Literary language and dialects. Vocalism, classification of vowel sounds
Dialectology is the science of territorial varieties of language (dialects). The term "dialectology" comes from the Greek words dialektos "conversation, conversation" and logos "concept, teaching".
In addition to the literary language, which is in principle the same for all Russian speakers, there are other varieties of the Russian language, the use of which is limited to a certain social environment (professional languages, jargons) or a certain territory (folk dialects). The first are called social dialects, and the second - territorial dialects (or simply dialects), as well as dialects.
Dialects must be distinguished from vernacular. Vernacular is the spoken language of people who do not know literary norms, but are not limited to a certain territory.
Social dialects have their own lexical features, but they do not have their own phonetic and grammatical system. The phonetics and grammar of social dialects do not differ from the system of the literary language or dialects, of which they are offshoots.
Territorial dialects, like the literary language, have their own phonetic and grammatical system and, therefore, can serve as the only means of communication for speakers of these dialects. Therefore, territorial dialects (hereinafter referred to as dialects), together with the literary language, are the main varieties of the Russian language. These varieties are in many ways opposite to each other.
The difference between dialects and the literary language lies not only in the territorial confinement of dialects and the non-territoriality of the literary language, they also differ in their functions. The literary language is the language of statehood, politics, science, art - in a word, the language of culture. In its special form, it is also the everyday language of educated people. The dialects serve as the spoken language of the predominantly rural population. Folklore works are also created on a dialect basis.
Other differences in the literary language and dialects are also associated with the difference in functions: 1) the literary language has both written and oral forms, and dialects - only oral; 2) the literary language has strictly binding norms, which are reflected in Russian language textbooks, supported by dictionaries and other reference publications. Therefore, the literary language is also called normalized or codified. Norms of dialects are not so strict and are supported only by tradition; 3) the variety of functions of the literary language corresponds to the richness of its styles. The dialects are characterized by weak stylistic differentiation.
There is an interaction between the literary language and dialects, the nature of which changes throughout history.
The Russian literary language arose on the basis of the Moscow dialect and subsequently experienced the influence of dialects, which became the weaker, the more clearly the norms of the literary language were formalized and strictly protected. Starting from the period when the orthoepic norms of the literary language are formed, the influence of dialects on it is manifested mainly in lexical borrowings from dialects (thus, the words rustle, greenery, taiga, bagel and many others entered the literary language from dialects).
The influence of the literary language on dialects, on the contrary, has increased throughout its history and has become especially intense in our time. Thanks to compulsory secondary education, as well as the spread of radio and television in the modern countryside, the literary language has a strong influence on dialects, which leads to their gradual leveling.
Dialectal features are best preserved in the language of the older generation, especially women. But, changing and losing some of the former features, the dialects are preserved in our time as the spoken language of the rural population.
Russian dialectology / Ed. Kasatkina L.L. - M., 2005
62. Literary language and dialects.
Pronunciation features are often fixed in nicknames. So, you can hear: “Yes, we call them schemyaki, they are on sch they say; here, for example, shchichasch(now)". The science that studies the territorial varieties of language - local dialects, or dialects, is called dialectology(from the Greek dialektos "dialect, dialect" and logos "word, teaching").
Each national language includes a literary language and territorial dialects. Literary, or "standard", they call the language of everyday communication, official business documents, schooling, writing, science, culture, fiction. Its hallmark is normalization, i.e., the existence of rules, the observance of which is mandatory for all members of society. They are enshrined in grammars, reference books and dictionaries of the modern Russian language. Dialects also have their own language laws. However, they are not clearly understood by the speakers of the dialects - the villagers, moreover, they do not have a written embodiment in the form of rules. Russian dialects are peculiar only oral form existence, in contrast to the literary language, which has both oral and written forms.
The dialect, or dialect, is one of the basic concepts of dialectology. A dialect is the smallest territorial variety of a language. It is spoken by the inhabitants of one or more villages. The scope of the dialect is narrower than the scope of the literary language, which is a means of communication for everyone who speaks Russian.
Literary language and dialects constantly interact and influence each other. The influence of the literary language on dialects is, of course, stronger than dialects on the literary language. His influence spreads through schooling, television, radio. Gradually dialects are destroyed, losing their characteristic features. Many words denoting rituals, customs, concepts, household items of a traditional village have gone and are leaving along with the people of the older generation. That is why it is so important to record the living language of the village as fully and in detail as possible.
In our country, for a long time, a disdainful attitude towards local dialects as a phenomenon that must be fought prevailed. But it was not always so. In the middle of the XIX century. In Russia, there is a peak of public interest in folk speech. At this time, the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1852) was published, where dialect words were specially collected for the first time, and the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by Vladimir Ivanovich Dal in 4 volumes (1863–1866), also including a large number of dialect words. The materials for these dictionaries were actively collected by lovers of Russian literature 2 . Magazines, provincial journals of that time from issue to issue published various kinds of ethnographic sketches, dialect descriptions, dictionaries of local sayings.
The opposite attitude towards dialects is observed in the 30s. our century. In the era of breaking up the village - the period of collectivization - the destruction of the old ways of doing business, the family way of life, the culture of the peasantry, that is, all manifestations of the material and spiritual life of the village, was proclaimed. A negative attitude towards dialects has spread in society. For the peasants themselves, the village turned into a place from which they had to flee in order to escape, to forget everything connected with it, including the language. A whole generation of rural residents, consciously abandoning their language, at the same time failed to perceive a new language system for them - the literary language - and master it. All this led to the decline of linguistic culture in society.
Respectful and careful attitude to dialects is characteristic of many peoples. For us, the experience of Western European countries is interesting and instructive: Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France. For example, in the schools of a number of French provinces, an elective in the native dialect has been introduced, a mark for which is put in the certificate. In Germany and Switzerland, literary-dialect bilingualism and constant communication in a dialect in the family are generally accepted. in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. educated people, coming from the village to the capital, spoke the literary language, and at home, on their estates, communicating with neighbors and peasants, they often used the local dialect.
Now people who speak a dialect have an ambiguous attitude towards their language. In their minds, the native dialect is evaluated in two ways: 1) through comparison with other, neighboring dialects, and 2) through comparison with the literary language. The emerging opposition of "one's own" (one's own dialect) - "foreign" has a different meaning. In the first case, when “foreign” is a different dialect, it is often perceived as something bad, absurd, something you can laugh at, and “own” as correct, pure. In the second case, "one's own" is assessed as bad, "gray", wrong, and "foreign" - the literary language - as good. Such an attitude towards the literary language is quite justified and understandable: in this way, its cultural value is realized.
^ 63. The concept of functional style: functional styles of the language
Functional style is a historically developed and socially conscious variety of the literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain area of human activity and communication, created by the peculiarities of the use of language means in this area and their specific organization. However, the common thing is the recognition of the functional nature of styles, their connection with a certain sphere of speech communication and types of human activity, the understanding of style as a historically established and socially conscious set of methods of using, selecting and combining language units.
The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of the language, the topics determined by it and the goals of communication. The spheres of application of the language correlate with the types of human activity corresponding to the forms of social consciousness (science, law, politics, art). Traditional and socially significant areas of activity are: scientific, business (administrative-legal), socio-political, artistic. Accordingly, they also distinguish styles of official speech (bookish): scientific, official business, journalistic, literary and artistic (artistic). They are opposed to the style of informal speech - colloquial-everyday colloquial), the extralinguistic basis of which is the sphere of domestic relations and communication (everyday life as an area of relationships of people outside their direct production and socio-political activities).
Often, the classification of functional styles is associated with the functions of the language, understood as certain goals of communication. So, the classification of styles is known on the basis of three functions of the language: communication, message and impact. The functions of communication are most consistent with the conversational style, scientific and official business messages, journalistic and literary and artistic impact. However, with such a classification, there is no differentiating basis that makes it possible to distinguish between scientific and official business, journalistic and literary and artistic styles. The functions of the language characterize it as a whole and are inherent to one degree or another in any style. In speech reality, these functions intersect and interact with each other, a specific statement usually performs not one, but several functions. Therefore, the functions of the language in the classification of styles can only be considered in combination with other factors.
The scope of the language, the subject and goals of the statement determine the essential features of the style, its main style-forming features. For the scientific style, this is a generalized abstract nature of the presentation and emphasized logic; for the official business style, the prescriptive and obligatory nature of speech and accuracy that does not allow for discrepancies; for colloquial ease, spontaneity and unpreparedness of communication, etc.
Style-forming factors determine the peculiarities of the functioning of language means in a particular style, their specific organization.
There are 5 functional styles:
scientific - the meaning is to give an accurate and clear idea of scientific concepts (for example, terminological vocabulary);
official business- official correspondence, government acts, speeches; vocabulary is used that reflects official business relations (plenum, session, decision, decree, resolution);
journalistic- abstract words with a socio-political meaning are characteristic (humanity, progress, nationality, publicity, peace-loving);
colloquial - it is distinguished by a large semantic capacity and colorfulness, gives speech liveliness and expressiveness;
artistic - used in fiction .
The national language is the highest and most complete form of the existence of a language associated with the concept of a nation. There is no consensus on what is formed earlier - a nation or a national language, or whether they appear simultaneously. The national language includes the literary language, dialects, jargons, vernacular and slang.
Do not confuse the national, literary and state language. The literary language is formed later than the national language, has a norm and is processed by masters of the word. The state language is determined by law and may not be national, although the state language is more likely to become one.
Languages considered international have the following features:
A large number of people consider this language to be their mother tongue.
Among those for whom this language is not native, there are a large number of people who speak it as a foreign or second language.
This language is spoken in many countries, on several continents and in different cultural circles.
In many countries this language is studied at school as a foreign language.
This language is used as an official language by international organizations, at international conferences and in large international firms.
The first example of a pidgin can be considered English, which was formed as a mixture of British (Celtic), Saxon (Germanic) and French. In modern English, according to some linguists, 30% of the root words are of Germanic origin, 31% from French, 20% from Latin, 3% from Greek. The remaining 16% are in Celtic and other languages.
As an auxiliary language, pidgin has a small vocabulary and simplified grammar; depending on the native languages of the speakers, it breaks up into various ethnolects (ethnic dialects), the specificity of which is manifested in vocabulary, grammar and phonetics. In the process of creolization, these differences are leveled, the vocabulary increases, the phonetic and grammatical structures become more complicated, although, as a rule, they also remain relatively simple - which, however, seems natural to associate with the short existence of those languages known to science, the Creole origin of which is beyond doubt. . Since creolization is a multilateral and reversible process, the interpretation of some of its intermediate stages (still a pidgin or already a creole) can cause difficulties.
Currently, there are over six dozen Creole languages in the world, which is several times greater than the number of existing pidgins (the word "pidgin" may be present in the name of the Creole language in one form or another, reflecting the previous state of affairs). The total number of creole speakers is estimated to be around 30 million. Most creole languages originated from the development of pidgins based on Western European languages, but there are also a number of pidgins based on non-European languages, such as the significant Kituba Creole speakers in Zaire (5 million speakers). ) and munukutuba in the People's Republic of the Congo (about 1.5 million speakers; both based on the Kongo language), Jubai Arabic in Sudan, and some others. Creolization processes have played and continue to play a significant role in the history of the development of Swahili, the largest African language.
The process of creolization of pidgins took place in different social conditions: in mixed families that arose in coastal European fortifications, on plantations, as well as among fugitive slaves, who largely reproduced traditional African cultures in the New World. The sources of vocabulary and structural enrichment in these cases turned out to be different: in some cases, the lexifier language (the one from which most of the pidgin vocabulary originated) continued to influence the emerging Creole language, in others this influence was completely absent. Much in the fate of the Creole language also depended on the dynamics of the demographic situation in the early stages of its development: if such a language already had a developed vocabulary and stable grammar, but the number of those to whom it became native was small, the people who learned it again introduced new vocabulary and undermined the existing ones. phonetics and grammar standards. As a result of this, the process of decreolization, the reverse transformation into a pidgin, could begin. As new languages came into contact, vocabulary and grammatical innovations could be very significant; the degree of impact on the Creole of the official languages of the respective territories was also important.
^ 66. Substratum, adstratum, superstratum.
The substratum is the changes associated with serious rebirths in the structure of the winning language, when the speakers of the defeated language introduce their own “accent” into the language they have adopted, i.e. replace unknown sounds and unusual combinations of sounds with their usual ones and rethink words with their morphological composition and their meanings according to the skills of their language. Modification of one's native language under the influence of another language. If, on the whole, a given language has received a shift in vocalism or consonantism under the influence of another language, if paradigms are affected and the paradigmatic relations of the members of these series are shifted, this is certainly the action of the substratum.
Adstrat is a kind of bilingualism generated by the long-term coexistence of two languages in the same territory. The adstratum arises due to the influence of the alien language on the language of the natives, while the former is preserved as a neighboring language. Linguistic changes during adstratum are not limited to the borrowing of individual words, but affect the structure of the language (phonetic and grammatical structure, the main fund of vocabulary). As a result of the adstratum, common linguistic features may appear in genetically unrelated languages.
Superstratum (lat. superstratum, literally - laid, from super - over, over and stratum - layer) - traces of the influence of another language that remain in the language, which for this people was the language of culture, government, interethnic communication or the language of conquerors; the language itself, which had such an impact (for example, the Russian language was superstratively influenced by the Old Church Slavonic language and through it - Middle Greek; English - French and Latin). The influence of the superstratum is felt mainly in vocabulary (borrowings, calques) and in syntax (especially in complex sentences and other structures typical of written speech).
4. 2. The question of the dialect basis of the national Russian language
Traditionally, the dialect base of the national Russian language was considered to be the Central Russian Moscow dialect - a transitional one between northern and southern dialects.
In the early 1950s there was a theory of the Oryol-Kursk dialect as the basis of the national Russian language. However, this point of view, not supported by the data of dialectology and the history of the Russian language, was rejected.
In recent years, the prevailing opinion has become that the national Russian language was formed not on the basis of any one dialect, but on the basis of the mutual merging of many dialects, i.e. the very concentration of dialects is considered as the basis for the formation of a single national Russian language.
But this point of view does not contradict the concept of the Moscow dialect as the basis of the national Russian language. The Moscow dialect itself acts as a result of the concentration of dialects, since by its nature it is mixed, transitional, Central Russian, combining the features of both northern and southern dialects. This is the dialect used by the population of the city, which for eight centuries was the economic, political and cultural center of the Russian people. At the same time, this is a dialect devoid of sharp dialectal deviations from the general language norm, which is equally understandable to both the inhabitants of the north and the inhabitants of the south.
Spelling in the XVI-XVII centuries. was disordered, there were no uniform spelling rules, and the attitude of the state to this was very mild. So, in the decrees of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich it was said: if a petitioner instead of "about" will write "a" or instead "e"–"and", then especially do not oppress him. A strong influence of dialects on written speech was allowed. Gradually, the Moscow dialect became exemplary for all regions of Russia.
In the process of the formation of the national Great Russian language, many linguistic features that arose on Russian soil, probably at different times, became quite widespread throughout the entire Russian national territory:
new formation of past tense forms mainly from perfective verbs with "It was": #went was;
in the nominal declension, three modern types have been outlined;
endings have become widespread in folk speech "-am", "-ami", "-ah", spread from the system of Old Russian declension of nouns with a basis on *a to other declensions;
the system of Russian subordinating unions begins to develop.
4. 3. Differences between the literary language of the pre-national period and the national literary language
In the pre-national period, the oral and written varieties of the language were closed, isolated, parallel systems. In the XII century. there is a tendency to convergence of the two forms of existence of the language: the written language and colloquial speech. An oral form of the literary language is being created: an oral-colloquial form of a normalized literary language, which was absent in the pre-national period.
The scope of the literary language in the pre-national period was limited: business documents (mandatory language); journalism; high style (literary Slavicized language). During the national period, a single literary language is used in all areas of oral and written communication of people.
In the national period, the relationship between the literary language and local dialects changes. Dialects cease to be the main means of communication. Many people master the norms of the literary language. The literary language begins to slow down the development of dialectal phenomena, and the formation of new dialects ceases. From the 17th century the dialectal fragmentation of the language is suspended, the separation of new dialect groups is no longer observed. The process of concentration of dialects begins. There is a development and territorial distribution of mixed, transitional dialects - dialects of late formation, which cover all the new territories mastered by the Russian people in this era: Siberia, the Far East. Dialects become an exclusively oral means of communication for certain social groups of people living in rural areas. There is a displacement of dialects by an oral variety of the literary language.
In the pre-national era, the language was regulated very poorly, there were no uniform exemplary norms. In the national literary language, there is a strong tendency towards uniformity, which leads to the folding and consolidation of the norms of the literary language. In the national period, unified national norms of the literary language are formed and consolidated: orthoepic, lexical and grammatical. The presence of norms is one of the essential features of the national literary language. In the pre-national era, it is impossible to talk about norms in the strict sense of this term, because the then existing rules for the use of linguistic means are based mainly on tradition and cannot be considered consciously legitimized and recognized. In the national period, both oral and written forms of the literary language are normalized.
Norm- this is a set of such rules for the use of linguistic means that are legalized by literature, recognized by society as mandatory and therefore supported and protected by literature, society and the state.
Norms are now known to all native speakers. At the same time, it becomes possible to consciously deviate from the norms in the work of writers in order to achieve certain artistic goals.
The language of the national period is characterized by a greater role of fiction in the development of literary norms. The role of writers in the process of developing uniform norms, in creating samples of the national literary language, is growing.
It is literature that is the main and most important sphere of the functioning of the language, here it develops most rapidly, improves and stabilizes most quickly. As a result of this, its role increases, the organizing influence increases.
In the development and formation of national language norms, the role of literature is exceptionally great, which selects from the entire stock of language units and categories that best meet the needs of the whole society, polishes, processes language rules, making them common facts of the national language for the whole people. At this time, the role of the individual in the creation of the language increases, and in general it becomes possible to raise this question.
In the national period, the development of functional styles of the language began. In the pre-national period, the functions of the literary language were performed by two types of language: book-Slavonic and folk-literary. The functions of the literary language were distributed between these two types and were determined by non-literary factors. And in the national period, all the functions of communication are performed by one literary language. On the basis of two types of literary language, a single national literary language is being formed. Two types of language were transformed into two styles: high and low, which were then replaced by functional styles: fiction, journalistic, official business, scientific, colloquial.
Modern Russian literary language is studied in every school. Literary, or "standard", is the language of everyday communication, official business documents, schooling, writing, science, culture, fiction. Its distinguishing feature is normalization, i.e. the existence of rules, observance of which is mandatory for all members of society. They are fixed (codified) in grammars, reference books, school textbooks, dictionaries of the modern Russian language.
However, for a large part of the inhabitants of Russia, the language of everyday communication is dialect. dialect, or dialect,- the smallest territorial variety of the language, which is spoken by the inhabitants of one village or several nearby villages. In dialects, as in the literary language, their own language laws apply. This means that everyone who speaks a dialect knows how to say in his dialect, and how not. " Our darevnya talk like that, but Zhytitskh sausem(at all) another gavorka(dialect, dialect),” people in the village of Kashkurino in the Smolensk region notice. True, these laws are not clearly understood, especially since they do not have a written set of rules. Russian dialects are characterized by only an oral form of existence, unlike, for example, German dialects and the literary language, which have oral and written forms of existence.
Difference and interaction
The scope of the dialect is much narrower than that of the literary language, which is a means of communication (communication) for all people who speak Russian. It should be noted that the literary language constantly affects dialects through school, radio, television, and the press. This partly destroys the traditional dialect. In turn, dialect norms influence the literary language, which leads to the emergence of territorial varieties of the literary language.
The opposition between Moscow and St. Petersburg literary norms is widely known (the latter was formed under the influence of northwestern dialects): for example, the pronunciation [what], horse[ch'n] about in St. Petersburg, unlike Moscow - [what], horse[sn] about, hard labials in some forms: se[m] , vose[m] ten and other cases. In addition, the North Russian and South Russian versions of the literary pronunciation differ: the first is characterized by partial preservation okanya, i.e. distinction about and a, in unstressed syllables (for example, in Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Vladimir, etc.), and for the second - the pronunciation of [g] fricative (in Ryazan, Tambov, Tula, etc.) in contrast to the literary [g] explosive.
Sometimes the literary language borrows words and expressions from dialects. This applies primarily to subject-household and production-trade vocabulary: jug -‘kind of a jug with a lid’, gingerbread -‘kind of gingerbread, often on honey’, braid– ‘the time when they mow bread, grass’ , shell– ‘side wall of various cylindrical or conical vessels, drums, pipes’. Especially often the literary language lacks “its own” words for expressing feelings, i.e. expressive vocabulary, which “gets old” faster than other words, losing its original expressiveness. Then dialects come to the rescue. Words came from the southern dialects into the literary language wallow‘fuss, waste of time’, seize‘grab, greedily take’, from the northeastern - joke‘talk, joke’, and the word that has spread in the colloquial slang language goof origin is northwestern. It has the meaning of 'a fool, a fool'.
It should be noted that dialects are heterogeneous in origin: some are very ancient, while others are “younger”. with conversations primary education call those of them that are common in the territory of the early settlement of the East Slavic tribes, from the VI century. until the end of the 16th century, where the language of the Russian nation was formed - in the center of the European part of Russia, including the Arkhangelsk region. In the spaces where Russian people moved, as a rule, after the 16th century. from a variety of places - the northern, central and southern provinces of Russia - dialects arose secondary education. Here the population was mixed, which means that the local languages \u200b\u200bthat they spoke were also mixed, as a result, a new linguistic unity was obtained. And so new dialects were born in the Middle and Lower Volga regions, in the Urals, Kuban, Siberia and other parts of Russia. The dialects of the center are "mother" for them.
Good or bad?
At present, people who speak dialects tend to have an ambivalent attitude towards their language. Rural residents, on the one hand, evaluate their native language, comparing it with the surrounding dialects, and on the other hand, with the literary language.
In the first case, when one's own dialect is compared with the language of the neighbors, it is assumed to be good, correct, beautiful, and "alien" is usually evaluated as something ridiculous, clumsy, sometimes even funny. This is often reflected in ditties:
Like baranovsky girls
They speak with a letter c:
"Give me a soap, a towel
And culotsky on the toe!».
Here, attention is drawn to a very common phenomenon in Russian dialects - “clatter”, the essence of which lies in the fact that in place h villagers in a number of places pronounce c. A large number of sayings are also associated with ridiculing the speech features of neighbors. Kurisa on the street yaiso demolished- one of the teasers of this kind. And this is not an exaggeration, not fiction. In this case, another dialectal feature is played out: the pronunciation of the sound [c] in place of [ts], which is inherent in some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov, Belgorod, Bryansk regions. In Russian, the sound [ts] (affricate) consists of two elements: [t + s] = [ts], if the first element - [t] is lost in the dialect - [s] appears in place of [ts].
Features of the pronunciation of neighbors are sometimes fixed in nicknames. In the village of Popovka, Tambov Region, we happened to hear a saying: “ yes we call them shemyaki, they on sch they say: right now (now) I will come". Villagers are keenly aware of the differences between one dialect and another. " In Orlovka, the Cossacks lisped more. Proverb(“speaking, pronunciation”) at their friend. The Transbaikal Cossacks also have interesting sayings", - the dialectologists recorded the opinion of the natives with. Albazino Skovorodinsky district of the Amur region about the language of the Cossacks.
But when compared with the literary language, one’s own dialect is already assessed as bad, “gray”, incorrect, and the literary language is assessed as good, which should be imitated.
Similar observations about dialects can be found in the book by M.V. Panov "The History of Russian Literary Pronunciation of the 18th-20th Centuries": "Those who speak dialects have become ashamed of their speech. And before, it used to be ashamed if they got into an urban, non-dialect environment. Now, even in their families, the elders hear from the younger ones that they, the elders, say “wrong”, “uncivilized”. The voice of linguists advising to maintain respect for the dialect and use the local language in the family, among fellow villagers (and in other conditions, use the speech taught by the school) - this voice was not heard. Yes, and it sounded quiet, not broadcast.
A respectful attitude to the literary language is natural and quite understandable: in this way, its value and significance for the whole society is recognized and emphasized. However, a disdainful attitude to one's own dialect and to dialects in general as to "backward" speech is immoral and unfair. Dialects arose in the process of the historical development of the people, and the basis of any literary language is a dialect. Probably, if Moscow had not become the capital of the Russian state, our literary language would also have been different. Therefore, all dialects are equivalent from a linguistic point of view.
The fate of dialects
It is worth paying attention to the fact that in many Western European countries, the study of local dialects is treated with respect and care: in a number of French provinces, the native dialect is taught in optional classes at school and a mark for it is put in the certificate. In Germany, literary-dialect bilingualism is generally accepted. A similar situation was observed in Russia in the 19th century: educated people, coming from the countryside to the capitals, spoke the literary language, and at home, on their estates, when communicating with peasants and neighbors, they used the local dialect.
The reasons for the modern disdain for dialects should be sought in our past, in the ideology of a totalitarian state. At the time of transformations in agriculture (the period of collectivization), all manifestations of the material and spiritual life of the old Russian village were declared relics of the past. Entire families were evicted from their homes, they were declared kulaks, a stream of hardworking and economic peasants rushed from Central Russia to Siberia and Transbaikalia, many of them died. For the peasants themselves, the village turned into a place from which they had to flee in order to escape, to forget everything connected with it, including the language. As a result, the traditional culture of the peasantry was largely lost. This also applies to the language. It was predicted, even by linguists, the rapid disappearance of folk dialects. A whole generation of natives of the village, deliberately abandoning their native dialect, failed for many reasons to perceive a new language system for themselves - the literary language, to master it. This led to the decline of linguistic culture in the country.
Linguistic consciousness is part of cultural self-consciousness, and if we want to revive culture, to promote its flourishing, then we must begin with the language. “There is no clearly defined boundary between the self-awareness of the elements of language and other elements of culture ... in critical historical eras, the native language becomes a symbol of national self-awareness,” writes Moscow linguist S.E. Nikitina, who studied the folk picture of the world.
That is why the current moment is favorable for changing attitudes towards dialects in society, for awakening interest in the native language in all its manifestations. In recent decades, research institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences and many universities in Russia have been collecting and describing dialects; they publish various kinds of dialect dictionaries. Such gathering activity, in which students of the humanities faculties also take part, is important not only for linguistics, but also for studying the culture and history of the people, and, undoubtedly, for the education of young people. The fact is that by exploring dialects, we learn a new wonderful world - the world of folk traditional ideas about life, often very different from modern ones. No wonder N.V. Gogol in "Dead Souls" remarks: "And every nation ... has distinguished itself in its own way by its own word, which ... reflects part of its own character."
What is the fate of dialects at the present time? Have they been preserved or are local dialects - rare exoticisms, for which you have to go far into the outback? It turns out that despite the general literacy, the influence of television, radio, numerous newspapers and magazines has been preserved. And they were preserved not only in hard-to-reach places, but also in areas close to capitals and big cities. Of course, the dialect is spoken by people of the older and middle generation, and by small children, if they are brought up by village grandparents. They, the old-timers, are the keepers of the local language, the necessary source of information that dialectologists are looking for. In the speech of young people leaving the countryside, only certain dialectal features are preserved, but there are also those who stay at home forever. They also use, living in the village, folk-colloquial speech. Although the dialects are largely destroyed, it is impossible to predict their imminent disappearance. Getting acquainted with folk colloquial speech, we get information about the names of household items, the meanings of dialect words, concepts that are not found in the city. But not only that. The dialects reflect the age-old traditions of housekeeping, the peculiarities of the family way of life, ancient rituals, customs, folk calendar and much more. That is why it is so important to record the speech of the villagers for further study. Each dialect has a lot of expressive, vivid verbal images, phraseological units, sayings, riddles:
An affectionate word is not difficult, but quickly(profitable, successful, useful); Lies are not arguable: they will confuse soon; A thin silence is better than a good grumbling; I don’t look, so I don’t see, I don’t want, so I don’t hear; and here are the riddles: What is the sweetest and bitterest of all?(Word); Two mothers have five sons, all in the same name(fingers); I don’t know one, I don’t see the other, I don’t remember the third(death, age and birth).
Dialectisms in fiction
Dialect words are not uncommon in fiction. Usually they are used by those writers who themselves come from the village, or those who are well acquainted with folk speech: A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy, S.T. Aksakov I.S. Turgenev, N.S. Leskov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.A. Bunin, S.A. Yesenin, N.A. Klyuev, M.M. Prishvin, S.G. Pisakhov, F.A. Abramov, V.P. Astafiev, A.I. Solzhenitsyn, V.I. Belov, E.I. Nosov, B.A. Mozhaev, V.G. Rasputin and many others.
For a modern urban student, the lines of S. Yesenin from the poem “In the House”, which are given in many textbooks, sound completely mysterious. We will consider it too.
Smells loose brawlers,
At the threshold in bowl kvass,
Above stoves chiselled
Cockroaches climb into the groove.Soot curls over damper,
Thread in the oven popelits,
And on the bench behind the salt shaker -
Husks of raw eggs.mother with grips won't get along
bends down low about,
old cat k mahotke kr a goes
For fresh milkRestless chickens chuckle
Over shafts plows,
In the yard I will have a slender dinner
The roosters are singing.And in the window in the canopy sloping,
From shy noise,
From the corners puppies are curly
They crawl into collars.
S.A. Yesenin, according to contemporaries, was very fond of reading this poem in 1915–1916. in front of the public. Literary critic V. Chernyavsky recalls: “... He had to explain his vocabulary, - there were “foreigners” around, - and neither the “groove”, nor the “dezhka”, nor the “sloping”, nor the “sloping” were understandable to them. The poet - a native of the village of Konstantinovo, Ryazan province - often used his own, Ryazan words and forms in his works, incomprehensible to the inhabitants of the city, to those who are familiar only with the literary language. Chernyavsky calls them "foreigners". Most of us are foreigners. Therefore, we explain the meaning of the highlighted words. Incomprehensible in the text of the poem are not only Ryazan words, i.e. directly dialectisms, but also such expressions that characterize the life of any village (collar, plow, stove, damper).
Drachona (Jerking) - this is the name of a thick pancake, more often from wheat flour, smeared on top with an egg, or potato pancakes. It is these meanings that are most common in the villages of the Ryazan region. In other Russian dialects, the given word can mean a completely different dish.
dezhka - the word is very widespread in the southern dialect. This wooden tub was made by coopers, there were several bowls on the farm, they were used for pickling cucumbers, mushrooms, and for storing water, kvass, and for making dough. As you can see, kvass is poured in this bowl.
When you ask schoolchildren in a lesson: “What do you think: what does the word stoves ? - in response you hear: "Little stoves." - “But why are there several of them and they are chiseled?” Pechurka - a small recess in the outer or side wall of the oven for drying and storing small items.
popelica - formed from a dialect word sang - ashes.
grip - a device with which the pots are taken out of the oven (see figure) is a curved metal plate - a slingshot, attached to a handle - a long wooden stick. The word, although it denotes an object of peasant life, is included in the literary language, and therefore in dictionaries it is given without a mark of the region. (regional) or dial. (dialect).
mahotka - clay pot.
low, sneaking - these words are given with dialectal stress.
The words shafts
‘element of harness’, as well as plow
‘primitive agricultural tool’, are included in the literary language, we will find them in any explanatory dictionary. It's just that they are not well known, because they are usually associated with an old, bygone village, a traditional peasant economy. And as for the words sloped
(probably sloping) and noise
(noise), then there is no information about them in dialect dictionaries. And dialectologists, without special research, cannot say whether there are such words in Ryazan dialects or whether they are inventions of the poet himself, i.e. writer's occasionalisms.
So, a dialect word, phrase, construction included in a work of art to convey local color when describing village life, to create a speech characteristic of characters, is called dialectism.
Dialectisms are perceived by us as something outside the literary language, not corresponding to its norms. Dialectisms are different depending on what trait they reflect. Local words that are unknown to the literary language are called lexical dialects. These include the words dezhka, mahotka, drachena, popelitsa. If they are listed in dictionaries, then with a note regional (region).
In our example, the word stove, which in the literary language means a small stove, but in the dialect it has a completely different meaning (see above). This is semantic (semantic) dialectism(from Greek. semanticos- denoting), i.e. the word is known to the literary language, but its meaning is different.
A variety of lexical dialectisms areethnographic dialectisms. They designate the names of objects, foods, clothes, peculiar only to the inhabitants of a certain area - in other words, this is the dialect name of a local thing. “Women in plaid panevs threw wood chips at slow-witted or overzealous dogs,” writes I.S. Turgenev . Paneva (poneva)
- a type of women's clothing such as a skirt, characteristic of peasant women from the south of Russia, they wear it both in Ukraine and in Belarus. Panevs, depending on the area, differ in their material and colors. Here is another example of ethnography from the story of V.G. Rasputin's “French Lessons”: “Even earlier, I noticed with what curiosity Lydia Mikhailovna looks at my shoes. Of the entire class, I was the only one wearing teal.” In Siberian dialects, the word teal
means light leather shoes, usually without tops, with trim and ties.
Let us once again pay attention to the fact that many lexical and semantic dialectisms can be found in the explanatory dictionaries of the literary language marked reg. (regional). Why are they included in dictionaries? Because they are often used in fiction, in newspapers, magazines, in colloquial speech, when it comes to village problems.
Often it is important for writers to show not only what the character says, but also how he says it. For this purpose, dialect forms are introduced into the characters' speech. It is impossible to get past them. For example, I.A. Bunin, a native of the Oryol region, who brilliantly knew the dialect of his native places, writes in the story “Tales”: “This Vanya is from the oven, which means getting down, Malachai to myself putting on, sash girded, clade in the bosom kryushechkyu and goes to this very guard ”(emphasis added. - I.B., O.K.). Kushachkyom, kraushechku - convey the peculiarities of the pronunciation of the Oryol peasants.
Varieties of dialectisms
Such dialectisms are called phonetic. In the above words, the sound [k] softens under the influence of the adjacent soft sound [h '] - it is likened to the previous sound on the basis of softness. This phenomenon is called assimilation(from lat. assimilation- assimilation).
Phonetic dialectisms, or rather, accentological ones that convey dialectal stress, include the forms low, sneaking from Yesenin's poem.
There is in Bunin's text and grammatical dialectisms, which reflect the morphological features of the dialect. These include the words put, getting down, putting on. In these verbs, the final was dropped t in the 3rd person singular, followed by the transition of the shock to - instead of gets off - getting down, instead of puts on - putting on.
Grammatical dialectisms are often cited in the speech of heroes, since they do not complicate the understanding of the text and at the same time give it a bright dialectal color. Let's take another interesting example. In Northern Russian dialects, the past tense is preserved - pluperfect: this tense indicates an action that took place in the past before some other specific action. Here is an excerpt from the story of B.V. Shergin: " Was bought I like a silk robe about the holiday. I did not have time to thank, I ran to the chapel to show off my new thing. Tatko was offended." Tatko - father in Pomeranian dialects. Was bought and there is the past tense. First, the father bought a bathrobe (preliminary past), and then the daughter did not have time to thank him (past tense) for the update.
Another type of dialectic derivational dialectisms.
ON THE. Nekrasov in the poem "Peasant Children" writes:
Mushroom time did not have time to depart,
Look - everyone has black lips,
Nabili osmomu: blueberry ripe!
And there are raspberries, lingonberries, walnuts!
There are several dialect words here. Oscom, literary form set on edge, and blueberry, those. blueberry. Both words have the same roots as literary words, but different suffixes.
It is natural that dialect words, phrases, syntactic constructions go beyond the norm of the literary language and therefore have a bright stylistic coloring. But the language of fiction, being a special phenomenon, includes all the existing linguistic diversity. The main thing is that such inclusion should be motivated, justified by artistic goals. Undoubtedly, the very word that came from the dialect should become understandable to the reader. For this purpose, some writers explain dialectisms directly in the text, others give a footnote. These authors include I.S. Turgenev, M.M. Prishvin, F.A. Abramov.
Set word value...
In one of the stories of the "Notes of a Hunter" I. Turgenev remarks: "We went to the forest, or, as we say, to the" order "."
F. Abramov in the novel “Pryasliny” often interprets the meaning of local words in footnotes: “Sister Marfa Pavlovna warmed up, and thank God,” and the footnote states: sister - cousin.
In the story "The pantry of the sun" M. Prishvin repeatedly uses the dialect word elan: “Meanwhile, it was precisely here, in this clearing, that the interlacing of plants ceased altogether, there was spruce, the same thing as an ice hole in a pond in winter. In an ordinary elani, at least a little bit of water is always visible, covered with large, white, beautiful kupava, water lilies. That is why this spruce was called Blind, because it was impossible to recognize it by its appearance. Not only does the meaning of the dialect word become clear to us from the text, the author, at the first mention of it, gives a footnote-explanation: “Elan is a swampy place in a swamp, it’s like a hole in the ice.”
So, in the story of the Siberian writer V. Rasputin “Live and Remember”, the same word is repeatedly found elan, as in Prishvin, but it is given without any explanation, and one can only guess about its meaning: “Guskov went out into the fields and turned to the right, to the distant elani, he had to spend the whole day there.” More likely elan in this case it means "field" or "meadow". And here are other examples from the same work: “The snow in the cold spruce forest almost did not melt, the sun here and in open places was weaker than on the spruce trees, in the clearings lay clear, like squeezed out, open shadows of trees.” “All day long he wandered around the spruces, either going out into open places, or hiding in the forest; sometimes, to passion, to evil impatience, he wanted to see people and to be seen too.
If we now turn to the multi-volume "Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects", which is published by the Institute of Linguistic Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and includes dialect words collected throughout Russia, it turns out that elan has ten meanings, and even in close territories they differ. In Siberian dialects alone elan can mean: 1) flat open space; 2) meadow, meadow plain; 3) a place suitable for pastures; 5) field plain, field, arable land; 6) a clearing in the forest, etc. Agree, it is difficult, not being a native of those places about which Valentin Rasputin writes, to say with confidence what the meaning of the word is elan in the passages given.
Especially often writers resort to various kinds of dialectisms, stylizing folk speech, writing in the form of a tale: N.S. Leskov, P.P. Bazhov, S.G. Pisakhov, B.V. Shergin, V.I. Belov. Here is an excerpt from the fairy tale by S.G. Pisakhova “Northern Lights”: “In the summer we have day and night light, we don’t sleep. I work during the day, and at night I run ghouls and race with deer. And from autumn to winter we are preparing. We dry the northern lights.
As you can see, Pisakhov conveys a very striking feature of northern dialects - the loss of j and the subsequent contraction of vowels in the endings of verbs and adjectives: north from north round from round, work from working, ghouls from walking, running from running.
The narrator in such works is most often a joker who looks at the world with irony and optimism. He has a lot of stories and jokes in store for all occasions.
These heroes include the narrator from the wonderful work of V.I. Belova “Vologda Bays”: “It’s good to live while you are Kuzka. As soon as you become Kuzma Ivanovich, it immediately throws you into thoughtfulness. From this thoughtfulness comes the eclipse of life. Here again, you can’t live without a bay. The bay amuses the soul without wine, the heart rejuvenates. Gives brains enlightenment and a new move. With a bay and the stomach feels better. The bay is different and small, but remote ... ". In Vologda dialects bay means ‘fiction, absurdity’, there is even a phraseological unit bays to bend ‘to engage in idle talk, to speak absurdities’. The tale form makes it possible to look at the world differently, to understand the main thing in a person and life, to laugh at oneself, to support others with a funny joke.
Writers subtly feel the brightness and originality of folk speech, from which they draw imagery and inspiration. So, B.V. Shergin in the essay "Dvina Land" writes about one Pomeranian storyteller: "I was eager to listen to Pafnuty Osipovich and later retold his foldable, beautiful word awkwardly."
Abstract of an optional lesson
Subject: Dialect language and literary language
Goals:
To form a general understanding of students about the differences between the Russian literary language and dialect words;
To develop the ability to identify the features of the difference between the literary language and dialect;
To cultivate a caring attitude and interest in the language of the native land.
Equipment: dictionary V.A. Pashchenko , writing on the board, cards, presentation.
Lesson progress:
Organizing time
Hello guys! Today we will talk about literary language and dialectal language.
Why do you think you need to learn dialects?
Statement and message of the topic of the lesson
Today in the lesson we will study a new topic - "Dialect language and literary language" and find out their main differences.
Introductory conversation
Great, mighty, truthful, free,
Folk life-giving force spring!
We dedicate a lesson to you today,
Our proud, our native language!
What do you think, what language: literary or dialectal is spoken in these lines of the poem? (express their assumptions)
teacher's word
Our language consists of two varieties: the literary language and the dialect. Every person born in the village is both a native speaker of a literary language and a particular dialect.
A literary language is a standardized language that has rules that all members of society must follow. A dialect (dialect) is the smallest territorial variety of a language spoken by residents of several regions. The combination of dialects is called adverb. In the Russian language, two main dialects are distinguished - North Russian and South Russian and a strip of Central Russian dialects between them. We talked about this a little in the last lesson.
Dialect words are words that are used by the inhabitants of a certain area. The dialects of any locality differ from the literary language primarily in phonetic, morphological, syntactic, derivational and lexical features. The most important feature of the dialect lies in the vocabulary (vocabulary) and phraseology of the dialect.
A dialect is a means of communication for the population of a certain region; it reflects the material and spiritual culture of an ethnic group, its rituals, and traditions. (Ethnos - tribe, nationality, nation).
- What do you think came first - dialects or literary language? (express their assumptions).
Dialects arose earlier than the literary language. They have always enriched it and still retained many sound combinations, grammatical forms, words that have been lost in the literary language.
Dialects and literary Russian differ from each other in many ways. One of the most significant differences is that the literary language is a form of language, the features of which (sound, grammatical, lexical, etc.) are fixed in a number of rules or norms contained in any textbook of the Russian language. The literary language - otherwise it is called the normalized form of the language - in this regard, in principle, is uniform throughout the entire territory of the distribution of the Russian language. Each territorial dialect also has its own norms, but they are valid only in a limited, often very small area. Sometimes these norms are different in two neighboring settlements.
The literary language and territorial dialects differ from each other in that the first has a written and oral form, and the second only an oral one.
Thus, Russian speech, which is heard on the vast territory of Russia, is not uniform: in its individual parts, people, and most of them, speak only one or another territorial dialect.
Card work
Read. Divide these words into two columns:
Cucumber, mashed potatoes, frying pan, teapot, teapot, pancakes, cap, glass, kolob, dry skin, roast coat, tops, kufayka.
On what basis can this be done? (known to all and unknown, or literary and dialect).
Can you explain what they mean?
Working with offers
Read the sentences. Find and write out dialect words.
1) “Dimka is going to build a chushatnik here. We will buy piglets this spring.” 2)“They have long settled down in a new hut. All bought and furnished. They even took a whisk." 3) “Bring me a bottle from the winter hut. Right now I’ll pour milk into it, take it to my grandmother. ” 4) “Before, all relatives gathered for a roast. Boil the meat in a full pot. It is tasty, fresh, soft ... "5) "The dough must be put skillfully so that the fritters turn out lush and tasty. If you don’t make the dough like that, you won’t get pancakes!” 6) “We’ll fry the potatoes, boil them in salt and in their uniforms, and prepare the mashed potatoes. That's how much you can make of it! 7) “I’ll put it in a cup and put it in the refrigerator.” 8) “We have a lot of people gathering in the evening. Let's sit down, there isn't enough room for everyone." nine)“He used to visit us often. I told him to undress, take off his pea jacket and hang it on a hanger. And he will sit on a stool near the threshold.
- Are there any words in the sentences that you met in the speech of grandparents, the meaning of which you find it difficult to name?
- Name the features that distinguish dialect speech from literary.
teacher's word
People living in a village speak this dialect from childhood. But when they come to school, they get acquainted with the literary language in which the great Russian literature is written, which is the state language of the Russian Federation. And you need to own it, and when necessary, speak exactly on it, i.e. be able to switch from spoken to literary language and vice versa.
Of course, the literary language is an exemplary form of the Russian national language, it has absorbed all the best that is in the Russian language, but at the same time, you cannot treat the dialect of your village as a linguistic misunderstanding.
The most valuable thing in any dialect is words and turns of speech that are not in the literary language. Local words, successfully used, enrich our speech, make it unique. Knowledge of one's dialect introduces a person to traditional material and spiritual culture, helps to better understand proverbs, sayings, carols, ditties.
8. Acquaintance with the dictionary of V.A. Pashchenko
- We can find phraseological units, proverbs, sayings of our region in the dictionary of Vera Aleksandrovna Pashchenko. This is the Dictionary of phraseological units and other stable combinations of the Trans-Baikal Territory. Vera Alexandrovna investigated 122 settlements in 29 districts of the region. The dictionary helps us to see the culture of our people, their wisdom and value system. It included about three thousand phraseological units.
9. Working with a dictionary
Exercise 1: The class is divided into two groups. The first group writes out from the dictionary 4-5 sayings related to the characteristics of a person, the second group - with a description of situations. Then the students read the written sayings, explain their meaning.
Task 2: The presentation slide contains texts from the dictionary. The task of students is to find sayings in them, then determine their meaning in the dictionary.
Texts: 1) How to work, so what does he drink! And then they drank it all away, mocked at them: wave not lopotina, the goldsmith is not a man!(about a useless person). 2) Did Casanova know? He went into the army behind Kolka. And he returned - he did not marry Anka, he took a girl from the Murzins. And Anka is brave, yes you can’t sew a ridge with beauty. The Murzins lived hard (about a beautiful but poor girl). 3) They brought the granddaughter, so she began to live as it should. And I don't get sick. And then I wind balls into skeins and while away the day. And all sorts of thoughts in my head .... (about an empty pastime). 4) She saw off, she yearned not for strength, shed tears, every day she whispered: somewhere he the seventh Kazan rakes? (disappeared unknown where). 5) They came from work unwashed, dirty. And at the bathhouse - and a mustache. Night before the bath, morning after the bath. 9 on the beneficial effects of the bath). 6) He roared to the door. And we already Brother Kondrat embraces by the shoulders, we all jumped up and ran (of great fear).
10. Summary of the lesson
What is a dialect?
Name the differences between the literary language and dialect words.
What can you tell about V.A. Pashchenko?
11. Homework: listen to the speech of your grandparents; write down the dialect words they use and their meanings.
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
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