The Earth is often and not without reason called the double planet Earth-Moon. The moon (Selene, in Greek mythology, the goddess of the moon), our celestial neighbor, was the first to be directly studied.

The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth, located at a distance of 384 thousand km (60 Earth radii) from it. The average radius of the moon is 1738 km (almost 4 times less than the earth). The mass of the Moon is 1/81 of the mass of the Earth, which is much larger than similar ratios for other planets in the solar system (except for the Pluto-Charon pair); Therefore, the Earth-Moon system is considered a double planet. It has a common center of gravity - the so-called barycenter, which is located in the body of the Earth at a distance of 0.73 radii from its center (1700 km from the surface of the Ocean). Both components of the system revolve around this center, and it is the barycenter that orbits around the Sun. The average density of the lunar substance is 3.3 g/cm 3 (the earth's is 5.5 g/cm 3). The volume of the Moon is 50 times smaller than the Earth. The force of lunar attraction is 6 times weaker than that of the earth. The moon rotates around its axis, which is why it is slightly flattened at the poles. The axis of rotation of the Moon makes an angle of 83°22 with the plane of the lunar orbit. The plane of the Moon's orbit does not coincide with the plane of the Earth's orbit and is inclined to it at an angle of 5°9". The places where the orbits of the Earth and the Moon intersect are called the nodes of the lunar orbit.

The orbit of the Moon is an ellipse, in one of the focuses of which is the Earth, so the distance from the Moon to the Earth varies from 356 to 406 thousand km. The period of the orbital revolution of the Moon and, accordingly, the same position of the Moon on the celestial sphere is called the sidereal (stellar) month (Latin sidus, sideris (genus) - star). It is 27.3 Earth days. The sidereal month coincides with the period of the daily rotation of the Moon around its axis due to their identical angular velocity (about 13.2 ° per day), which was established due to the decelerating effect of the Earth. Due to the synchronism of these movements, the Moon always faces us with one side. However, we see almost 60% of its surface due to libration - the apparent swaying of the Moon up and down (due to the mismatch of the planes of the lunar and Earth orbits and the inclination of the axis of rotation of the Moon to the orbit) and left-to-right (due to the fact that the Earth is in one of the focuses of the lunar orbit, and the visible hemisphere of the Moon looks at the center of the ellipse).

When moving around the Earth, the Moon takes different positions relative to the Sun. Associated with this are the various phases of the moon, that is, the different forms of its visible part. The main four phases: new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter. The line on the surface of the moon that separates the illuminated part of the moon from the unlit part is called the terminator.

During the new moon, the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth and is facing the Earth with its unlit side, therefore it is invisible. During the first quarter, the Moon is visible from the Earth at an angular distance of 90° from the Sun, and the sun's rays illuminate only the right half of the side of the Moon facing the Earth. During a full moon, the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon, the hemisphere of the Moon facing the Earth is brightly illuminated by the Sun, and the Moon is visible as a full disk. In the last quarter, the Moon is again visible from the Earth at an angular distance of 90 ° from the Sun, and the sun's rays illuminate the left half of the visible side of the Moon. In the intervals between these main phases, the Moon is seen either in the form of a crescent, or as an incomplete disk.

The period of a complete change of lunar phases, i.e., the period of the return of the Moon to its original position relative to the Sun and the Earth, is called the synodic month. It averages 29.5 mean solar days. During the synodic month on the Moon, once there is a change of day and night, the duration of which is = 14.7 days. The synodic month is more than two days longer than the sidereal month. This is the result of the fact that the direction of the axial rotation of the Earth and the Moon coincides with the direction of the Moon's orbital motion. When the Moon makes a complete revolution around the Earth in 27.3 days, the Earth will move about 27 ° in its orbit around the Sun, since its angular orbital velocity is about 1 ° per day. In this case, the Moon will take the same position among the stars, but will not be in the full moon phase, since for this it needs to move along its orbit by another 27 ° behind the "escaped" Earth. Since the angular velocity of the Moon is approximately 13.2° per day, it overcomes this distance in about two days and additionally advances another 2° behind the moving Earth. As a result, the synodic month is more than two days longer than the sidereal month. Although the Moon moves around the Earth from west to east, its apparent movement in the sky occurs from east to west due to the high speed of the Earth's rotation compared to the orbital motion of the Moon. At the same time, during the upper culmination (the highest point of its path in the sky), the Moon shows the direction of the meridian (north - south), which can be used for approximate orientation on the ground. And since the upper culmination of the Moon at different phases occurs at different hours of the day: at the first quarter - about 18 hours, during the full moon - at midnight, at the last quarter - about 6 hours in the morning (local time), this can also be used for a rough estimate of the time at night.

LIBRATION OF THE MOON: The moon makes a full revolution around the Earth in 27.32166 days. In exactly the same time, it makes a revolution around its own axis. This is not a coincidence, but is due to the influence of the Earth on its satellite. Since the period of revolution of the Moon around its axis and around the Earth is the same, the Moon must always face the Earth with one side. However, there are some inaccuracies in the rotation of the Moon and its movement around the Earth.

The rotation of the Moon around its axis occurs very evenly, but the speed of its revolution around our planet varies depending on the distance from the Earth. The minimum distance from the Moon to the Earth is 354 thousand km, the maximum distance is 406 thousand km. The point of the lunar orbit closest to the Earth is called perigee from "peri" (peri) - around, about, (near and "re" (ge) - earth), the point of maximum removal - apogee [from the Greek "apo" (aro) - above, above and "re". At closer distances from the Earth, the speed of the Moon's orbit increases, so its rotation around its axis is somewhat "lagging". As a result, a small part of the far side of the Moon, its eastern edge, becomes visible to us. In the second half of its Earth orbit, the Moon slows down, causing it to turn a little "hurried" around its axis, and we can see a small part of its other hemisphere from the western edge.To a person who watches the Moon through a telescope from night to night, it seems that it slowly oscillates around its axis, first for two weeks in an easterly direction, and then for the same amount in a western direction. We also oscillate for some time around the equilibrium position. In Latin, scales are “libra” (libra), therefore, the apparent fluctuations of the Moon, due to the unevenness of its movement in orbit around the Earth with uniform rotation around its axis, are called the libration of the Moon. The librations of the Moon occur not only in the east-west direction, but also in the north-south direction, since the axis of rotation of the Moon is inclined to the plane of its orbit. Then the observer sees a small area of ​​the far side of the Moon in the regions of its north and south poles. Thanks to both types of libration, from the Earth it is possible to see (not simultaneously) almost 59% of the surface of the Moon.

GALAXY

The sun is one of many hundreds of billions of stars gathered in a giant cluster that has a lenticular shape. The diameter of this cluster is about three times its thickness. Our solar system is located in the outer thin edge of it. Stars are like separate points of light, scattered in the surrounding darkness of distant space. But if we look along the diameter of the lens of the assembled cluster, we will see an innumerable number of other star clusters that form a ribbon of shimmering soft light that stretches across the entire sky.

The ancient Greeks believed that this "path" in the sky was formed by drops of spilled milk, and called it a galaxy. "Galaktikos" (galakticos) Greek milky from "galaktos" (galaktos), which means milk. The ancient Romans called it "via lactea", which literally means the Milky Way. As soon as regular telescope surveys began, nebulous clusters were discovered among distant stars. The English astronomers father and son Herschel, as well as the French astronomer Charles Messier, were among the first to discover these objects. They were called nebulas from the Latin "nebula" (nebula) fog. This Latin word was borrowed from the Greek language. In the Greek "nephele" (nephele) also meant a cloud, fog, and the goddess of the clouds was called Nephela. Many of the discovered nebulae turned out to be dust clouds that covered some parts of our Galaxy, blocking light from them.

When observed, they looked like black objects. But many "clouds" are located far outside the galaxy and are clusters of stars as large as our own cosmic "home". They seem small only because of the gigantic distances that separate us. The closest galaxy to us is the famous Andromeda Nebula. Such distant star clusters are also called extragalactic nebulae "extra" (extra) in Latin means the prefix "outside", "over". To distinguish them from the relatively small dust formations inside our galaxy. There are hundreds of billions of such extragalactic nebulae - galaxies, because now they speak of galaxies in the plural. Moreover, since the galaxies themselves form clusters in outer space, they speak of galaxies of galaxies.

INFLUENZA

The ancients believed that the stars influence the fate of people, so there was even a whole science that was involved in determining how they do it. We are talking, of course, about astrology, the name of which comes from the Greek words "aster" (aster) - a star and "logos" (logos) - a word. In other words, an astrologer is a "talker of the stars." Usually "-ology" is an indispensable component in the names of many sciences, but astrologers have so discredited their "science" that another term had to be found for the true science of the stars: astronomy. The Greek word "nemein" (nemein) means routine, regularity. Therefore, astronomy is a science that "orders" the stars, investigating the laws of their movement, emergence and extinction. Astrologers believed that the stars radiate a mysterious force that, flowing down to Earth, controls the fate of people. In Latin, to pour, drain, penetrate - “influere” (influere), this word was used when they wanted to say that stellar power “poured” into a person. In those days, the true causes of diseases were not known, and it was quite natural to hear from a doctor that an ailment that visited a person was a consequence of the influence of the stars. Therefore, one of the most common diseases, which today we know as influenza, was called influenza (literally - influence). This name was born in Italy (it. influenca).

The Italians drew attention to the connection between malaria and swamps, but overlooked the mosquito. To them he was but a small vexatious insect; they saw the real cause in the miasma of bad air over the swamps (it was undoubtedly "heavy" due to the high humidity and gases released by decaying plants). The Italian word for something bad is “mala” (mala), so they called bad, heavy air (aria) “malaria” (malaria), which eventually became the generally accepted scientific name for the well-known disease. Today, in Russian, no one, of course, will call influenza influenza, although in English it is called that, however, in colloquial speech, it is most often reduced to a short “flu” (flu).

Perihelion

The ancient Greeks believed that celestial bodies move in orbits that are perfect circles, because the circle is an ideal closed curve, and the celestial bodies themselves are perfect. The Latin word "orbit" (orbita) means track, road, but it is formed from "orbis" (orbis) - a circle.

However, in 1609, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler proved that each planet moves around the Sun in an ellipse with the Sun at one of its foci. And if the Sun is not in the center of the circle, then the planets at some points of their orbit approach it more than at others. The closest point to the Sun in the orbit of a celestial body revolving around it is called perihelion.

In Greek, “peri-” (peri-) is a part of compound words meaning about, around, and “helios” (hellos) is the Sun, so perihelion can be translated as “near the Sun”. Similarly, the Greeks began to call the point of greatest removal of a celestial body from the Sun "aphelios" (arheliqs). The prefix "apo" (aro) means far from, so this word can be translated as "far from the Sun." In the Russian transmission, the word "aphelios" turned into an aphelion: the Latin letters p and h are read side by side as "f". The elliptical orbit of the Earth is close to a perfect circle (here the Greeks were right), so the difference between the Earth's perihelion and aphelion is only 3%. Terms for celestial bodies describing orbits around other celestial bodies were formed in a similar way. So, the Moon revolves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit, while the Earth is in one of its foci. The point of closest approach of the Moon to the Earth was called the perigee "re", (ge) in Greek Earth, and the point of the greatest distance from the Earth - the apogee. Astronomers know double stars. In this case, two stars revolve in elliptical orbits around a common center of mass under the influence of gravitational forces, and the larger the mass of the satellite star, the smaller the ellipse. The point of closest approach of the revolving star to the main star is called the periastron, and the point of the greatest distance is called the apoaster from the Greek. "astron" (astron) - a star.

Planet - definition

Even in ancient times, man could not fail to notice that the stars occupy a permanent position in the sky. They moved only as a group and made only small movements around a certain point in the northern sky. It was very far from the points of sunrise and sunset where the sun and moon appeared and disappeared.

Every night there was an inconspicuous shift of the whole picture of the starry sky. Each star rose 4 minutes earlier and set 4 minutes earlier compared to the previous night, so in the west the stars gradually left the horizon, and new ones appeared in the east. A year later, the circle closed, and the picture was restored. However, five starlike objects were observed in the sky, which shone as brightly, if not brighter than the stars, but did not follow the general routine. One of these objects could be located between two stars today, and move tomorrow, the next night the shift was even greater, and so on. Three such objects (we call them Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) also made a full circle in the heavens, but in a rather complicated way. And the other two (Mercury and Venus) did not depart too far from the Sun. In other words, these objects "wandered" between the stars.

The Greeks called their vagabonds "planetes" (planetes), so they called these heavenly vagabonds planets. In the Middle Ages, the Sun and the Moon were considered planets. But by the 17th century astronomers have already realized the fact that the Sun is the center of the solar system, so the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun began to be called planets. The sun lost the status of a planet, and the Earth, on the contrary, acquired it. The Moon also ceased to be a planet, because it revolves around the Earth and only goes around the Sun together with the Earth.

Basic information about the moon

© Vladimir Kalanov,
website"Knowledge is power".

The Moon is the closest large cosmic body to the Earth. The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth. Distance from the Earth to the Moon: 384400 km.

In the middle of the surface of the Moon, facing our planet, there are large seas (dark spots).
They are areas that have been flooded with lava for a very long time.

Average distance from Earth: 384,000 km (min. 356,000 km, max. 407,000 km)
Equator diameter - 3480 km
Gravity - 1/6 of the earth
The period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth is 27.3 Earth days
The period of rotation of the Moon around its axis is 27.3 Earth days. (The period of revolution around the Earth and the period of rotation of the Moon are equal, which means that the Moon always faces the Earth on one side; both planets revolve around a common center located inside the globe, so it is generally accepted that the Moon revolves around the Earth.)
Sidereal month (phases): 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 03 seconds
Average orbital speed: 1 km/s.
The mass of the moon is 7.35 x10 22 kg. (1/81 earth mass)
Surface temperature:
- maximum: 122°C;
- minimum: -169°C.
Average density: 3.35 (g/cm³).
Atmosphere: absent;
Water: not available.

It is believed that the internal structure of the Moon is similar to the structure of the Earth. The moon has a liquid core with a diameter of about 1500 km, around which there is a mantle about 1000 km thick, and the upper layer is a crust covered on top with a layer of lunar soil. The most superficial layer of soil consists of regolith, a gray porous substance. The thickness of this layer is about six meters, and the thickness of the lunar crust is on average 60 km.

People have been observing this amazing night star for thousands of years. Every nation has songs, myths and fairy tales about the Moon. Moreover, the songs are mostly lyrical, sincere. In Russia, for example, it is impossible to meet a person who would not know the Russian folk song "The Moon Shines", and in Ukraine everyone loves the beautiful song "Nich Yaka Misyachna". However, I cannot vouch for everyone, especially young people. After all, there may, unfortunately, be those who are more to the liking of the "Rolling Stones" and their fatal effects. But let's not digress from the topic.

Interest in the Moon

People have been interested in the Moon since ancient times. Already in the 7th century BC. Chinese astronomers found that the time intervals between the same phases of the moon are 29.5 days, and the length of the year is 366 days.

At about the same time in Babylon, stargazers published a kind of cuneiform book on astronomy on clay tablets, which contained information about the moon and the five planets. Surprisingly, the stargazers of Babylon already knew how to calculate the time periods between lunar eclipses.

Not much later, in the VI century BC. The Greek Pythagoras already argued that the moon does not shine by its own light, but reflects sunlight to the Earth.

Based on observations, accurate lunar calendars for various regions of the Earth have long been compiled.

Observing dark areas on the surface of the moon, the first astronomers were sure that they were seeing lakes or seas similar to those on Earth. They did not yet know that it was impossible to talk about any water, because on the surface of the Moon the temperature during the day reaches plus 122°C, and at night - minus 169°C.

Before the advent of spectral analysis, and then space rockets, the study of the Moon was essentially reduced to visual observation or, as they say now, to monitoring. The invention of the telescope expanded the possibilities of studying both the Moon and other celestial bodies. Elements of the lunar landscape, numerous craters (of various origins) and "seas" subsequently began to receive the names of prominent people, mostly scientists. On the visible side of the Moon appeared the names of scientists and thinkers of different eras and peoples: Plato and Aristotle, Pythagoras and, Darwin and Humboldt, and Amundsen, Ptolemy and Copernicus, Gauss and, Struve and Keldysh, and Lorentz and others.

In 1959, the Soviet automatic station photographed the far side of the moon. To the existing lunar riddles, another one was added: in contrast to the visible side, there are almost no dark areas of "seas" on the far side of the Moon.

The craters discovered on the far side of the Moon, at the suggestion of Soviet astronomers, were named after Jules Verne, Giordano Bruno, Edison and Maxwell, and one of the dark areas was called the Sea of ​​Moscow. The names are approved by the International Astronomical Union.

One of the craters on the visible side of the Moon is named Hevelius. This is the name of the Polish astronomer Jan Hevelius (1611-1687), who was one of the first to view the moon through a telescope. In his native city of Gdansk, Hevelius, a lawyer by education and a passionate lover of astronomy, published the most detailed atlas of the moon at that time, calling it "Selenography". This work brought him worldwide fame. The atlas consisted of 600 folio pages and 133 engravings. Hevelius himself typed the texts, made engravings and printed the edition himself. He did not begin to guess which of the mortals is worthy and which is not worthy to imprint his name on the eternal tablet of the lunar disk. Hevelius gave earthly names to the mountains discovered on the surface of the Moon: Carpathians, Alps, Apennines, Caucasus, Riphean (i.e. Ural) mountains.

Much knowledge about the Moon has been accumulated by science. We know that the Moon shines by sunlight reflected from its surface. The moon is constantly turned to the Earth by one side, because its complete revolution around its own axis and the revolution around the Earth are the same in duration and equal to 27 Earth days and eight hours. But why, for what reason, did such synchronicity arise? This is one of the mysteries.

Moon phases

When the Moon rotates around the Earth, the lunar disk changes its position relative to the Sun. Therefore, an observer on Earth sees the Moon successively as a full bright circle, then as a crescent, becoming a thinner crescent until the crescent completely disappears from view. Then everything repeats itself: the thin crescent of the Moon reappears and increases to a crescent, and then to a full disk. The phase when the moon is not visible is called the new moon. The phase during which a thin "crescent", appearing on the right side of the lunar disk, grows to a semicircle, is called the first quarter. The illuminated part of the disk grows and captures the entire disk - the full moon phase has come. After that, the illuminated disk decreases to a semicircle (the last quarter) and continues to decrease until the narrow "crescent" on the left side of the lunar disk disappears from the field of view, i.e. the new moon comes again and everything repeats.

A complete change of phases occurs in 29.5 Earth days, i.e. within about a month. That is why in popular speech the moon is called the month.

So, there is nothing miraculous in the phenomenon of changing the phases of the moon. It is also not a miracle that the Moon does not fall to the Earth, although it experiences the powerful gravitation of the Earth. It does not fall because the gravitational force is balanced by the inertia force of the Moon's motion in orbit around the Earth. The law of universal gravitation, discovered by Isaac Newton, operates here. But ... why did the movement of the Moon around the Earth, the movement of the Earth and other planets around the Sun arise, what was the reason, what force initially made these celestial bodies move in this way? The answer to this question must be sought in the processes that took place when the Sun and the entire solar system arose. But where can one get knowledge about what happened many billions of years ago? The human mind can look both into the unimaginably distant past and into the future. This is evidenced by the achievements of many sciences, including astronomy and astrophysics.

Landing a man on the moon

The most impressive and, without exaggeration, epochal achievements of scientific and technical thought in the 20th century were: the launch in the USSR of the first artificial satellite of the Earth on October 7, 1957, the first manned flight into space, performed by Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and the landing of a man on the moon, carried out by the United States of America July 21, 1969.

To date, 12 people have already walked on the moon (they are all US citizens), but the glory always belongs to the first. Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin were the first people to walk on the moon. They landed on the moon from the Apollo 11 spacecraft, which was piloted by astronaut Michael Collins. Collins was on a spacecraft that was in orbit around the moon. After completing work on the lunar surface, Armstrong and Aldrin launched from the Moon on the lunar compartment of the spacecraft and, after docking in lunar orbit, transferred to the Apollo 11 spacecraft, which then headed for Earth. On the Moon, the astronauts made scientific observations, took pictures of the surface, collected samples of lunar soil and did not forget to plant the national flag of their homeland on the Moon.

Left to right: Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin.

The first astronauts showed courage and real heroism. These words are standard, but they fully apply to Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins. Danger could await them at every stage of the flight: when starting from the Earth, when entering the orbit of the Moon, when landing on the Moon. And where was the guarantee that they would return from the Moon to the ship piloted by Collins, and then safely reach the Earth? But that's not all. No one knew in advance what conditions would meet people on the Moon, how their space suits would behave. The only thing that the astronauts could not be afraid of was that they would not drown in lunar dust. The Soviet automatic station "Luna-9" in 1966 landed on one of the plains of the Moon, and its instruments reported: there is no dust! By the way, the general designer of Soviet space systems, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, even earlier, in 1964, based solely on his scientific intuition, stated (and in writing) that there is no dust on the Moon. Of course, this does not mean the complete absence of any dust, but the absence of a layer of dust of a noticeable thickness. Indeed, earlier, some scientists assumed the presence on the Moon of a layer of loose dust up to 2-3 meters deep or more.

But Armstrong and Aldrin were personally convinced of the correctness of Academician S.P. Koroleva: There is no dust on the Moon. But this was already after landing, and when entering the surface of the moon, the excitement was great: Armstrong's pulse rate reached 156 beats per minute, the fact that the landing took place in the "Sea of ​​​​calm" was not very reassuring.

An interesting and unexpected conclusion based on the study of the features of the surface of the Moon was made quite recently by some Russian geologists and astronomers. In their opinion, the relief of the side of the Moon facing the Earth is very similar to the surface of the Earth, as it was in the past. The general outlines of the lunar "seas" are, as it were, an imprint of the contours of the earth's continents, which they were 50 million years ago, when, by the way, almost the entire land of the Earth looked like one huge continent. It turns out that for some reason the "portrait" of the young Earth was imprinted on the surface of the Moon. This probably happened when the lunar surface was in a soft, plastic state. What was this process (if there was one, of course), as a result of which such a "photographing" of the Earth by the Moon occurred? Who will answer this question?

Dear visitors!

Your work is disabled JavaScript. Please turn on the scripts in the browser, and you will see the full functionality of the site! So: we determined that the change of seasons on Earth occurs due to the fact that the Sun rotates around its axis in a plane inclined by 7 ° 15 "to the plane of the Earth's orbit. The Earth, thus, revolving around the Sun in the plane of its orbit, alternately in the course of the year exposes the Sun to the northern hemisphere, then the southern. If there were no these 7 ° 15 "at all, then there would be no change of seasons on Earth. So the rotation of the Earth around its axis at an angle of 66 ° 33 "to the plane of its orbit does not matter to the change of seasons on Earth.

It is interesting to see how the Moon behaves in its revolution around the Earth during a year, two years?

The Moon does not have a magnetic field, but its electromagnetic interaction with the Sun and the Earth must somehow affect its circulation around the Earth.

The fact is that, despite the proximity to the Earth, there is still no " Theories of the motion of the moon". All calculations of the position of the Moon at some point in time are based on centuries of observations of the movement of the Moon and, as we will see below, they could not always be like that.

It is known that the Moon's orbit is not circular; the distances between the Moon and the Earth are constantly changing according to a pattern unknown to science so far; further it is considered that all properties of the Moon are anomalous, i.e. are incorrect and do not agree with the law of universal gravitation of masses, etc. etc.

It got to the point that the Moon and the Earth began to be called a double planet and even argue that the Moon is not a solid body, but is a thin-walled shell. By the way, some of the readers will remember that at one time I.S. Shklovsky (1916-1985) suggested that the satellite of Mars, Phobos, is also thin-walled and may even be an artificial satellite of Mars created by the Martians. In general, an erroneous concept leads to erroneous assumptions.

Now that I have made calculations of the motion of the Moon for
2 years, I can say that it was impossible to create any scientific theory of the motion of the Moon based on the concept of mass attraction. The concept is not the same, and any proposed theory of the motion of the Moon according to the old concept would be instantly protested by practice.

The concept of the electromagnetic interaction of celestial bodies, the confidence in its correctness, gave me the courage to consider this issue of celestial mechanics.

I believe that in this chapter, at last, the foundations of the theory of the motion of the Moon are laid.

The graphs show the periodic change in the speed of the Moon from phase to phase for 2008 and 2009. It is clear that the longer in minutes the Moon passes a quarter of its orbit from phase to phase, the slower its speed and vice versa. The increased velocity from phase to phase is shown with thicker lines.

Now let's take a look at these graphs. There is a noticeable periodic change in the speed of the Moon's movement in orbit from phase to phase. This frequency of change of speed has approximately 13.5 peaks (transitions).

But this fully corresponds to the ratio of the area of ​​the Earth's hemisphere to the area of ​​the Moon's hemisphere = 13.466957. This means that the cause of these peaks is a consequence of the electromagnetic interaction of the areas of the hemispheres of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun, depending on where the Moon is in phase in its revolution around the Earth. The 1st pair of symmetrical forces of the Sun, Earth and Moon, responsible for the distances between them, can be easily determined for any position of the Earth and Moon.

Note: In the chapter: “On the solution of the problem of the motion of the Earth and the Moon around the Sun”, the 2nd figure shows that on the new moon the Earth leaves its orbit from the Sun; on the full moon, on the contrary, it leaves its orbit towards the Sun; and in the first quarter and in the last quarter, the Earth and the Moon are in Earth's orbit, but the distances between them are increased. Of course, the figure shows the average movement of the Earth and the Moon, primitively and, as we will see in the next 2 figures already in this chapter, this is not always the case. These facts will be discussed below. And now I would like to say that the electromagnetic interaction between the Sun, the Earth and the Moon, depending on the phase of the Moon, most likely leads to the fact that the Earth, having a hemisphere area 13.5 times larger than the Moon, pushes the Moon away from itself with the force F di etc. the distance between the Earth and the Moon increases. It is likely that the moon needs more time to pass a quarter of the orbit at an increased distance. Then we can assume that the speed of the Moon 1.023 km/sec is a constant value? I think that the tools of astrophysicists are now powerful enough to achieve complete clarity on this issue.

Let's go back to the charts for 2008 and 2009.

We are used to the fact that everywhere it is written that the synodic month of the Moon - the time interval between the same phases of the Moon, is 29.5 Earth days (an average of 29.53059 days). In minutes, this is 42524.05 minutes. Graphs for 2008-2009 show that all the synodic months for these years were different and the spread can be large. So, for 2009, the shortest month was from August 27: 41648 minutes, and the longest synodic month was before this - from July 29: 44022 minutes. Difference: 2374 minutes or: 39.56 hours or:
1.65 days.

Not a single synodic month of the Moon for 2008-2009 was repeated, which means that the position of the Earth and the Moon over these years in relation to the Sun also did not repeat.

2008 was a leap year. According to the schedule for the year, the sum of all synodic months was 527042 minutes.

If this amount is divided by the number of months (and peaks) 13.466957, we translate these minutes into a day, then we get: 27.122414 days. But this is exactly equal to 1 rotation of the Sun around its axis for an earthly observer. And, as we know, the product of 27.122414 days by 13.466957 gives exactly the duration of the earth year: 365.25638(9) days. As mentioned earlier, this mystery has not yet been solved.

Graphs of the periodic change in the speed of the movement of the Moon for 2008 and 2009 show only the alternation of acceleration and deceleration of the movement of the Moon.

For clarity, I propose to proceed to the consideration of the annual movement of the Earth and the Moon around the Sun in 2008 and 2009. Here the drawings resemble the drawings for the chapter: "Explanation of the annual movement of the Earth and the change of seasons" O-O is the plane of the axis of rotation of the Sun, A-A is the plane of the Earth's orbit. The Sun rotates around its axis in a plane inclined by 70151 to the plane of the Earth's orbit. These drawings clearly show that the whole point is where the Earth and the Moon are at any moment: above the plane of the Sun's equator - this is from 22.12 to 21.3 and from 23.9 to 21.12 or lower: from 21.3 to 22.6 and from 22.6 to 23.9OO 1 - the line of intersection of these 2 planes.

Second, what you should pay attention to is the completely different accelerations in phases in 2008 and 2009. In 2008 from 31.12.07 to 21.3.08 the synodic months had accelerations; 1st month from 31.12.07 to 30.1.08 from new moon to full moon - 2 phases. 2nd month from 30.1.08 to 29.2.08 from the new moon on 7.2.08. until the 1st quarter of 14.2 - one phase. 3rd month from 29.2 to 21.3 from the last quarter of 29.2.08 to the 1st quarter
14.3 - 2 phases.

In 2009 From December 27, 2008 to March 21, 09, all 3 synodic months had the same acceleration in phases: from December 27, 2008 to March 21, 09, from new moon to full moon.

We have not yet considered the movement of the Earth and the Moon for the remaining three quarters of the year, but we can already draw a conclusion for the 1st quarter. Probably, it all depends on what phase the Moon is in at a given time (day) of the year.

This is due to the fact that during the year the Moon does not have 12 months, like the earth year, but 13.466957 synodic months. It is not difficult to calculate the 1st pair of symmetrical forces for 3 celestial bodies - the Sun, the Earth and the Moon for any number of the year. The formulas for electromagnetic interaction are very simple.

Consider the 2nd quarter of the year from 21.3 to 22.6.

Here, too, 2008 and 2009 are not coinciding accelerations in phases. However, given that 21.3. The Earth and the Moon have passed the line of intersection of 2 planes O-O 1, then in the 1st quarter of the orbit and in the 2nd one the following symmetry is noticeable:

2008 On the 3rd and 5th synodic month, the acceleration was in 2 phases: from the last quarter to the 1st quarter. The 2nd and 6th month acceleration was in the 1st phase: from the new moon to the 1st quarter in the 2nd month and from the last quarter to the new moon for the 6th month. The 1st month and the 7th also differ in opposites. If the 1st month the acceleration was from the new moon to the full moon, then the 7th month, on the contrary, the acceleration was from the full moon to the new moon. Also 2 phase.

2009 Symmetry is also noticeable here, when the Earth and the Moon passed the line of intersection of 2 planes on 21.3.09. 3rd and 5th month acceleration was in the first case from the new moon to the full moon, and in the 2nd case from the last quarter to the 1st quarter. Both there and there are 2 phases. The 2nd and 6th months have 2 phases each, but in the first case from the new moon to the full moon, like the 3rd month, and the 6th month, on the contrary, from the last quarter to the 1st quarter, like the 5th month.

The 1st month and the 7th are exactly the same acceleration with 2 phases, but the 1st month is from the new moon to the full moon, and the 7th, on the contrary, from the last quarter to the 1st. Consideration of the 2nd half of the orbit (year) from 22.6. to 22.12.
in 2008 and 2009 has the same regularity.

The electromagnetic interaction of 3 celestial bodies: the Sun, the Earth and the Moon occurs here as follows:

1. The Earth and the Moon in the first and last quarter are in the true orbit of the Earth. The 1st pair of symmetrical forces of the Sun, Earth and Moon are mutually balanced. The distance between the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is not a problem to determine, so three pairs of symmetrical forces of the Sun, Earth and Moon can be easily determined.

2. Consider the movement of the Earth and the Moon from 22.12 - the day of the winter solstice to 21.3 - the day of the vernal equinox. 22.12. The Earth and the Moon are at the greatest distance from the plane of the axis of rotation of the Sun, and on 21.3 the plane of the Earth's orbit and the plane of the axis of rotation of the Sun will intersect along the line O 1 - O 1. The principle of deceleration or acceleration of the moon is as follows: when the Moon leaves the Earth's orbit from the last quarter to the new moon (closer to the Sun), the 1st pair of symmetrical forces of the Earth and the Moon is mutually balanced by the distance between them. The distance between the Sun and the Moon is decreasing. Automatically, the force F of the Sun turns out to be stronger than the force F of the pendant. This force F di begins to "press" on the Moon, that is, to slow down its movement until the very phase of the new moon. As soon as the Moon reaches the new moon phase, the Sun accelerates the Moon's movement to the 1st quarter phase. At the 1st quarter phase, three pairs of symmetrical forces No. 1 of the Sun, the Earth and the Moon are mutually balanced in distance, but the Moon, by inertia with acceleration, continues to move towards the full moon phase. From the phase
The 1st quarter and before the full moon phase, the CI force of the Sun decreases and the Coulomb force (F cool) begins to prevail - the force of attraction to the Sun, etc. during the full moon phase, the acceleration of the moon becomes zero. From the full moon phase to the phase of the last quarter, the Coulomb force (F cool) of the Sun is stronger than the force of CI (F di) of the Sun, but the Moon passes the first half of this path at almost the same distance from the Sun, and the second half of this path is characterized by the fact that the force of attraction ( F cool) decreases, and the force F di increases accordingly, and in the last quarter phase, these 2 forces are balanced.

Now about the 2nd pair of symmetrical forces of the Sun, responsible for the revolution of the planets in the plane of the solar equator. According to the drawing movements of the earth and moon in 2008 it can be seen that on 21.3.08, on the day of the vernal equinox, there was a full moon and on 21.3.08 the Moon passed the line of intersection of the plane of the Earth's orbit and the plane of rotation of the Sun. Further, the Earth and the Moon will move below the plane of the axis of rotation of the Sun and on 22.6.08 there will be the largest distance between these 2 planes. We already know that for the revolution of the planets around the Sun in the plane of the solar equator is responsible
2nd pair of symmetrical forces - strength of solar electromagnetic radiation. Remember, it was said: “Just as the right and left hands of a person are symmetrical, so is the Sun, as if hugging any planet with the“ palms ”of its symmetrical vectors of intensity E of electromagnetic waves ...”, etc. Here, too, the Earth and the Moon, being below the plane of the axis of rotation of the Sun, falls into the zone where they are more (stronger) affected by the other “hand” of the intensity vector of the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun! It must be said that the intensity vectors of solar electromagnetic radiation are equal only on the day of the spring and autumn equinoxes.

And in the drawing for 2008, we see that after the Earth and the Moon pass through the line of intersection of 2 planes O 1 - O 1, the acceleration of the Moon's movement first repeats completely: the 3rd and 5th periods; then the 2nd period repeats the acceleration from the new moon to the 1st quarter, and the 6th period, symmetrical to it, already occurs from the last quarter to the new moon. The symmetrical 1st and 7th cycles also change: the 1st cycle is an acceleration from the new moon to the 1st quarter from the 1st quarter to the full moon. And the 7th cycle of the acceleration of the movement of the Moon is already from the full moon to the last quarter and from the last quarter to the new moon.

The 2nd pair of symmetrical forces of the Sun, responsible for the revolution of the planets in the plane of the solar equator, has not yet been solved mathematically. This requires observational data for many years. The author leaves the youth to solve this problem. It's up to the young to persevere!

findings:

1. The Moon during its annual circulation around the Earth has ≈13.5 cycles (synodic months) of periodic change in the speed (time) of movement from phase to phase. The number of cycles (synodic months) is the result of the electromagnetic interaction of the areas of the hemispheres of the Earth and the Moon and is equal to:

2. The periodic change in the distances between the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is a consequence of the electromagnetic interaction of the areas of the hemispheres of the Sun, the Earth and the Moon. This interaction is defined< 1-й парой симметричных сил Солнца, Земли и Луны.

3. The electromagnetic interaction between the Sun and the Moon causes the Earth's orbit to take the form of a complex curve of double curvature. If the Earth did not have a natural satellite - the Moon, the Earth's orbit would not have the form of a complex curve of double curvature, but would be purely circular.

4. The 1st pair of symmetrical forces of the Sun, the Earth and the Moon is the electromagnetic interaction between the areas of the hemispheres of these celestial bodies and their radii of the spheres of action (the radii of the spheres of electromagnetic attraction). Hence, once again, the obvious conclusion: there is no gravity - there is no attraction of masses in the Cosmos. There is an electromagnetic interaction of celestial bodies.

And further: the author does not have accurate data on earthquakes in 2008. What was recorded on the calendar according to TV reports falls on the transition from acceleration to deceleration (at the turning point) and vice versa. This earthquake in Indonesia - 6.2 points ≈ March 15, 2008. A sharp transition from acceleration to decrease in speed. The strongest earthquake in China on May 12, 2008. Exactly at the transition from acceleration to deceleration. Earthquake in New Zealand 6.11.2008 Also at the peak of the transition, but already to a sharp increase in speed. I am sure that the new concept of the electromagnetic interaction of celestial bodies will allow us to unravel the regularities in the motion of the Moon that lead to earthquakes in the future and to some extent predict the place and time of earthquakes. I am sure that it will be so!

Earth's natural satellite is the Moon, a non-luminous body that reflects sunlight.

The study of the Moon began in 1959, when the Soviet apparatus Luna-2 landed on the Moon for the first time, and the Luna-3 apparatus was the first to take photographs of the far side of the Moon from space.

In 1966, Luna-9 landed on the moon and established a solid soil structure.

The first people to walk on the moon were Americans Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin. This happened on July 21, 1969. For further study of the moon, Soviet scientists preferred to use automatic vehicles - lunar rovers.

General characteristics of the Moon

Average distance from Earth, km
a. e.	363 104 0,0024
a. e.	405 696 0,0027
Average distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon, km
The inclination of an orbit to the plane of its orbit
Average orbital speed	1,022
Average radius of the Moon, km
Weight, kg
Equatorial radius, km
Polar radius, km
Average density, g / cm 3
Inclination to the equator, deg.

The mass of the moon is 1/81 of the mass of the earth. The position of the Moon in the orbit corresponds to one phase or another (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Moon phases

Moon phases- various positions relative to the Sun - new moon, first quarter, full moon and last quarter. During the full moon, the illuminated disk of the moon is visible, since the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth. During the new moon, the moon is on the side of the sun, so the side of the moon facing the earth is not illuminated.

The Moon always faces the Earth on one side.

The line that separates the illuminated part of the moon from the unlit part is called terminator.

In the first quarter, the Moon is visible at an angular distance of 90 "from the Sun, and the sun's rays illuminate only the right half of the Moon facing us. In the remaining phases, the Moon is visible to us in the form of a sickle. Therefore, in order to distinguish the growing Moon from the old one, we must remember: the old Moon resembles the letter “C”, and if the Moon is growing, then you can mentally draw a vertical line in front of the Moon and you will get the letter “P”.

Due to the proximity of the Moon to the Earth and its large mass, they form the Earth-Moon system. The Moon and the Earth rotate around their axes in the same direction. The plane of the Moon's orbit is inclined to the plane of the Earth's orbit at an angle of 5°9".

The places where the orbits of the Earth and the Moon intersect are called nodes of the lunar orbit.

Sidereal(from lat. sideris - star) a month is the period of rotation of the Earth around its axis and the same position of the Moon on the celestial sphere in relation to the stars. It is 27.3 Earth days.

synodic(from the Greek synod - connection) a month is the period of a complete change of lunar phases, that is, the period of the return of the moon to its original position relative to the moon and the sun (for example, from new moon to new moon). It averages 29.5 Earth days. The synodic month is two days longer than the sidereal month, since the Earth and the Moon rotate around their axes in the same direction.

The force of gravity on the Moon is 6 times less than the force of gravity on Earth.

The relief of the Earth's satellite is well studied. Visible dark areas on the surface of the Moon are called "seas" - these are vast waterless low-lying plains (the largest is "Oksan Bur"), and light areas - "continents" - these are mountainous, elevated areas. The main planetary structures of the lunar surface are ring craters with a diameter of up to 20-30 km and multi-ring circuses with a diameter of 200 to 1000 km.

The origin of the ring structures is different: meteorite, volcanic and shock-explosive. In addition, there are cracks, shifts, domes and fault systems on the surface of the Moon.

Studies of the Luna-16, Luna-20, and Luna-24 spacecraft showed that the surface clastic rocks of the Moon are similar to terrestrial igneous rocks - basalts.

The meaning of the moon in the life of the earth

Although the mass of the Moon is 27 million times less than the mass of the Sun, it is 374 times closer to the Earth and has a strong influence on it, causing water to rise (tides) in some places and ebb in others. This happens every 12 hours and 25 minutes, since the Moon makes a complete revolution around the Earth in 24 hours and 50 minutes.

Due to the gravitational influence of the Moon and the Sun on the Earth, ebbs and flows(Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Scheme of the occurrence of ebbs and flows on Earth

The most distinct and important in their consequences are tidal phenomena in the wave shell. They are periodic rises and falls in the level of the oceans and seas, caused by the forces of attraction of the Moon and the Sun (2.2 times less than the lunar one).

In the atmosphere, tidal phenomena are manifested in semidiurnal changes in atmospheric pressure, and in the earth's crust - in the deformation of the solid matter of the Earth.

On Earth, there are 2 high tides at the point nearest and farthest from the Moon, and 2 low tides at points located at an angular distance of 90 ° from the Moon-Earth line. Allocate sizable tides, that occur on the new moon and full moon and quadrature in the first and last quarter.

In the open ocean, tidal phenomena are small. Water level fluctuations reach 0.5-1 m. In the inland seas (Black, Baltic, etc.), they are almost not felt. However, depending on the geographical latitude and the contours of the coastline of the continents (especially in narrow bays), the water during high tides can rise up to 18 m (the Bay of Fundy in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North America), 13 m on the western coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. This creates tidal currents.

The main significance of tidal waves is that, moving from east to west following the apparent movement of the Moon, they slow down the axial rotation of the Earth and lengthen the day, change the shape of the Earth by reducing the polar compression, cause pulsation of the Earth's shells, vertical displacements of the earth's surface, semidiurnal changes in atmospheric pressure, change the conditions of organic life in the coastal parts of the oceans and, finally, affect the economic activity of coastal countries. In a number of ports, ships can enter only at high tide.

After a certain period of time on Earth repeat solar and lunar eclipses. You can see them when the Sun, Earth and Moon are on the same line.

Eclipse- an astronomical situation in which one celestial body obscures light from another celestial body.

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon comes between the observer and the Sun and blocks it. Since the Moon before the eclipse is facing us with its unlit side, there is always a new moon before the eclipse, i.e. the Moon is not visible. It seems that the Sun is covered by a black disk; an observer from the Earth sees this phenomenon as a solar eclipse (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Solar eclipse (relative sizes of bodies and distances between them are conditional)

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon, being in a straight line with the Sun and the Earth, falls into a cone-shaped shadow cast by the Earth. The diameter of the spot of the Earth's shadow is equal to the minimum distance of the Moon from the Earth - 363,000 km, which is about 2.5 times the diameter of the Moon, so the Moon can be completely obscured (see Fig. 3).

Lunar rhythms are repeated changes in the intensity and nature of biological processes. There are lunar-monthly (29.4 days) and lunar-daily (24.8 hours) rhythms. Many animals and plants reproduce during a certain phase of the lunar cycle. Lunar rhythms are characteristic of many marine animals and plants of the coastal zone. So, people noticed a change in well-being depending on the phases of the lunar cycle.