained. type: climb - climb, go - pass etc. The situation is different with verbs of indefinite motion. Derivative verbs formed from most of them by means of prefixes in the same meanings - perfect. species, in others - imperfect. For example: drive- perfect. view: spend(home), I'm driving(to the theatre); imperfect view: spend(time), I'm driving(accounts); fly- perfect. view: fly off(somewhere and back) I will fly(on an airplane); imperfect view: fly off(from the mountain), gonna fly Now(on an airplane) I'm flying by(past Moscow); walk- perfect. view: proceed(everything up and down) I'm going(to a friend) I'm leaving(someone); imperfect view: proceed(from prerequisites), I'm going(from the mountain), getting in(around the corner), going out(from home), etc.
Aspective pairs of verbs
When forming verbs imperfect. species through suffixes -iva-l/-ivaj-ut, -a-l/-aj-ut and -va-l/vaj-ut(i.e. verbs of the 2nd stage of production) from prefixed verbs perfect. type (i.e., verbs of the 1st stage of production), derivative verbs differ from the main ones only in their form, since their real meaning remains essentially the same. Thanks to this, prefixed verbs are perfect. type (1st stage) and the verbs formed from them are imperfect. species (2nd stage) are combined into relative species pairs. Each of these pairs contains verbs that have the same real meaning and differ only in aspectual meaning, cf., for example: push out(St. W.): push out(sv. v.) = beat(st. in): beat(sv. v.) = wash(St. W.): wash(sv. v.) = warm up(St. W.): warm(sv. v.) = get wet(St. W.): get wet(sv. v.) = bake(St. W.): bake(nsv. v.), etc.
The same correlative aspectual pairs are formed by a few in Russian non-derivative verbs perfect. kind<....>, because almost each of them has a corresponding imperfect verb. species with the same real value. So, to non-derivative verbs perfect. view of -it there are corresponding paired verbs in -at, compare: quit(St. W.): throw(sv. v.) = cum(St. W.): finish(sv. v.) = deprive(nsv. v.): deprive(sv. v.) = forgive(St. W.): forgive(sv. v.) = let(St. W.): let(sv. v.) = decide(St. W.): decide(sv. v.) = set foot(St. W.): step(nsv. v.), etc. To monosyllabic non-derivative verbs perfect. kind give, child, lie down, fall, sit down, become imperfective verbs act as paired in appearance. kind give, give, lie down, fall, sit down, become, i.e. to give(St. W.): give(sv. v.) = child(St. W.): do(sv. v.) = lie down(St. W.): go to bed(sv. v.) = mouth(St. W.): fall(sv. v.) = sit down(St. W.): sit down(sv. v.) = become(St. W.): become(NSV. V.).
The specific pairs of verbs are mainly obtained as a result of the formation of imperfect verbs. form from verbs perfect. kind. On the contrary, when forming verbs perfect. form from verbs imperfect. the form of such pairs for the most part does not work. This is due to the fact that in the formation of verbs perfect. species (and they are formed by means of prefixes and suffix -well) not only the aspectual, but also the real meaning of the verbs changes, since prefixes and suffixes -well add additional semantic shades to the real meaning of verbs. Therefore, the verbs are imperfect. species and the verbs formed from them perfect. species differ from each other not only in their appearance, but also in their real meaning, and therefore, they are not combined into species pairs, cf., for example: push(NSV) and push out(st. v.), play(NSV) and beat(st. v.), wash(NSV) and launder(st. v.), warm(NSV) and warm(St. V.); or: push(NSV) and push(st. v.), prick(NSV) and prick(St. V.), etc.
However, in some cases, some prefixes, when attached to the verb, almost or do not change its real meaning at all, so that the verbs are perfect. species with a prefix differ from the corresponding non-prefixed verbs imperfect. species exclusively or mainly by its species. In this case, therefore, the verbs are imperfect. species and the verbs formed from them by means of prefixes perfect. species can form species pairs similar to those indicated above.
Most often they change the aspectual meaning of the verb without changing its real meaning, prefixes s-, po-, o- (about), cf., for example, aspectual pairs consisting of non-derivative verbs imperfect. type and their corresponding derived verbs with a prefix with-: make(nsv. v.): do(St. W.) = sing(nsv. v.): sing(St. W.) = hide(nsv. v.): hide(St. W.) = play(nsv. v.): play(St. W.) = sew(nsv. v.): sew(St. V.) and others; or with attachment in: sink(nsv. v.): drown(St. W.) = turn gray(nsv. v.): turn gray(St. W.) = destroy(nsv. v.): destroy(St. W.) = build(nsv. v.): build(St. W.) = lunch(nsv. v.): have lunch(St. V.) and others; or with attachment o-: numb(nsv. v.): become numb(St. W.) = stall(nsv. v.): go deaf(St. W.) = grow stronger(nsv. v.): get stronger(St. W.) = weaken(nsv. v.): weaken(St. V.), etc. Much less often they form aspectual pairs with non-derivative verbs imperfect. perfective verb form species having some other attachments, for example, the attachment for- (to stir up - to stir up, to mold - to grow moldy), from - (to torment - to torment, to spoil - to spoil), at- (to steal - to steal, to drown - to drown, to sting - to sting), to - (enrage - enrage, boil - boil ), on- (write - write, print - print).
Since all these verbs with prefixes form aspect pairs with non-derivative verbs, imperfect. species, from them, as a rule, derivative verbs imperfect are not formed. type (2nd stage), which would otherwise be simple synonyms for non-derivative verbs imperfect. kind.
In some cases, verbs with completely different roots in the stem are combined into aspect pairs. So, to the verb perfect. kind take the imperfective verb acts as a pair in appearance. kind take(or the obsolete verb used mainly in the clerical language charge). Similar pairs, differing only in form, form verbs: to catch(st. v.) and catch(nsv. v.), put(st. v.) and put(nsv. v.), to tell(st. v.) and speak(NSV. V.).
Differences in the meaning of verb forms are associated with the difference in types in Russian. Due to the presence in the Russian language of a huge number of verbs that differ only in their form, it is possible to express the same process in the entire set of forms with their features in the meaning that are characteristic of perfect verbs. and imperfect. species separately. So, for example, in verbs perfect. There are two forms of tense (decided, decided) and the verbs are imperfect. types - three (decided, decides, will decide), each with its own special connotation in meaning. With the help of verbs that have the same real meaning and differ only in their aspectual meaning, the process denoted by these verbs is expressed with the temporal meanings that the tense forms of verbs of both types have. (decided, decided, decides, decides, will decide). The same can be said about other forms of the verb.
In a number of languages, for example, in some Western European ones, verbs have a significantly larger number of forms, for example, tense forms, than Russian verbs. Due to this, one and the same verb can express a greater number of formal meanings in them. In Russian, as, indeed, in some other Slavic languages, similar (though not identical) meanings are expressed not by the forms of the same verb, but by the forms of different verbs. This is possible due to the fact that in Russian most of the verbs are combined into aspect pairs.
To be continued
* From the book: Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. Essay on the grammar of the Russian literary language. Part I. Phonetics and morphology. Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1945.
The most general meaning of the verb is the meaning of the process, it includes private meanings: actions ( read), states ( turn pale), process ( melt), movements ( fly).
Permanent grammatical features: view, pledge, recurrence, transitivity (manifested in the context). These features are characteristic of all forms of the verb and are actually verbal (as well as the categories of mood and tense). The conjugation type of the verb is also constant.
Non-permanent grammatical features: inclination, and also (if any) time, person, number, gender. These features are not present in all forms of the verb and are manifested differently in different forms. For example, in the past tense, personal forms of the verb do not have a person meaning, but have a category of gender; only participles have a case category. The categories of person, gender and number are not proper-verbal.
All verbal forms (infinitive, personal forms, gerunds, participles) have the characteristics of aspect, voice, reflexivity, transitivity. Personal forms can change by moods, tenses, persons, numbers, in the past tense by gender. The participle (verb-nominal form) can also change by case and gender.
View- a grammatical category that expresses the way an action proceeds. Imperfect verbs indicate actions that occur without indicating their completeness: think, understand, swim, blush. Perfect verbs indicate the limit, limitation of action by the beginning or end. For example, an action with a start symbol: sing, scream, start; completion actions: decide, commit, turn green. Most perfective verbs have prefixes.
The view category is related to the time category. Imperfective verbs have three forms of tense: present, past and future compound: I draw, I draw, I will draw. Perfective verbs have two forms of tense: the future simple and the past: draw, painted.
Groups of verbs by aspect
Most verbs can form species pairs, which differ not in lexical, but only in grammatical meaning of the form. Species pairs are formed using: 1) attachments: did - did; 2) suffixes -yva- / -iva-, -va-, -a-, -nu-, etc.: sow - sow, raise - raise, dry up - dry up; 3) moving the accent: bunkezat - rifling a be , rassspat - scatteringabe; 4) in a suppletive way: take - take, put - put, catch - catch.
Monospective verbs- these are verbs that form only one form, either perfect or only imperfective. They can be prefixed and non-prefixed. Verbs only imperfective form denote repetition, duration, discontinuity, etc.: touch, fight, regret, talk, row. Perfective verbs only denote actions that have a mandatory completion, proceed instantly and have a result: rise, rush, wake up, pass, come to your senses. The reason for the inability to form an aspect pair is the semantics of verbs or morphological structure.
Two aspect verbs- verbs that, with the same graphic shell, can become either perfective verbs or imperfective verbs in the context, without changing their form. Wed: The detachment for a long time and unsuccessfully (what did it do?) Attacked the height. Yesterday the detachment (what did it do?) attacked and captured the height. The following verbs are two-part verbs: injure, execute, marry, marry, say, promise, start, bestow, borrow, telegraph and etc.
transitive verbs called an action directed at an object (object, person). These are the verbs of creation create, weave), destruction ( break, burn), perceptions ( see, feel), emotional attitude to the subject ( be in love, charm), verbs of speech and thought ( to ask, ponder).
There are direct-transitive (proper-transitive) and indirect-transitive verbs. Direct transitional have an addition in the form of the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, build a house or genitive (when denoting a part or when negating, with verbs want, desire): drank tea, bring water, did not read the new newspaper. indirect transitional verbs denote actions directed at an object, but the object can be in the indirect case with a preposition: take care of a sister, help a neighbor, run a business.
Intransitive verbs denote actions that do not go to the subject. Intransitive verbs include verbs denoting: 1) being, existence: to be, to be; 2) moving: walk, swim, ride; 3) physical and mental condition: get sick, get angry, stand; 4) type of activity: to teach, carpentry; 5) demeanor: to be brave, to be young; 6) auditory and visual perception: sparkle, rattle etc. Additions with such verbs can be with prepositions and without prepositions and stand in oblique cases, except for the accusative: flash knowledge, burn in the fire, take off the shelf.
Verbs with the postfix -s / -sya are intransitive.
Among intransitive verbs, a special kind of verbs with the postfix -sya (-s) are distinguished. (Postfix -sya is used after a consonant, postfix -sya is used after a vowel). Such verbs have a category of reflexivity that conveys special semantic meanings. Depending on the meaning, reflexive verbs are represented by several groups:
1) self-recurrent: the action of the subject is directed at himself: wash, comb, tune in, humiliate; these verbs usually can be rebuilt into a construction with a pronoun myself;
2) mutually reciprocal: the actions of several subjects directed at each other, each of which is both the subject and the object of a similar action: make up, meet, kiss;
3) indirectly recurrent: the action is performed by the subject in his own interests: build up(build a house for yourself) fit(pack your things) it is possible to rebuild in constructions with words for yourself, yourself;
4) general return: the action of the subject, closed in the sphere of his state: worry, rejoice, be angry, have fun; worry and some others.
Most reflexive verbs can form a correlative pair without the -sya postfix: knock - knock, smoke - smoke. However, in Russian there are verbs that do not have such correlative pairs, are "only reflexive" and are not used without the postfix -sya: to be afraid, to be proud, to be lazy, to hope, to try etc.
The voice category expresses the relationship between the subject, the action and the object on which the action is performed. Active voice verb indicates that the subject names the subject, who himself performs the action. The student writes a summary. I will spend time on you. Passive voice indicates that the subject names an object that is acted upon by another object, a person: The abstract is written by the student. Time wasted on you.
The passive voice can be expressed: 1) by the postfix -s / -sya: The consequences of the hurricane are being eliminated; 2) forms of passive participles: Problem solved.
They do not have voice forms: 1) all intransitive verbs: go, run etc.; 2) verbs with the postfix -sya that do not have a pair without this postfix: to be afraid to wake up; 3) personal verbs in an impersonal meaning with the postfix -sya: I didn't sleep, I can breathe easily.
Indicative denotes an actual action that has taken place, is taking place or will take place. Verbs in the indicative mood change by tense (they have the forms of the present, past and future tenses).
Subjunctive (conditional) mood denotes an surreal action that can occur under certain conditions or is expected, desired. The forms of the subjunctive mood change only by gender and number: would play in the yard, would repair the car, would read memoirs.
Imperative mood expresses a request, a wish, an order and is expressed by verbs outside the tense forms. Forms of the imperative mood are formed, as a rule, from the basis of the present tense (for imperfective verbs) or the future tense (for perfective verbs). There is no first person singular in imperative mood verbs, plural forms with a call to perform a joint action - read or let's read are homonymous with the present tense forms. The most common are verbs in the form of the 2nd and 3rd person, singular and plural. The 2nd person singular forms have two types of endings: -i or null ending: write and readØ. Forms of the 2nd person plural are formed by adding the postfix -te to the singular form: write-and-those, read-Ø-te. When forming forms of the imperative mood, some verbs have an alternation in the root: in and t - in e y, w and t - sh e th. Forms of the 3rd person singular and plural are formed with the help of particles let, let: let them read, let them read. A special analytical form of the imperative mood is formed using the particle let's (let's) and the imperfect infinitive with the meaning of a call to joint action: let's read, let's decide.
A number of verbs in the formation of forms of the imperative mood have features: 1) alternation and / e in the roots of verbs like beat, drink, sew – beat, drink, shay; 2) preservation of the suffix -va-, which is absent in the present tense, but is in the infinitive: give - give - come on, get up - get up - get up; 3) at the verb lie down imperative form lie down; 4) at the verb drive suppletive imperative go.
In some verbs, the imperative mood forms are either not formed at all or are not used: see, hear, want, feel sick.
In Russian, the forms of some moods can be used in the meaning of others: Would you work today(subjunctive in the imperative sense). Come back on time - nothing would happen(imperative mood in the meaning of the subjunctive). In the meaning of the subjunctive mood, the infinitive can be used: Learn you.
Time category – This is an inflectional category denoting the correlation of the action to the moment of speech. The present tense is the action at the moment of speech, the past tense is the action preceding the moment of speech, the future tense is the action that will take place after the moment of speech. The forms of the present and future tense do not have a special grammatical design, the forms of the past tense are expressed by the suffix -l- or a zero suffix in the same meaning: read-l , brought-Ø . Only imperfective verbs have the present tense. The future tense of imperfective verbs is formed with the help of the auxiliary verb to be: I will read, you will read, will read(complex form). If there are several future tense verbs in a sentence, then the auxiliary verb is usually used once: I will sing and dance. Perfective verbs have a simple form of the future tense: read, read, read.
In speech, verbs of one tense can be used in the meaning of another : Let's go to sea tomorrow(form of the present tense in the meaning of the future). So I believed you(form of the past tense in the meaning of the future).
Person category indicates the producer of the action in relation to the speaker. The first person singular (I) shows that the speaker is the subject of the action; first person plural (we) – speaker and others. The second person singular (you) shows that the subject of the action is the interlocutor; in the plural (you) - the interlocutor and others. The third person singular (he, she, it) shows that the subject of the action is someone not participating in the dialogue; in the plural (they) - someone not participating in the dialogue, and others.
In addition to the indicated meanings of personal forms, in modern Russian the following are used: 1) forms of the 1st person plural in the meaning of "author's we" instead of "I" in a scientific style: we consider this fact, we have made an experiment; 2) forms of the 1st person plural in the meaning of the 2nd person to express complicity in emotionally expressive speech: how do we feel?; 3) forms of the 2nd person plural are used to express politeness: you told us.
Formal indicators of the category of a person are personal endings: -u (-u), -em (-im), -esh (-ish), -ete (-ite), -ut (-yut), -at (-yat).
The category of face is related to the categories of tense and mood. Only present and future verbs of the indicative and imperative mood have forms of the face. The category of person is absent for past tense verbs and subjunctive verbs.
Some verbs in Russian do not have all forms of the person, i.e. are inadequate. Verbs do not have 1st person forms to dare, to win, to find oneself, to be weird. There are no forms of the 1st and 2nd person of verbs calve, foal, grow, bud, get closer, appear. Along with “insufficient” verbs in Russian, there are verbs that have not one, but two systems of personal forms, i.e. are redundant: squirt - splatter / squirt, torment - torment / torment, squirt - squirt / squirt. There is usually either a semantic or stylistic difference between these forms. You splatter - you squirt, splatter; spray - spray. Curling (colloquial); cooing (neutral).
Impersonal verbs
Verbs that do not have face forms and denote actions or states that occur on their own, without a subject, are called impersonal. Impersonal verbs do not change by person, number, or gender. They can be used in the infinitive, indicative (past, present and future) and subjunctive. Can be with postfix -sya and without postfix. With impersonal verbs, it is impossible to use the subject: Soon it will start to light up. It's getting dark. It was evening. It would chill.
Some personal verbs in Russian can be used in the meaning of impersonal ones: The forest is getting dark(personal verb). It gets dark early in winter(personal verb in impersonal meaning). Impersonal verbs and personal verbs in an impersonal meaning denote: 1) natural phenomena: rains, it's getting dark; 2) human condition: feverish, chill; 3) sensations, feelings: I'm out of luck; 4) being: there was no time; 5) duty: do not be sad.
Genus category denotes the characteristic of the gender of the noun or pronoun with which the verb coordinates or agrees. In the absence of a subject of action, the gender form indicates the gender of a possible subject of action: The sun was shining. The grass was green. The cloud floated. Would come today. The neuter gender can also indicate the impersonality of the verb: It was evening.
Not all verb forms have a gender category. The masculine, feminine, or neuter genders are present in the singular past tense of the indicative mood, in the singular of the conditional mood, and in all participial forms.
Number indicates the singularity or plurality of the subject performing the actions, while the meaning of the action does not change: The student has arrived. The students came. This morphological characteristic is inherent in all personal verb forms. There are no number forms for the infinitive and participle. The plural of the verb in a one-part sentence indicates the indeterminacy of the subject: There's a knock on the door. A single number can indicate impersonality: I'm shivering.
The relationship of verb categories
1. Appearance and tense: perfective verbs have two tense forms (there are no present tense forms), the future tense form is simple. Imperfective verbs have three tense forms (there is a present tense form), the future tense form is complex.
2. Time and mood: verbs change in tense only in the indicative mood, and in the imperative and conditional moods there is no morphological characteristic of time.
3. Person and gender: these categories of the verb are mutually exclusive and cannot be represented in the same form. The category of the person is in the forms of the verb in the present and future tense of the indicative mood and in the forms of the verb of the imperative mood, and the gender is in the forms of the verb in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the forms of the conditional mood.
4. Transitivity and reflexivity: reflexive verbs are intransitive.
5. Transitivity and voice: passive constructions are formed only from direct transitive verbs. Transitive verbs are generally capable of forming passive voice forms.
To describe the grammatical properties of a verb, it is important to distinguish between the following lexical and grammatical categories: full-significant and non-full-significant verbs, actional and non-actional, transitive and intransitive, reflexive and non-reflexive verbs.
The system of lexical and grammatical categories of the verb also includes the opposition of verbs according to the methods of verbal action (and, first of all, limiting and unlimiting verbs).
One of the most significant features is the role of the verb in the construction of the sentence; on this basis, fully significant and non-significant verbs are contrasted.
Incomplete verbs are also called auxiliary verbs, since they are not themselves members of a sentence. Within the framework of this category, G. A. Zolotova is opposed to: connective verbs that are used in the formation of a compound nominal predicate (to be, appear, become, become); modal verbs (want, wish, be able); phase verbs denoting the phase of the action (begin / begin, continue / continue, finish / finish); compensatory verbs that fill in the sentence for the missing grammatical semantic elements during syntactic derivation (in the examples below, the members of the word-formation pair are separated, and compensatory verbs are in bold): Apples are being picked in the garden -> apples are being picked; Athletes brought the banner to the stadium -> carried out the removal of the banner; The girl is beautiful -» differs in beauty.
Fully significant verbs are independent members of the sentence: Oh, if you
we saw how she suffers in the struggle with herself ... but I know her ... a few more days ... and she will perish! (M. Lermontov). The part-verbal verbal meaning of the procedural attribute of an object is realized for full-significant verbs in several typical varieties, each of which is the basis for the allocation of special lexical and grammatical groups, or subcategories: 'action' (work, go, sing), 'state' (lie down, sleep) , 'process* (grow, decrease), 'relationship' (love, belong), 'procedural property' (nettle burns; angry dog bites; machine does not work , i.e., 'spoiled'), 'being, or existence' (to exist, to be 'to exist', to exist, etc.).
Verbs with the meaning of action (run, build, explore, read, marry, fight) are called actional (from Latin actio ‘activity, action, activity’), all other full-significant verbs are classified as non-actional. The distinction between actional and non-actional verbs is important, for example, when studying the category of verb aspect.
Ways of verbal action (SGD) are lexicogrammatic categories of verbs that differ from each other in the nature of the representation of a procedural feature (actional or non-actional).
The classification of SRS is multifaceted, some SRSs intersect with others. First of all, SRS with proper nominative and with expressive semantic characteristics are contrasted. Within the framework of the SRS of the first group, it is especially important for the functioning of the verb, especially its aspectual system, to distinguish between limiting and indefinite verbs.
Limit verbs denote an action that tends to reach its inner limit as a certain critical point; upon reaching the limit, the action stops, having exhausted itself: The teacher read Yesenin's poems by heart throughout the lesson and read a lot of them; Water flowed from the broken jar and after a few minutes it all flowed out. At the same time, limiting imperfective verbs denote the desire to achieve the limit, and perfective verbs - the very achievement of this limit. Only limit verbs are capable of forming aspectual pairs: do - do, tell - tell.
Unlimited verbs that are unable to express the desire to achieve the limit in the indicated sense (to hang, have fun, sleep, etc.) do not form aspect pairs.
The next basis for the classification of SRS is the distinction between temporary and quantitative (multiple) SRS.
Temporary SRS specify the nature of the course of action in time:
1) the initial SRS contains an indication of the beginning of the action: sing, go, hate, flare up;
2) the final SHD expresses the meaning of the completion of the action: to do, to be exhausted, to finish eating, to thunder;
3) restrictive SRS is associated with the designation of limitation of action by time limits: talk, visit, sit;
4) long-term restrictive SRS expresses the completion of a long-term action: lie down, spend the winter;
5) long-distributive SHD contains an indication of a slowly flowing, unhurried action: to think, to walk around.
Quantitative (multiple) SRS:
1) a single SRS calls a one-time, usually instantaneous action: jump, chop, fool, go;
2) multiple SRS is associated with the designation of an action performed many times: walk, talk, sing;
3) distributive (distributive) SRS expresses an indication of an action emanating from many subjects or directed at several objects: jump, renumber, bite;
4) multiple-distributive SRS includes verbs that indicate the mutual multiple action of many subjects: to talk, to laugh.
Expressive SRS express, in addition to nominative meanings, the speaker's subjective assessment of the intensity of the action:
1) the verbs of the diminutive-softening SHD contain in their meaning an indication of a small intensity, moderation of action: get sick, lie, lie down, sit down, scare;
2) long-term mitigating SHD is associated with the expression of the duration of a weakened (non-intensive) action: lie down, get sick, make fun;
3) intermittent emollient SHD has a derivational meaning ‘from time to time with little intensity to perform an action called a generating verb’: whistle, joke;
4) the accompanying mitigating SRS expresses an indication of an action that is regarded as a side effect in relation to another action: sing along, sentence;
5) intensively effective SRS includes verbs that are united by the meaning of the completeness and exhaustion of the action: scrape, inquire, spoil, beat, feed;
6) intensive-multiple SRS is associated with the designation of actions performed intensively and repeatedly: to whip, to dance.
Regardless of their relation to the lexico-grammatical categories discussed above, all verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive, reflexive and non-reflexive.
Transitivity / intransitivity is a grammatical feature of verbs, which consists in the possibility or impossibility of subordinating by the verb a strongly controlled substantive non-prepositional form of the accusative case (and with verbs with negation - the genitive case forms) with an objective meaning: to love milk, not to love milk; write a monograph, do not write a monograph. Verbs characterized by grammatical transitivity form the lexico-grammatical category of n e - transitive verbs.
All verbs that do not have the property of transitivity constitute the category of intransitive verbs. These include the so-called indirect transitive verbs, in which an object distributor is possible, expressed not by the form of the accusative or genitive case without a preposition, but by other case forms or prepositional case constructions: trust a friend, believe in a friend, head a department, work on a dissertation .
One and the same verb in its different meanings can be characterized either by grammatical transitivity or by intransitivity; cf .: He writes stories, translates articles from French (transitive verbs). - He writes well, translates (A. Griboedov); in the last example, the verbs write ‘to engage in literary activity, creation of literary works’ and translate ‘to transmit text, speech by means of another language’ do not imply an object distributor, being intransitive verbs.
Transitivity / intransitivity of a verb not only characterizes the lexical meaning and grammatical compatibility of the verb, but is also reflected in the features of its inflection. For transitive verbs, the possibility of forming forms of the passive voice is noted: The monograph was written by a famous scientist; a book loved by many. Intransitive verbs are monosyllabic and do not have passive forms.
Reflexivity/non-recurrence is another basis for classifying the lexico-grammatical categories of the verb.
Reflexive verbs are intransitive verbs, the basis of which includes the non-inflective postfix -sya: study, call back, pounce. All other verbs are irrevocable: teach, call, sing.
Most reflexive verbs are formed by means of the postfix -sya from the corresponding irrevocable verbs: prepare - prepare, take - take. Often, along with postfixes, prefixes are involved in the formation of reflexive verbs: lie down - lie down, read - read. Only some reflexive verbs do not have corresponding irreflexive verbs: laugh, smile.
The reflexive derivational postfix -sya can indicate various relations of actions to its subject or object. According to the nature of such relations within the framework of the lexical and grammatical category of reflexive verbs, the following semantic and derivational groups have been distinguished:
1) proper reflexive verbs indicating the coincidence of the subject and object of the action: dress up ‘dress yourself’, shave, wash, comb your hair, etc .; a variation of this group are the so-called secondary-reflexive verbs of the type to take, to take, to cling to (by the hand); knock, rub, hurt (on a tree); these verbs are called actions with a partial coincidence of the subject and object, involving the concretization of that part of the subject that is affected: hold on (for something), hit (h e m);
2) indirectly reflexive verbs that name the actions performed by the subject in their own interests: build ‘build a house for themselves’ (By spring, the neighbor began to build), coll. pack up ‘pack your things, usually on the road’, get out ‘clean up your home’, etc.;
3) general reflexive verbs denoting the objectless state of the subject: worry, have fun, rejoice, get angry, worry, etc.;
4) reciprocal reflexive verbs that name the mutual actions of several subjects who are simultaneously the objects of these actions: meet, make peace, hug, talk, quarrel, kiss, etc .;
5) potentially active reflexive verbs such as butting, biting, scratching, naming the potential active sign of the subject: nettle burns ‘can hurt anyone who comes into contact with it’;
6) reflexive verbs of a qualitatively characterizing “passive” meaning: threads are torn ‘they can be easily torn’, glass breaks.
The derivational postfix -sya in any of its meanings is an additional formal indicator of the intransitiveness of the verb: smile, worry, etc. (there are no reflexive transitive verbs).
From reflexive verbs as a special lexico-grammatical category of words, it is necessary to distinguish homonymous grammatical forms of the passive voice; cf .: The hotel is being built by Stroyinvest, where the word form is built expresses the meaning of the passive voice and is included in the paradigm of the irrevocable verb build.
The impersonal forms of irrevocable verbs are not reflexive either: want - this is the impersonal form of the irrevocable verb to want, work - a similar form of the irrevocable verb to work.
Each verb can be simultaneously included in several lexical and grammatical categories. So, to talk is a fully significant, actional, intransitive and irrevocable limiting verb of the restrictive mode of verbal action; to be ‘to be’ (Moscow is the capital of Russia) - the verb is incomplete, connective, infinitive, intransitive, reflexive; cf .: appear ‘come’ (You appeared to me in dreams ... - A. Pushkin) - the verb is full-significant, actional, limiting, intransitive, reflexive.
Classifications of reflexive verbs
French reflexive verb
As mentioned above, reflexive verbs motivated by intransitive verbs are not divided into more or less clear lexico-grammatical categories. Therefore, it is more expedient, in our opinion, to focus on the description of the classifications of reflexive verbs, correlative in meaning with transitive ones. Many Russian linguists, such as Vinogradov V.V., Yanko-Trinitskaya V.A., Novikov L.A., Beloshapkova V.A., Chagina O.V., dealt with the issue of classification of reflexive verbs. and many others. Their classifications are essentially similar to each other and differ only in a more general or more detailed division of verbs into classes. The classification presented below is a kind of synthesis of already existing classifications. We have tried, if possible, to include in it all the subgroups of reflexive verbs ever singled out by Russian linguists in order to make it as complete and detailed as possible.
So, all reflexive verbs, correlative in meaning with transitive verbs, are grouped into semantic types, in which the meaning of intransitivity, expressed by the postfix - Xia, an additional meaning is added, created by the semantics of the verb stem and the postfix - Xia.
In all classifications of reflexive verbs of the modern Russian language, reflexive verbs of proper reflexive meaning are certainly distinguished as a special category. The definition of the meaning of the verbs included in this category is, in general terms, similar for all researchers and in all manuals. The differences in wording are quite minor.
In offers with self-returnable Verbs usually have an animate noun as the subject. This noun most often denotes a person who performs an action on himself. Thus, the subject of the action simultaneously acts as an object.
To self-returnable verbs include the following verbs:
Denoting the actions of the subject in relation to himself or to his belonging: shave, bathe, bathe, dress, put on shoes, fasten, gird, etc.; move, move, return, etc.; sit down, lie down, rotate, etc .; hide, lock up, etc.; defend, evade a blow, etc .; enslave, free, pay off, etc.; shoot yourself, drown yourself, etc.; restrain, calm down, exercise, etc .; adapt, join, land, etc .; join, intervene, run for office, etc.; give up, obey, obey and etc.:
Verbs with the meaning of a coercive action, in which the subject of coercion and the object of the coerced action coincide, the producer of the action is another subject; to be photographed, to be treated, to shave in a barbershop, to study at school and etc.
The object of the action is the ownership of the subject to spend money, to get ready for the journey, to pay off. unload and etc.; actions on an object that is used in the interests of the subject stock up on firewood, get acquainted with documents and etc.;
Actions of one's own consent, promises, opinions to confess, to confess, to confess, to apologize and etc.; agree, renounce, vouch, swear and etc.;
Expression of own thoughts, requests, words, name to speak, to introduce oneself, to express oneself, to pray, to name oneself and etc.;
Actions of "separating from itself" own objects to be fruitful, to bud, to fledge, to sprout and etc.;
Verbs with the meaning "show yourself", "stand out" in one's own behavior: to brag, to show off, to show off, to show off, to boast and etc.
It is worth noting that proper reflexive verbs are characterized by a weak connection with the instrumental case of the noun, which names the instrument of action: shave with a razor, wash with water. However, the instrumental case of the complement with the meaning of a tool, means is not a characteristic feature of only proper reflexive verbs, but is possible with reflexive verbs of a different meaning. The possibility of using the instrumental case of a tool, means with various categories of reflexive verbs is determined primarily not by the meaning of this category of reflexive verbs, but by the peculiarities of the control of generating non-reflexive verbs, for example: tie yourself with a rope - tie yourself with a rope, but if to take care instrumental case is not used, then it cannot be used with beware.
A direct relationship is established between return forms and basic forms without - sya (wash, whiten, blush etc.), at least in a general sense. in many verbs that previously had a pronounced direct reflexive meaning, in the process of their semantic evolution this meaning fades (for example: prepare, join, gather etc.). With a reflexive meaning for verbs on - Xia a person or a living being in general is assumed to be the subject of action. In combination with a subject that expresses not a person, but an object, these verbs usually have a passive or mid-reflexive meaning (for example: the face is washed: cheeks blush from frost etc.). Wed: escape persecution"love everything bought, all is saved"(Dostoevsky).
There are two shades of self-return value. A reflexive verb can mean:
a) performance by the subject of an action on himself (wash; cat licks etc.);
b) performance by the subject of the action by himself ( brag, change and others like it). But it is easy to see that this second shade of the recurrent voice is transitional from the proper recurrent meaning to the mean recurrent meanings (for example; to delve into reflection, to change morally) and general return. In addition, simple ones (with the affix - xia) and reinforced by replacement - Xia through myself and adding a pronoun myself bail forms. For example: he defended himself and he defended himself; I suffered and I tortured myself
Verbs of reciprocal meaning name the action taking place between two or more persons, each of which is both the subject and the object of the action; eg: quarrel, kiss, hug. These verbs can be correlated with transitive verbs in combination with a pronominal group each other: kiss, hug each other.
The value of reciprocity is expressed not only by the combination of verbal stems with a postfix - Xia, but also by simultaneously attaching a prefix to the stem pen-, morph - willow-/-yva- or - wa- and postfix - Xia(chat, look back), word formation ( mutually destroy) or by combining a verb with a pronoun or a pronominal group ( love each other, talk to each other)
It has been noted more than once in the scientific literature that the mutual value - Xia originally developed in reflexive verbs in the plural forms. The concept of reciprocity primarily includes a sign of the transition of an action from one subject to another or other subjects, a sign of the interaction of two or more subjects. In this case - Xia means each other. For example: they held hands and kissed(cf. they reconciled with each other). But to the shade of interaction or mutual action of subjects on each other, so that each subject of the action is at the same time its object, there is another shade - the shade of the joint action of two or more persons or their joint participation in action (cf. comrades quarreled). For example: They whispered through the bushes; They shared their feelings; Dispersing in different directions, they called to each other for a long time. etc. From this follows a new shade associated with the use of the same verbs (especially often in the singular forms) in combination with an indirect object denoting a person and attached with the help of a preposition with, For example: I friendly hugged him etc. It is believed that it is not necessary to separate the use of the same verbs with the preposition c from the mutual pledge value (cf .: advise someone what I consult with whom). For example: “Who did not curse the stationmasters, who is with them did not scold?(Pushkin).
In essence, there is a syntactic "transfer" of the same kind as in constructions: Polkan and Barbos - Polkan with Barbos. Therefore, the following objections to such an association by prof. A.B. Shapiro: “The verb has the meaning of a mutual subposition only when the action is performed not by one person, but by two or more, and this side of the meaning of the verb is expressed by the plural of the subject and, accordingly, the predicate. In sentences: I met him: She always scolds everyone etc. : for verbs Meets and scolds there is no mutual subposition, since here the form of the subject number does not support the meaning of the reciprocity of the action: in these sentences, of the persons mentioned in connection with the action, only one acts as a subject , the rest - only as an indirect object. One can only say that in these constructions the meaning of sociability, reciprocity is syntactically dispersed throughout the entire phrase.
All of the listed verbs contain special formal grammatical indicators that serve to designate the category of reciprocity. According to formal derivational features, the following groups of verbs can be distinguished:
1) Reciprocal verbs that correlate with transitive verbs and are formed from them with the help of the postfix - sya. These transitive verbs denote an action that can be performed with the simultaneous participation of the subject and object: meet-meet, hug-hug, kiss-kiss, reconcile-reconcile
2) Reciprocal verbs that are incomparable with transitive and are not used without - Xia: greet, chat, fight
3) Reciprocal verbs, which correspond to transitive verbs, but transitive and reflexive verbs are not identical in meaning: share, fight, negotiate
4) Verbs in which the meaning of reciprocity is due to the presence of - Xia in combination with prefixes. The most commonly used prefixes with- in the meaning of the connection and its antonymous prefix once- in the meaning of separation: converge - diverge, fly - scatter, as well as the prefix pere - to talk, to call
5) Verbs that do not have special formal grammatical indicators of the meaning of reciprocity, but express this meaning lexically : argue, make friends, quarrel
Sentences with reciprocal verbs have their own syntactic features. The specificity of these sentences is manifested in the ways of expressing the subject. Since mutual action can be carried out in the presence of at least two participants in the situation, then the names in the position of the subject (usually animate names) always have the meaning of plurality, collectivity. This value can be passed:
1) Name in the plural form: Friends met after the holidays;
2) A combination of the spirit of nouns in the nominative case with a union and: Andrey and Victor met after the holidays;
3) The combination of a noun or personal pronoun in the nominative case in the position of the subject with a name in the instrumental case with a preposition with: Andrei met with Victor after the holidays;
4) A noun with a quantitative definition ( two friends, several people): Two friends met after vacation;
5) Nouns with a collective meaning: public, youth, group: Our group met after the holidays.
In sentences with reciprocal verbs, in addition to the inanimate subject in the position of the subject, in some cases the subject can also be used not a person: Leninsky Prospekt intersects with Lomonosovsky. Verbs in such sentences convey the meaning of the juxtaposition of two objects in space. They are relatively few : intersect, merge, merge, disconnect.
Medium-return value. In this case - xia means that the action is not directed at an external object, but is concentrated in the sphere of the subject and is reduced to external changes in the state of the subject.
According to Shakhmatov, at the same time, “the subject, remaining the actual producer of the action, is not thought of as such; he is only an object." However, a direct understanding of the direction of the action of the subject (producers of the action) on himself as a direct object is either completely absent or difficult. This meaning appears in relief in the group of verbs, meaning external, physical changes and changes in the state and position of the subject, his movement in space, and the subject can be both an animate being and an inanimate object: to return, to leave, to stop, to depart, to move back, to move, to add : (in weight), to walk, to roll, to stagger, to throw, to stoop, to rise, to lean, to roll, to fall, to spin, to shake etc. All verbs of this type are correlative with verbs without - Xia and sometimes can also have a passive meaning (mostly in an imperfect form).
Return value. In this case - Xia, closing: action in the sphere of the subject, forms reflexive verbs expressing changes in the internal state of the subject (angry- be angry; please- rejoice; hurry, have fun, be afraid, be surprised, be satisfied, obey, admire, confess, worry, be consoled etc.). Obviously, this meaning can arise only in the lexical circle of verbs with the meaning of feeling, inner emotional experience. Reflexive verbs of the internal state cannot have a passive meaning. The ratio of subjective and objective meanings in them is different than in the verbs of "physical changes" (such as shrug, throw). Here - Xia indicates that the subject himself is covered by the action-state (i.e. experience, feeling). This meaning is akin to the lexical meaning of the so-called "general verbs", which have no correspondence among the forms without - Xia: try, be afraid, fear, be proud, smile, grin etc.
Verbs of indirect reflexive meaning name the action performed by the subject in their own interests; this means that the subject performs an action for himself, but neither in the verb itself, nor in its syntactic connections, this meaning is specifically expressed. The name with the meaning of the person in whose favor the action is performed takes the position of the subject in sentences with indirect reflexive verbs. These are the verbs tidy up, acquire, sign up, contact, agree to fit, build, line up, stock up, settle down
Active-objectless value. This meaning is especially pronounced in reflexive verbs correlative with transitive verbs without - Xia and denoting the action of the subject, actually passing on some object, directed at others, but conceivable in abstraction from the object as a characteristic, distinctive feature of the subject himself. For example: The dog bites; What are you pushing! Nettle stings; The cow butts; This wall has just been painted and therefore gets dirty;“And the leopard is just ready to cut” (Krylov, “Education of a Lion”).
Reflexive verbs of emotions: among verbs, verbs of an emotional state make up a large group. Their number is more than 100. They control different case forms.
M.L. Kryuchkova identifies classes of verbs, grouping them according to a common semantic feature. This classification can be extended to include new semantic classes, in particular the verbs of "inflated self-esteem" and the verbs of "doubt and regret". Let's give this classification of reflexive verbs of emotions.
1) verbs "hobbies" ( to be interested in, to be interested in, to admire, to delight in, to enjoy). Management model - name, etc. without a preposition: He reveled in his unhappy love and loneliness. He has been interested in painting since childhood.
2) the verbs of "surprise" ( wonder, marvel, wonder, wonder, smile, be touched) Control model - name in d.p. no suggestion: Father was happy with us. I admire your naivete.
3) the verbs "worship and self-abasement" ( to bow down, to get lost, to shade, to grovel before +t. P.: I bow to your talent.
4) verbs of "inflated self-esteem" ( brag, brag, brag, brag, brag, show off, show off) Control model - prepositional case form before+t. P.: Nikolai loves to brag to his friends.
5) the verbs "mockery and bullying" ( laugh, ridicule, mock, mock, mock) Control model - prepositional case form over+t. P.:Are you kidding me?
6) verbs of "discontent" ( to cry, to complain, to be offended, to sulk, to be angry, to swear) Control model - prepositional case form on + v.p.: She complains about everyone all the time..
7) verbs "fear" ( be afraid, fear, beware, fear, fear, dread, be ashamed, shy)
Management model - name in r.p.: I stopped being ashamed of simple things. She was afraid of her mother to the point of trembling in her knees
8) the verbs of "anxiety" ( to worry, to worry, to worry, to fear, to fear, to fear, to be frightened) Control model - prepositional case form for + ce: I'm terribly worried about you.
9) the verbs "cares, worries and sorrows": a) care, worry, worry, worry, worry o + p.p.: Father worries about daughter b) verbs of "sad" semantics: be sad, grieve, be sad. Control model - prepositional case form o + p.p. or by + d.p.: Tanya missed home.
10) the verbs "doubts and regrets" ( to doubt, to be disappointed, to disbelieve, to disbelieve, to be deceived, to repent) Control model - prepositional case form c + p.p.: He is disillusioned with work.
Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes (decausative verbs): A large group of verbs in Russian are reflexive verbs with the meaning of quantitative and qualitative changes of the type increase - decrease, etc. Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes are common in all spheres of speech - everyday, journalistic, official business Interest in this problem is constantly growing. The air temperature will drop in the evening; Cooperation between our universities is constantly expanding.
Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes characterize an action, a phenomenon, an object from different angles.
Verbs of quantitative changes denote as a change in size in general (increase, decrease, multiply, shrink), and changes in individual parameters - height (up, down, down), length (lengthen, shorten) width (expand, shrink) depths (deepen), speed (accelerate, speed up, slow down): This year the circulation of the magazine has increased; Scientists note with concern that in recent decades the temperature on the planet has been rising;
Verbs of qualitative changes can also characterize an object in terms of a general assessment (“good” or “bad”, positive or negative changes) improve, worsen, and on the part of specific changes (strength, strength, accuracy, price, complexity, weight, etc.) - strengthen, intensify, strengthen, weaken, clarify, become more expensive, cheapen, become more complicated, simplify, enlarge, become heavier, lighten, enrich, impoverish, purify etc. : During the discussion, the differences between the speakers became more acute; Relations between our countries have improved significantly; By the end of the day the wind will pick up.
In sentences with verbs of this semantics, the subject is most often an abstract noun with the meaning of a phenomenon, action or process: Contradictions between factions are deepening; The population in the area is declining; The skill of the artist has increased; The patient's recovery has slowed down
Reflexive verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes correspond to transitive get worse-worsen, expand-expand, rise-raise, decrease-reduce, decrease-reduce etc.: The bus route has been extended.- The bus route has been extended; The scope of the magazine has expanded.- The magazine expanded its subject matter; Students have increased scholarships.-Scholarships have been increased for students.
Verbs with the meaning of quantitative and qualitative changes can be divided into two groups in accordance with the expressed meaning: “to do what” raise - to do higher; reduce - do below; worsen - make worse; expand- make it wider increase - do more) and “become what” rise - get taller decline- getting lower get worse - to get worse, expand- get wider increase - get bigger). Verbs that convey the meaning of "make as", the so-called causative verbs, have the form of a transitive verb: Moscow University is expanding cooperation with other universities; The state increases assistance to families with many children.
In the formation of verbs with the meaning "become what", or decausative verbs [Nedyalkov, Silnitsky, 1969], different word-formation models are used.
Most often, decausative verbs are formed by adding - Xia to a transitive verb: Cooperation between Moscow University and other universities is expanding; State assistance to families with many children is increasing. This way of forming verbs of quantitative and qualitative changes, which have a component of the meaning "become what", is the most common. That is why most of them have postfix - Xia. However, this derivational method does not cover all verbs with the meaning "become what". There are other ways to form them.
The ratio “to do what” / “become what” can also be conveyed by suppletive stems, the root morphemes of which are devoid of formal proximity (raise-increase, decrease-fall). Wed: Application
new technology has increased productivity,-As a result of the application of new technology, labor productivity has increased; The development of television and video reduces the interest in visiting cinemas,-As a result of the development of television and video, interest in visiting cinemas is falling,
3) Another way to form decausative verbs is to add an adjective to the stem formant - et (fade, weaken, lose weight, become cheaper) and - at (to rise in price): Vegetables have fallen in price, and fish has risen in price;
I need to lose some weight.
Reflexive causative verbs: a stable lexico-semantic group of verbs denoting an action performed for a person by another person can be classified as reciprocal-causative. Most of them refer to the so-called professional verbs used in the situation of “ordering at a customer service point” [Nedyalkov, 1977: 36]. These can be verbs with the meaning: a) “health care” (to consult, to be treated, to be observed, to be examined, to be operated on, to be checked): My grandmother is being treated by a homeopath; b) « training, education » (to be educated, consulted, trained, studied, examined): Levitan studied painting with the famous Savrasov; c) taking care of one's own appearance (shave, comb, haircut, dress, paint, make up): This actress is dressed by the famous fashion designer Vyacheslav Zaitsev; I always get my hair cut by this barber; d) "obtaining and fixing a certain status" (register, register, register) obtaining a portrait resemblance (to be filmed, photographed): Many famous artists are removed from this photographer.
In sentences of this structure, both nominal components designate a person. In this case, the name in the position of the subject designates the person for whom the action is performed. The true agent, the performer of the action, is the person expressed by the name in the form y + p. With this way of representing the relationship between the participants in the situation, it is semantically compressed, appears as undivided. At the level of meaning, it can be interpreted as follows: person A makes person B perform an action on him, called a reflexive verb. In other words, person A becomes the causator of this action. This implies an important provision for teaching RSP: in a construction with a reflexive verb “the name of a person who is unable to initiate a situation cannot be subject: * One-year-old child gets a haircut at the hairdresser(Genyushene, 1981: 177).
As for the real performer of the action, it can be implicitly expressed in a construction with the meaning of the circumstance of the place: The patient is observed in the district clinic; Tourists eat in the hotel restaurant; Take a photo in our studio; In our hairdressing salon, you can be served by appointment or on a first-come, first-served basis (from the ad).
It is not uncommon for a name with the meaning of the actual performer of the action to be additionally mentioned in the context. For example: I have a son-he wrote so many books! What does he write about? About agriculture-how and what to do. He used to give lectures in the Knowledge Society. All directors of collective farms consulted with him. He tells them what to do, and then they go to the places and do it. He received so many thanks! After all, you understand, no one knows anything, no one knows how. And he will explain everything, and everyone knows what's what (according to L. Kohl).
From reflexive-causative verbs, united by the general meaning "not oneself" [Kozintseva, 1981: 83], proper-reflexive verbs with the meaning "oneself" should be distinguished. The belonging of the verb to one category or another is established in the context. Compare: (1) a dialogue between a guy and a girl |: - Is it true that you cut your own hair?-Truth. So what?-But nothing. Only there is such a sign: whoever cuts his own hair will never marry (film "Meet me at the fountain"). AND 2) When we walked between the Sixth and Fifth lines past the hairdresser's, I said to Margarita:-This is where I go to get my hair cut. There is one old hairdresser here ... (V. Shefner).
Side-reflexive verbs: side-reflexive verbs include verbs denoting the contact of the subject with an object, usually motionless or fixed: While on the escalator, hold on to the handrails; Yane noticed a stone in the grass and hit it painfully. In sentences with such verbs, the object, by the very fact of its existence, stimulates the named action: if there were no stone in the grass, the speaker would not stumble; if there were no handrails on the stairs, then there would be nothing to hold on to.
AT in sentences with such verbs, the subject occupying the syntactic position of the subject, usually you (is an animate name with the meaning of a person, less often an animal. An object, as a rule, is an inanimate noun denoting an object or part of the body of a living being: The child buried his head in the pillow and slept soundly
The following reflexive verbs are most commonly used: to hold (for what?), to take (for what?), to grab (for what?), to cling to (for what?), to hit (on what?), to thicken (colloquial) (about what?), to stumble (about what ?), lean (on what / on what?), bury (into what?), rest against what?).
All reflexive verbs require an addition in the accusative case with prepositions for, about (about), in. The choice of a specific preposition depends on the nature of the contact between the subject and the object.
Complement in the form for + in. P. is usually used when it comes to a mechanical connection, the adhesion of a subject and an object, - hold on to the railing, hold on to the hands,
Supplement in the form o + in. P. is usually used when the subject is only in contact with the object and when their interaction is in the nature of the ratio of a larger and smaller area, a point and an area.
Classification according to the principle of correlation of the verb form with- Xia with the verb form without-sya.
In addition to the generally accepted classifications of reflexive verbs, where verbs are divided into groups, depending on their semantics, some linguists also offer a classification of reflexive verbs, built on the principle of correlation of the form of the verb with - Xia with the form of the verb without - Xia.
So, the first group consists of those verbs whose reflexive form is equal to the meaning of the verb itself in combination with the pronoun myself. That is, these two forms are correlated with each other. Such verbs mean that the action of the subject is performed in relation to itself, that is, it is directed at itself. It turns out that the subject of the action is at the same time its object. Such are the verbs open-open, wash - wash, shave-shave, take pictures-take pictures, heal-to be treated, dress - dress, hide - hide, lock - lock up, protect - defend, teach - learn, move - move, save - save, praise - boast, stop - stop,
The second group of reflexive verbs includes those reflexive verbs that are not equal in meaning to the generating non-reflexive verb in combination with a reflexive pronoun myself. As a result of a strong difference in lexical meanings, the correlation of verbs with - Xia and without - Xia lost. This group includes verbs consist - take place, intercede - intercede, fight, fight, find - be, forgive - say goodbye, borrow - engage, distribute - give out, finish off - achieve, rewrite - correspond, torture - try, trade-to bargain etc.
There are also such reflexive verbs that do not have corresponding irreflexive ones at all. I decided to separate them into a separate, third group. There are about 150 such verbs in Russian:
be afraid, greet, doubt, fight, lie down, admire, admire, hope, enjoy, like, be lazy, succeed, smile, laugh, be proud, swear, try, need, dusk, be unwell, lie down, sit down, touch, bow, intend, part, stay, wake up, climb, see each other etc.
Verb
LGR is a category that combines words that show similarities in LZ and, as a result, have common grammatical features. LGR of verbs: transitive - intransitive, reflexive - irrevocable, personal - impersonal.
PERSONALITY - NON-PERSONALITY
Personal and impersonal verbs differ in relation to the category of person, grammatical compatibility and role in the sentence.
Personal verbs - can change by person: read (read, read, read) etc. They have a complete set of conjugated and non-conjugated grammatical forms possible for a Russian verb. In a two-part sentence, personal verbs play the role of a simple verbal predicate and are combined with the nominative case of the subject (The teacher is reading a book).
Impersonal verbs - call actions that occur without the participation of the actor ( evening, chill) and are used as the main member of one-part impersonal sentences: Children need to learn; It got very cold in January.
They are used as a predicate in impersonal sentences, with no mb subject. They have either a permanent shape 3l. unit present( dawn), or the form 3l. cf. unit pr.v. ( light, evening) They do not change according to persons, numbers and genders, they do not have command forms, participles, participles, and therefore they have a flawed paradigm, which has only infinitive forms, 2 forms of time, and sometimes the form of adverbs. Some impersonal verbs are not used without -sya ( dusk).
Varieties of impersonal verbs by meaning:
Denoting natural phenomena: blizzard, dawn, dusk
Denoting physical/mental? Feel: sick, sick, nauseated
Expressing modal meanings: befits, follows, lacks, suffices (not enough).\
Varieties of impersonal verbs by origin:
Self-impersonal: it gets dark, it gets dark, it gets light, it freezes, it gets colder, it chills…
Formed from the personal using the postfix - xia: I want, I think, I breathe, I can’t sit ...
Personal in an impersonal sense: cf .: The rose smells gentle and sweet (the usual use of the conjugated form of the personal verb smell). - The room smells of roses(impersonal use of the same verb form); See also: The river is noisy. - Noisy in the ears.
34. Category of the person of the verb. personal and impersonal forms. Relationship of the person category with other verbal categories. The figurative use of personal forms.
Verb- a significant part of speech that names an action or state as a process and expresses this meaning in the MC of the form, voice, mood, time and person. Also categories of number and gender (in the forms of the past tense singular and in the forms of the subjunctive mood of the singular) and the case of participles.
Personal forms express the relation of the action to the speaker (forms of the 1st person), to the interlocutor (forms of the 2nd person) or to a person who is neither the speaker nor the interlocutor, as well as to an inanimate object (forms of the 3rd person).
Accordingly, the meanings are distinguished in the verb: own-personal(these are the values of 1 and 2 l.) and the value subject-personal(this value is 3 liters.). Forms 1 and 2 l. as expressing the relation of actions to the participants of the speech act, they are opposed to the forms of 3 l. as not expressing such relation. With this characteristic of forms 3 l. their ability to express an action that is not related to either a person or an object (impersonal verbs) is also connected.
Non-finite (non-conjugated) forms of the verb do not have grammatical indicators of the person, i.e. change like adjectives or do not change at all. This is participle, participle, infinitive.
Infinitive - this is the original form of the verb, which names an action, a state, etc. regardless of the person, time, mood, i.e. the infinitive itself does not have the categories of person, tense, mood. Infinitive indicators: -ty, -th, -ch ( Carry, take, cut).
Participle - it is a verb form that represents an action, a state, etc. as a sign of a person or object (blushing, blushing flower, imported, imported things ).
gerund- a verb form that represents an action, a state, etc. as a sign characterizing the course of another action, state ("Pyatak fell to the feet, ringing and bouncing").
Mood is an inflectional MK of the verb, expressing the speaker's attitude to reality and having the meaning of the reality or unreality of the reported event.
Time is an inflectional MC of the verb, expressing the relation of the action named by the verb to the moment of speech.
Number is an inflectional MK, which serves as an indicator of the connection of a verbal attribute with its carrier - an object that has some quantitative characteristic.
The category of person is closely related to other categories of the verb: mood, time and number: Will express. incl. formal expression. and bud. (simple and complex) vr. associated with personal forms. An indicator value of 1, 2 or 3 liters. serves as inflection, which at the same time has the value of unit. or many h Command. incl. characterized by a system of personal forms, which differs in its organization from the system of personal forms. incl. Soslagat. incl. and past. temp. will express. incl. in relation to the morphological category of a person, it is characterized negatively: in these forms, differences are presented not by persons, but by genera (in units).
forms 1 l. units and many others. h. ( I take, I say, I will come; take, say, come);
forms 2 l. units and many others. h. ( you take, you speak, you come; take, speak, come);
3) forms 3 l. units and many others. h. ( takes, says, will come; take, say, come).
In command. incl. a contrast of two series of forms is presented:
the main series of forms 2 l. (singular and plural): take , speak, come; take, speak, come.
a number of forms of joint action: let's take (those), let's (those) talk, let's (those) talk.
Personal Forms
Each of the series of personal forms is characterized by special means of education: 1) inflections with the meaning of the person and number in the forms of crust. and bud. temp. will express. incl. and in forms 2 l. units hours command. inc.; 2) postfix -te, expressing the meaning of the plural. hours in command. incl. and 3) the particle come on (those) - in the analytical form of joint action in command. incl.
Personal forms present. and simple bud.vr. are formed by joining to the base crust. temp. inflections that contain both the meanings of a person and a number:
1 l. units hours: - at, -Yu; pl. hours: - eat, -eat, -them;
2 l. units hours: - eat, -eat, -ish; pl. hours: - youte, -ee, -ite;
3 l. units hours: - et, -no, -it; pl. hours: - ut, -ut, -am, -yat.
Differences in inflections, with the exception of inflection 1 l. units h., are determined by the belonging of the verb to the first or second conjugation: inflections - eat, -eat; -et, -no; -eat, -eat, -youte, -ee, -ut, -ut characterize verbs I ref., inflections - ish, -it, -them, -ite, -am, -yat- verbs II sp.
In personal forms difficult time inflections - indicators of person and number are attached to the base of the auxiliary verb: bud-at, bud-eat, bud-no, bud-eat, bud-ee, bud-ut read, speak.
Several verbs have other systems of personal endings: to want, run away and honor(and motivated by them), forming some personal forms according to the first sp., and others - according to the second - heterogeneous verbs; and verbs there is, to give, create, get bored(and motivated by them), succeed, forming personal forms of units. hours with the help of inflections - m(1 l.), - sh(2 l.) and - cm(3 l.): e-m, e-sh, e-st; Yes-m, Yes-sh, Yes-st- specially conjugated - they are the only ones in the RL with a stem on a vowel.
Categorical values of personal forms will express. incl. are: for the form 1 l. in units hours - relation of the action to the speaker: (I) I say; in many h . – relation of an action to a group of persons, including the speaker: (we) talking. For the form 2 l. in units hours - relation of the action to the interlocutor: (you) you say; in many hours - relation of the action to a group of persons, including the interlocutor: (you) speak. For the form 3 l. in units h. - reference of an action to a person who is neither a speaker nor an interlocutor, or to an inanimate object: ( is he) He speaks; (is he, she is, it) boils; in many h. - the relation of the action to a group of persons that does not include the interlocutor, or to a group of inanimate objects: ( they) they say.
In personal forms will express. incl. there are also a number of uses that are specific to certain contexts. Such expansive and figurative uses are noted in all personal forms of units. and many others. h.
Form 1 l. unitsh. appears in proverbs, maxims and aphorisms in broad usage; the subject of the action is presented as a generalized one, but the meaning of the relation of the action to the speaker is not lost: I'm going-food not fistula, a for food – not let down; someone else's trouble – hands reconnoiter; I think, hence, exist. Form 1 l. pl. h. can act in broad usage in sentences that attribute an action to many (everyone), including the speaker and not excluding (as is the case in the form of 1 l unit) the interlocutor: Let's live –we'll see; What we have – not we store, having lost – crying(last).
The use of forms 1 l. pl. h. are closely related to the corresponding uses of the pronoun-noun we. Like this pronoun, forms 1 l. pl. hours of the verb in book speech are used when referring to the speaker in the author's presentation: We stick to another points vision; Also forms 1 l. pl. h. are used to denote joint participation in some. the action of the speaker and the one to whom the speech is addressed, which is common in reports and lectures, in textbooks, in fiction and journalistic literature: the speaker, as it were, attracts the listeners to participate in the analysis, in the development of thought: Now consider (with you) speed movements.
Forms 1 l. pl. h. used to denote the action of another person or persons, without the participation of the speaker. This action is presented as if the speaker is involved in it (at the same time, the coloring of indulgence, participation, irony is common): BUT what we read, baby, how doing? (asks the guest, an adult). Form 2 l. unitsh. appears in generalized personal use: What sow, then reap(last).
forms 2 l. units h. owls. kind often accompanied by modal shades of possibility or impossibility, necessity, most pronounced in denial; Betrothed horse not you will go around(last); miss the fire – not put out(last).
2nd person in generalized personal use in context can represent the speaker himself: [Lady:] forever you waiting! [Betsy:] Against, I you I am waiting(L. Tolst.)
Generalized personal use is not prevented by the presence of a pronoun you, which in such cases also indicates a generalized person: For you located corner at window, and you see at first water, green in whites sparks, after lonely oil towers, a after already all This…
The expansive and generalized-personal uses are contrasted together with the meanings 3 l. - impersonal in units. h. and indefinitely personal - in pl. h.
Form 2 l. pl.h. is used when politely addressing one person (compare the similar meaning of the pronoun you: Ivan Ivanovich, you you know this job?; Comrade, not you can whether you wait some minutes?
Forms 2 l. pl. h., as well as forms 2 l. units h., act in generalized-personal use. At the same time, unlike the generalized-personal use of forms 2 l. units hours in the form pl. h. the meaning of the relation of the action to the interlocutor (or interlocutors) can be preserved: At me on the farm fifteen tithes meadows as on the palms: at what window neither become, from everywhere seemowers(Czech.).
Generalized use of forms 2 l. pl. h. (usually a verb of a non-native species) also does not exclude the possibility of extending the action to the first person: This is was exactly that the beauty,contemplation which, the God news where, inspires in you confidence, what you see traits correct(Czech.).
Forms 2 l. units h.command. nakl . appear in generalized personal use, especially often in phraseologized combinations, in proverbs: as neither turn around; what neither speak;where neither sunxia; though kill; speak, Yes not talk. Generalized personal use is also possible outside phraseological combinations: [Khlestakov:] And I would, I confess, more would nothing and not demanded, as only render to me devotion and respect, respect and devotion(Gogol);
2 person, speaking in generalized personal use, in context, can represent the speaker himself: [King:] Madman I! what well I scared? On the ghost seypoduy - and No his(Pushk.).
Generalized personal use forms 2 l. units hours command. nakl. it is also possible in those cases when these forms express not an impulse, but an obligation, a wish, an assumption, a possibility or impossibility, a compulsion: The doctors prescribe any medicines, a sick drink(colloquial speech); All walk, a I learn.
Form 3 l. unitsh. opposed forms 1 and 2 l. as relating the action to any subject (including an inanimate object), but not to the speaker and not to the interlocutor. Besides, form 3 l. units h. opposed to the first two as a form that can represent an action that is subjectless, i.e., occurring independently of the actor (person or object): it's getting light, it's getting dark, shivering, unwell - impersonal form, it is the main one for verbs, the LP of which is incompatible with the idea of the producer of the action.
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