linguistic theories. Archive of Scientific Articles Linguistic Foundations of the Doctrine of Terms

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Bibliography:

Averbukh K. Ya. Terminological variance // Questions of linguistics. 1986. No. 6.
Arnold IV Lexicology of Modern English. Moscow: Higher school, 1986.
Akhmanova O. S., Minaeva L. V. On the subject and metalanguage of educational lexicography // Dictionaries and linguistic and regional studies. M.: MGU, 1982.
Akhmanova O. S. Linguistic terminology // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.
Buyanova L. Yu. A highly specialized term as an object and result of terminological derivation // Principles and methods of research in philology: the end of the 20th century: collection of articles. articles of scientific-methodical seminar "TEXTUS". Stavropol: SSU Publishing House, 2000. Issue. 6.
Gvozdev A. N. Essays on the style of the Russian language. Moscow: Education, 1965. 3rd ed.
Golovin BN, Kobrin R. Yu. Linguistic foundations of the doctrine of terms. Moscow: Higher school, 1987.
Grinev SV Introduction to terminology. M.: Mosk. lyceum, 1993.
Danilenko V.P. Linguistic aspect of terminology standardization. Moscow: Nauka, 1993.
Ignatiev B. I. Issues of bilingual scientific and technical lexicography: Abstract of the thesis. … cand. Phil. Sciences. L.: LGU, 1975.
Itskovich V. A. On the zero value of a classifying feature in terminology // Problems of Structural Linguistics. Moscow: Nauka, 1978.
Kandelaki T. L. Meanings of terms and systems of meanings of scientific and technical terminologies // Problems of the language of science and technology. Logical, linguistic and historical-scientific aspects of terminology. Moscow: Nauka, 1970.
Kapanadze L.A. On the concept of "term" and "terminology" // Development of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. M., 1965.
Kulikova I. S., Salmina D. V. Introduction to metalinguistics (systemic, lexicographic and communicative-pragmatic aspects of linguistic terminology). St. Petersburg: SAGA, 2002.
Kutina LL Language processes arising during the formation of scientific terminological systems // Linguistic problems of scientific and technical terminology. Moscow: Nauka, 1970.
Leichik V. M. Features of the terminology of social sciences and the scope of its use // Language and style of scientific presentation (linguo-methodological research). Moscow: Nauka, 1983.
Lotte D.S. Issues of borrowing and ordering foreign terms and terminological elements. Moscow: Nauka, 1982.
Lotte D.S. Fundamentals of construction of scientific and technical terminology. M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1961.
Miloslavskaya D. Legal terms and their interpretation [Electronic resource] // Rostov electronic newspaper. 1999. No. 21 (27).
Moiseev AI On the linguistic nature of the term // Linguistic problems of scientific and technical terminology. Moscow: Nauka, 1970.
Novichkova L. M. Linguistic problems of terminology. M.: AN SSSR; Institute of Linguistics, 1991.
Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Aspect-Press, 1997.
Stepanova M. D., Chernysheva I. I. Lexicology of the modern German language. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2003.
Superanskaya A.V., Podolskaya N.V., Vasilyeva N.V. General terminology. Questions of theory. M.: Publishing house "Editorial URSS", 2004.
Khayutin AD Compound terms - functional type of complex linguistic units (SLU) from the point of view of lexicography // Branch terminology and lexicography. Voronezh: Voronezh. state ped. Institute, 1981.
Shelov S. D. On two approaches to the meaning of the term // Islam, society and culture: mat. Int. scientific conf. "Islamic Civilization on the Threshold of the 21st Century (to the 600th Anniversary of Islam in Siberia)". Omsk: Omsk. state un-t, 1994.
Shelov SD Terminology, professional vocabulary and professionalism // Questions of linguistics. M.: Higher school, 1984. Issue. 5.
Shcherba L. V. Experience of the general theory of lexicography. L .: Publishing house of Leningrad State University, 1971.
Zhu J. Morphologie, Semantik und Funktion fachsprachlicher Komposita. Heidelberg, 1987.

Verbal language has become an important human invention. Thanks to him, the intellect inherent in animals turned into reason and ensured the formation and development of culture. Although a person does a lot, he is far from being aware and understanding of everything. All people are native speakers and practitioners of the language, but the vast majority do not have a theory of language. Everyone speaks prose, but like Molière's Jourdain, they do not give an account of this. This is precisely what linguistics does as a complex of scientific disciplines that study language.

3.1. Union of outlook and linguistics: doctrines about language. Grammar is the oldest Panini (4th century BC). An illiterate and brilliant Hindu verbally gave a fairly complete description of Sanskrit. Later, centuries later, it was written down and subjected to numerous comments.

In ancient China, hieroglyphs ruled out grammar. Already in the 5th century BC. here appeared interpretations of complex hieroglyphs from ancient texts. They formulated the problem of the relation of language to reality. In the III century. BC. the doctrine of the correction of names arose, based on the idea of \u200b\u200bconformity / inconsistency of the hieroglyph (name) with the characteristics of the individual. The right choice of name ensures a happy life, a mistake leads to conflicts. Xu Shen (1st century) singled out the constituent parts of the hieroglyph in the form of graphics and phonetics (sound tones), laying an idea of the structure of the root syllable. By the 11th century phonetic tables were compiled, and by the 18th century. a dictionary of 47,035 hieroglyphs and 2,000 variants arose.

In ancient Greece, linguistics developed in the bosom of philosophy. The school of sophists posed the question: “what does language correspond to: natural things or social institutions?” It is also possible to distinguish the first classification of the parts of speech of Aristotle and his definitions of the name and the verb. The Stoic school developed this by introducing the concept of case. Later, the basic concepts of grammar were formed in the Alexandrian school (II century BC - III century). Ancient Roman scholars were engaged in adapting Greek schemes to Latin. As a result, the grammar of Donatus and Priscian (4th century) was formed.

Latin was the common language of culture in medieval Europe. The modist school (13th-14th centuries) constructed a speculative scheme in which Latin grammar found itself between the outside world and thinking. Since the first received depth in the course of creation, language must not only describe, but also explain. The modists not only theorized, they began to create the terminology of syntax, which was completed by the French P. de la Rama (1515 - 1572). He also owns the modern system of sentence members (subject - predicate - object).

Grammar of Port-Royal. It has become one of the linguistic peaks. Its authors are French Antoine Arnault (1612 - 1694) and Claude Lanslo (1615 - 1695)- very sensitively perceived the promising ideas of their predecessors and creatively developed them, relying on the strength of a circle of like-minded people. The authors aimed at educational goals, but they were carried away by scientific research, which ended with the creation of an explanatory theory. They proceeded from the rationalism of modists and R. Descartes. Language is a universal means of thinking analysis, because its operations are expressed by grammatical constructions. As the basic parts of grammar, words are sounds and at the same time express thoughts. The latter are differentiated into representation, judgment and inference. In turn, the representation breaks down into names, pronouns and articles; judgment - on verbs, verbal parts, conjunctions and interjections. As for inferences, their system forms a coherent text (speech). Arno and Anslo traced the relationship between two fundamental levels - logic and grammar. If the first is represented by a categorical system, then the second is divided into general science and private art. Logic gives deep meanings to grammar, and grammar acts as a superficial (lexical, syntactic, etc.) structure of thought. It is on this complementarity that the life of the language is built.

Hypotheses of the origin of the language. In the XVIII century. the topic of the historical development of the language was updated. Philosophers and scientists were clearly not satisfied with the biblical story of the Tower of Babel. How did people learn to speak? Thinkers put forward a variety of versions of the appearance of the language: from onomatopoeia, from involuntary cries, from the "collective agreement" (J.-J. Rousseau). The most coherent project was proposed by the French philosopher E. Condillac (1714 - 1780). He believed that gestural signs, which at first were only supplemented by sounds, became the initial ones. Then sound signs came to the fore and developed from spontaneous shouts to controlled articulations. At a later stage, spoken speech received a written record.

3.2. The formation of scientific linguistics. Many of the philosophers' ideas were very interesting, imbued with the spirit of historicism, but they were united by one drawback - speculative speculativeness, ignoring the study of facts. The discovery of Sanskrit by Europeans helped to overcome it (W. Jones, 1786). This gave rise to the stage of comparative comparison of European languages with the ancient language of India. The similarity of Sanskrit with Greek and other languages of Europe was obvious, and Jones put forward a hypothesis about it as a proto-language. Only in the middle of the XIX century. she was refuted.

Comparative-historical linguistics. Germany and Denmark became the center of comparative studies, because here at the turn of the 8th and 19th centuries. scientific centers emerged. In 1816 a German linguist Franz Bopp (1791 - 1867) published a book where he clearly formulated the principles of the comparative historical method and applied them in the analysis of a number of Indo-European languages. He suggested comparing not whole words, but their constituent parts: roots and endings. The emphasis not on vocabulary, but on morphology turned out to be promising. Dane Rasmus Rusk (1787 - 1832) developed the principle of regularity of correspondences and delimited classes of vocabulary. Words related to science, education and trade are most often borrowed and not suitable for comparison. But kinship names, pronouns, numerals are rooted and meet the goals of comparative studies. The distinction between basic and non-basic vocabulary turned out to be a valuable find.

Another important topic was the historical development of individual languages and their groups. So, in the "German Grammar" Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) the history of the Germanic languages was described, starting with very ancient forms. Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov (1781-1864) examined the Old Slavonic script and revealed the secret of two special letters (nasal vowels), the sound meaning of which was forgotten.

Each language develops as a whole, expressing the spirit of the people. German researcher became a classic of world linguistics Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767 - 1835). He was interested in the nature of human language as such, and his study was connected with philosophical reflection. The scientist proposed a scheme of three stages of development related to any language. In the first period, language appears in all its naivety, but not in parts, but at once as a whole as a single and autonomous whole. At the second stage, the structure of the language is improved, and this process, like the first, is inaccessible to direct study. At the third stage, a “state of stability” is reached, after which fundamental changes in the language are impossible. All linguists find languages in this state, which is different for each ethnic form.

Language is far from the deliberate actions of individuals, it is a spontaneous and independent force of peoples. Their national spirit lives in the language as in a continuous collective activity that dominates all its verbal products. The linguistic element determines the cognitive attitude of people to the world, forms the types of thinking. At all levels - sounds, grammar, vocabulary - linguistic forms give matter an ordered structure. Such creativity flows continuously, through all generations of people.

Thus, Humboldt gave linguistics a new ideological dynamic, anticipated a number of promising directions.

Neogrammarists: the history of language takes place in the individual psyche. In the middle of the XIX century. the influence of French positivism reached German science. The strategy of researching facts and banishing philosophy made Humboldt-style sweeping generalizations unfashionable. In this vein, the school of young grammarians was formed. Its head was Hermann Paul (1846 - 1921). In his main book, "Principles of the History of Language" (1880), the leading ideas are stated: the rejection of too general questions, empiricism and inductivism, individual psychologism and historicism. Here reigns a clear exaggeration of the individual: how many individuals, so many separate languages. As a consequence of this, there is a bias towards psychologism, all sounds and letters exist in the minds of people (in “mental organisms”). Along with the usual comparative historical methods, Paul singled out introspection, without which it is difficult to fix sound laws. German neogrammarists influenced linguists in other countries. In Russia these were Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov (1848 - 1914), trained in Germany, and Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov (1864 - 1920).

Fundamentals of the Russian linguistic school. Two Russian-Polish scientists should be singled out - Nikolai Vladislavovich Krushevsky (1851 - 1887) and Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), went beyond the framework of neogrammatism. The first declared the limitations of historicism, leading to antiquity, it is necessary to study modern languages, there is an abundance of genuine facts here. Comparison cannot be the main method of linguistics; it is more important to study language as a system of signs (a quarter of a century before F. de Saussure).

Synchrony of language: phoneme and morpheme. Baudouin de Courtenay was in solidarity with his Kazan colleague. Linguistics does not need historicism, but consistent synchronicity; psychology needs the help of sociology, only then will the individual be supplemented by the social. The scientist criticized word-centrism and introduced new concepts of phoneme and morpheme. A phoneme was understood as an objectively existing, stable mental unit, obtained from the pronunciation of the same sound. This distinction between sound and phoneme turned out to be very promising. The morpheme has acquired the same property as any independent part of the word - the root and all kinds of affixes. The main merit of the scientist was synchronous linguistics with the concepts of phonemes and morphemes.

3.3. Structuralism as the basis of classical linguistics. The change of linguistic paradigms was carried out by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913). Colleagues Ch. Balli and A. Seshe prepared and published the "Course of General Linguistics" (1916) from the student notes of his lectures, which brought the scientist posthumous fame.

Language is a social system of abstract signs that manifests itself in speech. F. de Saussure proposed new principles, where language and speech are distinguished. If speech is the internal property of individuals, then language exists outside of them, forming an objective social reality. The scientist distanced himself from Humboldt's opinion, stating that language is not an activity, it is a historically established structure. It is represented by a system of special signs expressing concepts. These signs are related to all other signs: identification marks, military signals, symbolic rites, etc., which will be the subject of the future science - "semiology" (semiotics). The linguistic sign is dual and consists of the signified (rational meaning) and the signifier (sensory impression). They complement each other like two sides of a coin.

The opposition of synchrony and diachrony. The scientist developed a scheme of two axes: the axis of simultaneity (synchrony), where phenomena coexisting in time are located, and the axis of sequence (diachrony), where everything happens in a series of historical changes. From this follow two different linguistic directions. Although pre-Sassureian linguistics took into account the opposition of synchrony/diachrony, it did so inconsistently and confusingly. The Swiss researcher raised the opposition to a strict principle.

Significance as a functional relationship of one sign to others. Traditional linguistics proceeded from separate language units: sentences, words, roots and sounds. F. de Saussure proposed a different approach, centered on the concept of "significance". We are talking about the fact that any element of the language acquires meaning in abstract functional relationships with other elements. Only in the system of some symbolic whole can a part of it make sense. Let's take a game of chess. The knight is an element of this game and it is significant insofar as it has a set of rules and prohibitions that determine its moves in relation to other pieces. The same is true in language. Signifiers may have the most varied sense content, but signifieds express pure roles in relation to other signifieds. A linguistic unit outside the network of abstract relations is meaningless. The pattern of significance is the signifier/signified relationship.

So, the contribution of F. de Saussure to linguistics is great. If we confine ourselves to a holistic perspective, then it can be called the foundations of structuralism. "The system of abstract signs", "significance as a functional relationship of sign elements" became the ideological core of the new approach.

Glossematics or Copenhagen (formal) structuralism. The head of this direction is a Danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev (1899 - 1965). He developed the ideas of F. de Saussure and brought them to their logical conclusion. In this he was helped by the neo-positivist attitudes, where the formal rules for constructing a theory were placed at the center of the study. Elmslev set a goal - to build the most general theory of language, based on the requirements of mathematical logic. By and large, there are three of them: consistency, completeness and simplicity. They make it possible to construct linguistics independently of linguistic and speech specifics in the form of a special calculus. And yet such a theory is "empirical" because it does not involve a priori propositions of a non-linguistic nature. Hjelmslev replaced "signifier" with the term "plane of expression" and "signified" with "plane of content". If for Saussure language units were signs and only signs, then he had “non-sign figures” - phonemes, roots and affixes. If for the former the opposition “signifier/signified” had to do with reality, then for Hjelmslev it disappeared. Consistent formalization eliminated phonetics and semantics, reducing glossematics to an algebraic game, very far from the real life of the language.

Functional structuralism of the Prague Linguistic Circle. The school was organized by a Czech researcher Willem Mathesius (1882 - 1945), Russian emigrants became carriers of ideas Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890 - 1938) and Roman Osipovich Yakobson (1896 - 1982). Here the ideas of F. de Saussure and J. A. Baudouin de Courtenay intersected, giving new shoots. All members of the circle recognized that the main advantage of the latter was the introduction of the concept of function into linguistics, and Saussure's contribution was expressed in the concept of linguistic structure. These two approaches they were going to develop. In the book Fundamentals of Phonology, Trubetskoy clearly distinguished between phonetics and phonology. If the first studies the sound side of speech, then the second - all possible combinations of distinctive elements and the rules for their correlation. In phonology, instead of a psychological criterion, a functional criterion was put forward: the participation or non-participation of certain features in semantic differentiation. The basic unit of phonology was recognized as the phoneme, which functions through sound opposition. This aspect became the most important contribution of Trubetskoy.

So, until the XVII century. the development of linguistics was very slow. In modern times, there was an acceleration and, starting from the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries, the change and improvement of theoretical hypotheses took on a rapid and continuous character. Many national schools have developed, and F. de Saussure, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N. S. Trubetskoy and a number of other scientists became the pinnacles of classical linguistics.