Moscow State University of the 19th century. Students in the social and political life of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries Student of the second half of the 19th century

The first conflict arose because of police brutality against students of St. Petersburg University. The students demanded inviolability of the person, the publication of all measures concerning them, the repeal of the old law on conscription of expelled students into the army. The rector of the university answered them that "birds of paradise, which are given everything they ask, do not live in our climate" Solomonov V.A. On the participation of Moscow students in the first All-Russian student strike in 1899 //Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8: History. 1994. No. 2. Students staged a demonstration near the Kazan Cathedral. They were supported by their strike of 25,000 workers. The university was closed, all students were expelled. After the opening of the university, 2181 students out of 2425 were accepted back.

Nicholas II denounced the students, saying that they should study, not demonstrate. The fermentation did not subside and on January 14, 1901, former student Karpovich P.V. assassinated the Minister of Education Prof. Bogolepova N.P. This senseless crime, enthusiastically received by the students, opened a series of terrorist acts by the revolutionary forces and the government's response. After these events, a significant part of the students became in opposition to the tsarist regime. In 1902, an underground student congress took place with fierce discussions between the Social Revolutionaries and liberals Engel G., Gorokhov V. From the history of the student movement. 1899-1906. M., 1908. A small part of extremist students went into terror, into the militant organization of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. After 5 years, in the university cities of the Jewish Pale of Settlement - Kyiv, Odessa, Nizhyn, Jewish students became the main explosive force. In the revolutionary turmoil of these cities, especially after the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, they took an active part, being, as the rightists claimed, its "backbone". Great ideas, including socialist ones, spread in a transnational way, like religious, pacifist, feminist and other movements.

At the beginning of the 20th century, students became the main class, which was dissatisfied with the situation in the country. Of course, the marginal strata of society experienced the greatest oppression, but it was the students who were the accumulator of social unrest, it was among its most intellectual part that Marxist sentiments, thoughts about the coming revolution, a total change in society, went. I think that anyone will agree that the workers were hardly familiar with the philosophical and political views of both domestic and Western thinkers. And only among students and intellectuals they had huge popularity.

Material and living conditions of student life in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Student life of that time deserves special attention.

Student and work is not a new topic for Russia. She occupied a prominent place in the fiction of the past: half-poor, half-starved, always looking for a place as a tutor or tutor, living from water to bread - this is how a typical student of the second half of the 19th century, Ivanov P., appears before us. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). M., 1903 .. A student of St. Petersburg University, Raskolnikov, a non-resident, "from the nobility", who came from a small town in the R-th province, "was so poorly dressed that a different, even familiar person, would be ashamed to go out in such tatters on street" Raskolnikov's student life was provided by money transfers from his mother (his mother gave him 15 rubles from her pension of 120 rubles, and even then irregularly) and lessons. Such is his friend, student Razumikhin, who earns money for teaching by lessons or translations from foreign languages. As long as there were lessons, Raskolnikov "somehow, but made his way", avoiding turning to moneylenders, although pawnshops and usury offices, where you could pawn and re-pawn some personal items, up to your own clothes, served as a help to students in difficult minutes. However, by the time the crime was committed, Raskolnikov had already left the university for several months, "for lack of something to support himself, and his lessons and other means ceased," despite the fact that he studied diligently and surpassed many of his classmates in knowledge (for a while, Razumikhin also left teaching the same reason). The murder of the usurer Alena Ivanovna Raskolnikov is largely driven by the lack of means of subsistence. It could be assumed that such a deplorable financial situation of a student, described by Dostoevsky, is a marginal and extreme phenomenon. However, turning to the tetralogy of N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, which Gorky called "the whole epic of Russian life", we find in the third and fourth parts ("Students" and "Engineers") almost the same picture. For most students, in addition to parental money, the main sources of livelihood were tutoring, tutoring, private lessons, translations, work as a copyist. Most of these activities had nothing to do with the professions that students studied at the institutes.

This means that this work helped young people in mastering their future profession, it is not necessary to speak. Rather, students used for survival the cultural resources they inherited from their families or acquired while studying at the gymnasiums. The limited nature of the student labor market was partly determined by the negative attitude towards physical labor. Students of that era - most often come from a noble environment, which, despite the often encountered financial insolvency, retained class prejudices: these young people could hardly imagine themselves doing hard physical work like loading and unloading.

In the fundamental work of A.E. Ivanov, the "art of survival" of pre-revolutionary Russian students is considered in detail and comprehensively. After analyzing a huge number of statistical and historical documents, the author comes to the conclusion that in addition to parental assistance and state loans and subsidies, aid societies and cooperative student organizations, students' own earnings constituted a significant part of their budget revenues.

"A significant proportion of students worked (permanently, temporarily, occasionally), and not only during the educational process, but also during the summer vacation." At the same time, already at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. "an ominous companion of student everyday life" was unemployment Frommet B. R. Key moments in the history of Russian students // Student Bulletin. 1917. No. 7. February 17..

Most often, poor students could not get a profitable place. An almost insoluble task for them was to find such an income that would not take a lot of time and provide a living wage. "Our comrades are strenuously knocking on the thresholds of the editorial offices of newspapers, all kinds of bureaus and offices in pursuit of earnings, but usually they do not find work here," a student of the University of St. Vladimir in Kyiv wrote in 1903 to the editorial office of the Kyiv News newspaper. It was difficult for needy students to get around their "more affluent colleagues with good acquaintances," and therefore appropriate recommendations, who lived in the best urban areas of the city, decently dressed. In Moscow, according to P. Ivanov, employers avoided dealing with those who lived in the "student camp" (Bronny or "Zhivoderka", Georgians). The inhabitants of the dormitory for poor students - the notorious "Lyapinka" and the cereal "Girsha", as well as tenement houses on Bronnaya, which were the realm of hostesses-renters who lived at the expense of tenants - mostly students, were especially hostile. As a rule, the latter hid the place of residence that compromised them. The topic of secondary employment of students practically disappears in the post-revolutionary, Soviet period. Numerous works are devoted to the problems of youth health and communist education, the value orientations of Soviet students and the problems of their socialization are studied. The complete lack of research into the material existence of students leads to the idea that the policy of the Soviet government in the field of higher education solved all these problems. This theme is not reflected in the literature of that period. In this regard, the story of Yuri Trifonov is symptomatic, which describes the life and studies of students of the Literary Institute in the very first post-war years. Most of the characters in the novel are former veterans. They are passionate about studies, social, Komsomol activities, work in a student scientific society, establish ties with the working class, expose hostile, ideologically alien elements among students and teachers, experience love affairs. of money. Material differentiation among students and, accordingly, the problems associated with it are indicated only by hints. At the same time, as a rule, "negative" heroes are clearly better off than "positive" ones. So, the negative hero Sergei - a talented egoist - walks, "putting his hands into the deep pockets of his spacious furry coat", and Lagutenko, a front-line soldier, wears a "shabby overcoat" ... It is clear that enjoying the first years of peacetime, post-war asceticism took the problems of material prosperity far beyond framework of truly important and interesting aspects of peaceful life. However, the memories of former students of different Soviet generations reveal a more diverse reality to us. To earn a living in addition to the scholarship had to almost everyone who did not belong to the wealthy strata, who came to the university centers from the provinces. Material deprivation, self-restraint, often the same as those of their predecessors from pre-revolutionary times, life from hand to mouth was their everyday life. The problems of housing and clothing were no less acute than before. Of course, the market for applying student labor has gradually expanded. This happened not only in connection with the growth of production and the development of scientific and technological progress. It should also be taken into account that the new social strata, drawn into the sphere of higher education, no longer shunned unskilled, physical labor. Thus, the loading and unloading of wagons becomes one of the most common types of earnings among young students of the post-war years. Usually they worked at night, unloading wagons with coal and building materials, and in the summer also with vegetables and fruits. Former students recall how, with the money they earned, they "took girls to cocktail bars to make up for lost time due to the war." Girls - this historically relatively new category for higher education - worked much less frequently. Their budget consisted of scholarships and parental money.

With the beginning of the campaign for the development of virgin lands, new forms of earnings appeared in the famous student construction teams. During the summer holidays, students also participated in the harvest in the south, in geological or archaeological expeditions. More exotic are the types of episodic earnings mentioned in the stories of former students, such as donating blood, playing preference for money with wealthy clients (this was especially common in universities of a mathematical profile), participating as test subjects in various medical and psychological experiments. Those who owned musical instruments played in jazz ensembles; many worked as night watchmen, orderlies, stokers Elfimova N. V. Social assistance to students in pre-revolutionary Russia // Russian Journal of Social Work. 1995. No. 2. P. 36-38.. In an era of total shortage, students, especially language universities, did not shun speculation ... Qualified work that coincides with the specialty being studied was more accessible to students of prestigious, metropolitan, in particular, humanitarian, language universities faculties of Moscow State University. They made money by translating, journalism, near-literary forms of activity (reporting for the press or radio, covering student life, etc.).

The prevalence of employment among students depended on the profile and status of the university. So, in MVTU them. Bauman students rarely worked.

Student holidays are a special tradition. The traditions of Russian student revelry had already developed at the beginning of the 19th century. Unlike other "feasts", they were distinguished by love of freedom, some kind of special patriotism and all-consuming brotherhood. There is no specific celebration ritual. Every year something new. Generations are changing, and with them comes a new understanding of student holidays.

Perhaps the most famous and oldest holiday is Tatyana's Day (celebrated on January 25, on the day when the winter session is finally "closed"). In the descriptions of the celebration of Tatyana's Day, it is usually most of all about how much was drunk, and how someone played tricks. All this is accompanied by mass festivities. Not a single frost will force a student to stay at home on this significant day.

A.P. Chekhov, in one of his early feuilletons of 1885, wrote about the Moscow student holiday: “Everything was drunk this year, except for the Moskva River, and this was due to the fact that it froze ... It was so fun that one studious from an excess of feelings was bathed in a reservoir where the sterlets swim…"

In 1918, the university church was closed, and a reading room was set up in it. Holidays "in honor of the academic goddess" Tatiana have been stopped. In 1923, "Archaic and meaningless Tatyana" was noticed in the directive order by the Day of the proletarian students. However, it was not possible to completely eradicate the memory of the old student holiday. In the post-war years, Moscow students resumed, of course, in home companies, the celebration of Tatiana's Day. In the 1990s, along with the return of some customs canceled by the revolution, Tatyana's day returned. At Moscow University, they began to celebrate it officially, and the rector congratulated the students with a glass of champagne in his hand. In 1993, the building where the university church was located was handed over to the Patriarchate, and everything fell into place again. More recently, a new tradition has emerged: protests - as many newspapers note, in our time this event can be equated with a student holiday.

Although the first universities appeared in Russia in the 18th century, students as a special social group took shape only in the second half of the 19th century. As we know, raznochintsy students were almost entirely democratic. Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky became their idols, their ideology was populism. Then it was fashionable to read "What to do?" and be a materialist. Perhaps the first protest was organized by students of St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kyiv in March 1861, a memorial service for the Poles demonstrators killed by the tsarist troops in Warsaw. "In the winter of 1899, the first all-Russian student strike took place, which then began to be held regularly."

Meanwhile, one of the factors influencing the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of Russian students was the theater. Theater in Russia, especially in Russia at the end of the 19th century, especially the capital's theater played a huge cultural, educational and socio-political role. The connection of Moscow University with the theatrical life of Moscow had a long and solid foundation. Suffice it to recall that the very emergence of the Moscow public theater was due precisely to the university, or rather, the university student theater, one of the founders of which was the famous Russian writer, an outstanding university figure M.M. Kheraskov. Over the years, this connection, consecrated by traditions, only became more multifaceted and stronger. Moscow University, on the one hand, and Moscow theaters, on the other, are firmly woven into the cultural fabric of the capital, turning over time into public, cultural and educational centers, by the very nature of their activities and traditionally closely related to each other.

The influence of the theatrical life of Moscow on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of students of Moscow University. The problem itself breaks down into a number of sub-problems. Because in the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. theaters played both a cultural and educational and a socio-political role in the life of Russian society; accordingly, their influence on the public was both cultural and educational and socio-political in nature. If we talk about Moscow students, then, along with all of the above, a huge role was played by the charitable activities of theaters, as well as personal contacts between theatrical figures and students of Moscow University. The influence of the theater on the students of Moscow University, of course, was not one-sided. Students constituted one of the most numerous, and, most importantly, the most active part of the theater audience. Accordingly, the repertoire of theaters, and the manner of performance, and the very nature of relations with society were largely determined precisely by the needs of students. The question of the personal ties of a number of theatrical figures with Moscow University deserves special consideration. It is known that many outstanding actors, singers, composers, directors either received a university education or took an active part in the public life of Moscow University (in charity events, in scientific, educational and cultural societies at the university, etc.).

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Theatrical life in Moscow had a huge impact on the formation of the spiritual and psychological image of the students of Moscow University. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. this influence can be fully and above all called a revolutionary factor in the spiritual history of Russian students. Both the repertoire of Moscow theatres, and their socio-political, and even cultural and educational activities (attempts to appeal to the masses, met with a decisive rebuff from the autocracy) contributed to the growth of opposition sentiments among the students.

2. Students, being, firstly, the largest and most active part of the theatrical public, and, secondly, a force very influential in wide circles of the Russian intelligentsia, in turn most directly influenced the repertoire policy of Moscow theaters and the nature of public behavior of theatrical figures.

3. Relations of Moscow University with the capital's theaters were not limited

formal and informal relationships in the field of cultural, educational and socio-political activities. For many theatrical figures, Moscow University was in the full sense of the alma mater, and, at the same time, for many students of Moscow University, the theater became a place for further application of their talent, vitality and energy.

As for the relationship of students with professors, this can be learned from the example of the Kazan Telegraph, 1900 Ivanov P. Students in Moscow. Gen. Morals. Types (Essays). M., 1903..

“The number of students at Kazan University by January 1, 1900 was 823 students and 75 regular students. According to the faculties, they were distributed as follows: in the historical and philological - 37 people, in the physical and mathematical sciences - 179 (in the category of mathematical sciences - 60 and in the category of natural sciences - 19), in the legal - 164, and in the medical - 443 people.

During 1899, 169 students enjoyed the right to listen to lectures free of charge, which is 15.5% of the total number of students.

Holiday dinner

On November 5, 1900, on the day of the founding of the Imperial Kazan University, its former students gathered in St. Petersburg for a friendly dinner at Donon's restaurant. About 20 persons participated in the dinner. Among those present at the dinner were: Senator N.P. Smirnov, the oldest student (class of 1846) V.V. Pashutin, N.A. Kremlev - former rector of Kazan University, prof. V.A. Lebedev, S.K. Bulich, S.F. Glinka, A.F. Elachich and others. A telegram was sent to the rector of Kazan University: "Former students of Kazan University, having gathered at a friendly dinner at the turn of two centuries, drink for the further prosperity of their native university and express confidence that in the twentieth century, his pupils will continue to add their names to the ranks of the luminaries of science and honest figures in all fields of public life of the dear Fatherland.

Professors, closer to students!

In order to establish a possible rapprochement between the professorship and the students and a more correct formulation of university teaching, attention is paid to strengthening practical classes in all faculties and the formation of student, scientific and literary circles is allowed; but the most expedient measure for establishing the desired communication between professors and students is the arrangement of properly arranged student dormitories, for which, by the Highest command, 3,262,000 rubles were allocated from the amount of the State Treasury.

Fashion (democratic and aristocratic) played its essential role in the public presentation of the students.

A special place in the everyday culture of the students belonged to the so-called "sexual question". With all its mysteries and dangers, it was vigorously discussed in Russian society, especially after the first Russian revolution. The sphere of the subculture of the young intelligentsia also included its attitude to marriage (church and civil), family life and childbearing.

Introduction
1. Overview of the largest universities in Russia in the second half of the 19th century
2 Reforms in the field of university education
2.1 University charters
2.2 Legal status of students
3 Russian students in the second half of the 19th century
3.1 Social composition and outlook
3.2 Life and entertainment
3.3 Student communities
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction

The reform of education, which has been permanently taking place in Russia since 1996 to the present, raises a huge number of questions, an order of magnitude more than they are able to solve with its help. One way or another, the reform is aimed at modernizing our domestic education, which used to be considered the best in the world, on the model of Western European education. From a historical point of view, this is a return to the origins, since higher education in Russia appeared much later than in most European countries and was created according to the Western European model and mainly by the “hands” of Western European (German) scientists. However, those reforms that were carried out later left European scholasticism far behind, and now the educational reformers have decided to “catch up” with Europe again. Whether the reform being carried out in today's Russia will really be able to return Russian higher education to its rightful place in the world is another question. And the fact that many traditions, and far from the worst ones, were thrown overboard during modernization is a fact.
In this regard, the relevance of research into the history of the formation of modern Russian higher education, the historical experience of its reformation in the era of the "Great Reforms" of Alexander II, when Russia was "turned over" once again, and with it the system of higher education, is increasing.
At the same time, at the beginning of the XXI century. tendencies to change the value priorities that determine social development are becoming more and more obvious. Humanity is moving from an industrial society with a pronounced technocracy of thinking to a post-industrial, informational one, which implies a reassessment of the role of the intellect and human qualifications. The uniqueness of the course of these processes in modern Russia is due to the formation on its territory of a new system of social relations associated with a change in socio-political and economic paradigms. The scale and pace of these transformations are forcing society to rely more and more on knowledge, therefore, at the present stage of Russia's development, education, in its inseparable connection with science, is becoming an increasingly powerful driving force for economic growth, increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of the national economy, which makes it one of the most important factors of national security.
The object of the study is the higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in an organic relationship with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
The subject of the study is the historical process of reforming Russian higher education (universities) in the period of 60-90s. XIX century through university charters, as well as the Russian students of that era.
The study is based on the analysis of normative sources, journalism and memoirs of the period of the second half of the 19th century.

List of sources used

1. General Rules of the Imperial Universities. June 18, 1863 // Political History of Russia: Reader / Comp. IN AND. Kovalenko, A.N. Medushevsky, E.N. Moshchelkov. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. 624 p.
2. History of university education in pre-revolutionary Russia / Ed. ed. AND I. Saveliev. M.: Publishing house of NII VSh, 1993. 55 p.
3. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two centuries. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M.: Nauka, 1985. 350 p.
4. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755–1917.: collection / Comp. Yu.N. Emelyanov. M.: Sovremennik, 1989. 735 p.
5. Pushkarev S.G. Russia 1801–1917: power and society. M.: Posev, 2001. 672 p.
6. Russia. Encyclopedic Dictionary. L.: Lenizdat, 1991. 922 p.
7. Badaev M.I. Science and culture of Russia in the 19th century. – M.: Thought, 1978, 327 p.
8. Herzen A.I. Works. T.5. - M .: Fiction, 1982, 604 p.
9. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Meeting 2nd. T. 1-55. from 12 Dec. 1825 to March 1, 1881. St. Petersburg, 1830-1884.
10. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Meeting 3rd. T. 1-33. SPb., 1884-Pg. 1916.
11. General charter and temporary staff of the Imperial Russian Universities. SPb., 1884., 38 p.
12. Russian universities in their statutes and memoirs of contemporaries / Comp. THEM. Solovyov. SPb., 1914. Issue. 1. 572 p.
13. Universities and secondary educational institutions for men and women in 50 provinces of European Russia. SPb., 1888.
14. Georgievsky A.I. Brief historical outline of government measures against student unrest. SPb., 1890.

Overall volume: 43 pages

Year: 2011

Early 19th century - the time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The education system of the first half of the XIX century. The case of public education in the post-reform period. Students of the sixties and higher education. Spread of private educational institutions.

Higher education in Russia under Alexander I. The teaching staff, its cultural and scientific level. Higher education in the second quarter of the 19th century. General Rules of the Imperial Universities. The educational system of post-reform Russia.

The struggle for secondary and higher education for women in Russia was an integral part of the social and pedagogical movement that unfolded from the middle of the 18th century, when the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and boarding schools for girls were first created.

Engineering student initiative. Creation of the university. Scientists and specialists of the Odessa Polytechnic University.

The introduction of fees in higher education. The position of paying students. Charging tuition fees. Fellows. Providing for the poor. Housing status of fellows. Individual scholarships. The ninth conference of the trade union section of the students.

Political life of Russia at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students as a social stratum. Revolutionary movement in the student environment of St. Petersburg. Organizations and leaders of the revolutionary student movement in St. Petersburg.

Organization of new departments. Student practice. Development of MGSU-MISI.

The history of education in Ukraine is closely connected with the entire history of the Ukrainian people. Centuries-old existence in a state of fragmentation, under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, Polish, Lithuanian and Hungarian feudal lords had a strong influence on the development of education.

Prerequisites for the formation of a university in Italy. Political and intellectual life of the world in the era of antiquity. Early in the 11th century, the clerics discovered a shortage of powerful intellectuals and contributed to the university boom. University of Bologna.

Growth in the number of secondary schools and their graduates in the 60s. Release of specialists with secondary specialized and higher education in the 60s.

Secondary School in the Last Decades of the Russian Empire The successes of the post-reform development of secondary education were undeniable. If in 1856 there were only 78 gymnasiums and real schools, then by the end of the century - more than 300, and by the beginning of the First World War - about 700. Now the average ...

Working conditions of the school during the war. main body of students. Curriculum correction. Changes in the composition of the teaching staff.

The Decembrist uprising in 1825 had a huge impact on all aspects of the social life of the Russian Empire, including education. The new emperor Nicholas 1 saw one of the reasons for the revolutionary uprisings in the imperfection of the educational system.

CONTROL WORK Topic: "Education system in the XVIII century" CONTENTS: I. Introduction II. Transformations in the education system by Peter I III. University, gymnasium, Academy of Sciences

Control over the direction of lecture courses. The strip of internal reaction in Russia, the curtailment of reforms after the war of 1812-1814. The policy of the Ministry of Public Education in relation to the outlying universities consisted in rapprochement with the Russian order.

Report on the history of a student of the 6th "B" class Timoshkina Ekaterina Brief historical background. century in Europe began to appear the world's first higher schools - universities. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna were founded ...

Lecture on the topic “The Origin of the Higher School of the Russian Empire” Topic 2: The Origin of the Higher School of the Russian Empire. Lecture - 2 hours. Study questions:

Rapprochement of Russia with the West. The first reforms in the field of education. Opening of the Navigation School. Features of teaching in schools. Opening of a medical school in 1706. Library and press under Peter I. Gymnasiums, university courses and academies in Russia.

The system of education of the Russian state in the period of autocracy and in the period of outstanding scientific discoveries (late 19th–early 20th centuries). The formation of the RSFSR in the first post-October decade, the elimination of illiteracy. Activity of the education system in the USSR.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century was marked by the appearance of a large number of students from Russia in Western European universities. This gratifying phenomenon was at first greeted with understanding by the European public.

A.M. Feofanov

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF THE XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY (SOCIAL ORIGIN AND LIFE)

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY IN XVIII -ARLY XIX CENTURY (BACKGROUND AND MODE OF LIFE)

Keywords: history of Russia in the late 18th - early 19th century, Moscow University, social composition of the population, students, social composition of the population of the Russian Empire.

Key words: history of Russia of late XVIII - early XIX century, Moscow University, social membership of population, students, social membership of population of the Russian Empire.

annotation

The article talks about the existence of the Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence, the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century. Such a little-studied issue as the life of students, its social composition, way of life, cultural life, participation in public life is touched upon. The conditions of life and education at Moscow University are compared with the conditions that existed in Western, primarily German, universities.

The article tells about Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence (late XVIII - early XIX century). There is touched upon such an insufficiently known problem as students’ life, its social membership, mode of life, cultural life, participation in public life. The conditions of life and education in Moscow University are compared to those of European ones, first of all of German universities.

The formation and development of Moscow University took place with the direct participation of the state, which needed trained personnel. University graduates joined the ranks of officials, the military, became writers, scientists and courtiers, i.e. constituted the elite of society. But university education did not immediately acquire value in the eyes of society. Namely, the attitude of society to education and determined the number of students. Of course, society's view of the university also changed depending on the policy pursued by the state, and not only in the field of education, but also in social policy. The university itself, as a scientific and social center, had a cultural impact on society.

Number and social composition. The social composition reflects the degree of connection with the university of various strata of society. So far, historiography has not received adequate coverage of the issue of the number and social composition of students at Moscow University in the period under review. Everything was limited to general phrases about the "raznochinsk character" of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries, in order to emphasize its "democratic" direction.

Several epochs are distinguished in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University. Surges in receipts are associated with an increase in public attention to

university. A surge was (sometimes) followed by a fall. The sharp increase in the number of students is associated with the renovation of the university Muravyov, when there was a tripling of the number of students.

In the initial period, which lasted until the end of the 1770s, the maximum number of students admitted did not exceed 25 people, and the average value was 15 students per year.

Since 1780, in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University, the results of the impact of the “Novikov decade” that began in 1779 have been felt. In 1780-1784. The number of students entering the university increased sharply and fluctuated from 17 to 54 people, with an average number of 37 people. A significant number of students in these years were accepted for the maintenance of the Friendly Scientific Society.

Beginning in 1785, student enrollment fell again. Moscow University, as the center of the Masonic circle, caused concern and distrust of the government of Catherine II, Novikov's public initiatives were suppressed, and the university itself could not yet independently provide for itself a wide influx of students.

A new period in the dynamics of the number of students opened in 1803, when one of the results of the university reforms was to attract public attention to Moscow University. From that moment on, the number of applicants has been steadily growing: in 1803-1809 it was from 28 to 61 people, in 1810-1820 - from 70 to 117 people. All this indicates a qualitative change in the social status of Moscow University after the adoption of the Charter of 1804 and the new role of students in society, when studying at the university began to be considered necessary for further entry into life. The clear boundary between 1809 and 1810 is connected with the same change. under the influence of the decree adopted on August 6, 1809 on examinations for the rank. This decree established a direct link between education and promotion to rank, requiring all those wishing to receive the ranks of the 8th and 5th grades to present a certificate received from the university and indicating that they had passed the exams. After the adoption of the decree, the number of people wishing to become students increased dramatically.

Starting with a modest figure of 30 students and about 15 applicants per year, Moscow University by 1812 reached the milestone of 300 students (students and students), which brought him into a number of the largest universities in Europe.

Moscow University was an all-class educational institution. The low number of students at Moscow University in the second half of the 18th century was explained primarily by the insufficient influx here from the leading Russian service class - the nobility. In the eyes of the Russian nobles of that time, studying at the university was not a value in itself, studying university sciences was considered a luxury that was not necessary for further service, and “the very word student sounded something not noble.” The nobles willingly studied at the gymnasium, but instead of continuing their studies at the university, they preferred to enter the cadet corps or directly into military service. Raznochintsy, on the other hand, more often entered religious educational institutions, because they did not have the means to study at the university at their own expense.

In Europe, in the same way, the nobles preferred to pave the way to the highest government positions through a military career. Representatives of the noble class "had an irresistible aversion to examinations and diplomas, because, unlike commoners, they did not need to document what was due to them by birthright." You can remember M.M. Speransky, who spoke sharply about exams for rank, offering to accept any nobleman into military service as an officer, demanding from them only knowledge of the beginnings of mathematics and the Russian language.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. a steady trend is formed, according to which the nobles accounted for at least half of the applicants. These conclusions make it possible to significantly correct statements about the “raznochinsk” nature of Moscow University.

In total, for the period from the founding of Moscow University to the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, we identified, according to various data (indication of class when enrolling in a university gymnasium, title, biographical data), about 500 nobles and more than 400 commoners, out of a total of about 1,400 people who studied at the Moscow university of that time. From this we can conclude that the number of nobles made up more than a third of the total number of all students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, but hardly more than half. It should also be taken into account that many graduates of the Noble Boarding School, who were nobles and became visitors to university lectures, remained under the jurisdiction of the boarding authorities, i.e. actually students, were not included in the published lists of students.

Let us now consider the main social groups of students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. more. Raznochintsy. This group includes the children of soldiers, philistines, merchants, petty officials (clerks, copyists, clerks), less often children of secretaries (boards, departments and spiritual consistories), doctors (head physicians, healers and assistant doctors), pharmacists, teachers. The main part of the raznochintsy were children of the clergy, mostly rural priests, less often deacons, as well as sextons, psalmists and other clerks.

Sometimes people from the clergy could have a close connection with other social groups: they were the children of priests, whose ancestors were nobles, but for some reason they took the rank. For example, the father of Fyodor Petrovich Lubyanovsky was from a noble family, descended from a Polish native, but he himself served as a priest. From a noble family was Anton Antonovich Prokopovich-Antonsky, whose father became a priest in the Chernihiv province.

Peasants practically did not study at Moscow University during this period (although the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University” of 1755 gave them such an opportunity): only the example of Gavrila Zhuravlev, a former serf, is known.

University Director Prince M.I. Argamakova. Some serfs could study at Moscow University with the permission of their masters, but did not receive freedom and, accordingly, were not students. This is how the serf Nikolai Smirnov, who was a servant of the Golitsyn princes, studied at the university.

Nobles. Among the students of Moscow University in the second half of the XVIII century. the entire spectrum of the Russian nobility is represented - from the capital to the provincial, from titled persons to small estate families. The first titled nobles appeared among the students of Moscow University already in 1760. These are princes Leon Gruzinsky and Timofey Gagarin. We also meet representatives of such families as the Shikhmatovs, the Salagins, the Kasatkin-Rostovskys, and the Diveevs. At the same time, the famous memoirist, poet and playwright, Prince I. M. Dolgorukov studied at Moscow University.

Of course, among the nobles who studied at Moscow University, there were representatives not only of aristocratic families, but also of the broad mass of the service nobility. In 1779, to attract nobles to study, the Noble Boarding School was opened, created on the initiative of M.M. Kheraskov. Soon the boarding house gained a reputation as the leading elite educational institution in Moscow. Pupils of the upper classes received the right to attend university lectures. Thus, for the students of the Noble boarding school, the production of students at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. did not contradict the fact that they continued to be in the boarding house itself: we find such examples in the biographies

brothers Turgenev, Grammatin, Odoevsky. At the same time, the nobles willingly studied at the boarding school, but rarely continued their studies at the university itself.

As a result of the activities of the trustee M.N. Muravyov at Moscow University and government reforms in the field of education at the beginning of the 19th century. not only did the number of students increase sharply, but the social composition of the student body also changed. From 1807 to 1812 titled nobles entered the university every year. The lists of students included the names of not only Russian princes, but also German Baltic barons, such as Engelhard, Ridiger, Bistrom, Budberg, and others.

In Europe, for representatives of the third estate, a university diploma opened the way to state (royal or princely) service1. In response to competition from educated commoners who served in the state apparatus, the need for education also arose among the nobility. In the XVIII century. “the ruling class, in order to maintain its position, was forced to receive a university education”2. The lectures of professors are listened to by the aristocracy, including princes, counts, barons and princes of the royal house. The titled nobility was in the XVIII century. at the universities of Würzburg, Tübingen, Strastburg and Jena about 5%, in Leipzig, Heidelberg and Halle about 7%, and in Göttingen it even reached 13%3

Russian nobles of the second half of the 18th century. considered the university as a stepping stone to start a future service career, and for this they mainly used the gymnasium (where they received the certificates necessary for promotion to the rank, which was not the case in Europe), and students were rarely enrolled. Therefore, initially the students of Moscow University, indeed, had a raznochin character, although the share of nobles in it was about one quarter and was quite tangible. Gradually, the social composition of students changed in favor of an increasing proportion of the nobles, which indicated the strengthening of the public recognition of the university and its role in the education of the service class.

Age of students enrolled in the university. An exact answer is much more difficult due to the imperfection of our source data. In the absence of an archive for the second half of the 18th - the first decade of the 19th century. in our reconstructed lists of students, we can establish the year of their birth only if there is any additional data. These are, firstly, the statements about the successes of students who studied in 1764-1768, preserved in the RGADA, in which, along with other data, the age of students was given. Also, the year of birth is known for those students who have become writers, statesmen and public figures, and then student lists can be supplemented with data from biographical dictionaries.

The majority of students entering Moscow University were between 15 and 19 years of age. An absolute record for the second half of the 18th century. recorded in the case of Yevgeny Syreyshchikov (in the future - a teacher at a university gymnasium, who received the title of extraordinary professor of philosophy there): he was promoted to students from the gymnasium at the age of 11 in 1768, when the student body was significantly weakened after the removal of several dozen students for work in the Legislative Commission. At the beginning of the XIX century. such cases were somewhat more common: at the age of 11, Alexander Lykoshin entered the students and, apparently, his comrade Griboedov (if we assume the later of the two possible dates of the writer’s birth), and at the age of 13 Griboedov had already graduated from the verbal department of his university with a degree candidate, and later continued to listen to lectures of the ethical and political department.

In general, in the XVIII century. students were older (16-18 years old) than at the beginning of the 19th century, and even older (as a rule, 19 years old and above) were graduates of seminaries entering the university (as D.N. Sverbeev wrote, they already “shaved their beards” ). In connection with the desire of noble families to accelerate the advancement of their offspring through the ranks at the beginning of the 19th century. there was such a phenomenon as "students-boys".

It was the Charter of 1804, which secured the right to the rank of class 14 for the title of university student, that stimulated noble families to send their children to students as early as possible (a phenomenon akin to how in the 18th century noble children from infancy

were in the regiments). The fact that when enrolling in a university at the beginning of the 19th century. in noble families, the title of a student was valued primarily, and not the opportunity to comprehend science, the diary of S.P. perfectly conveys. Zhikhareva. “My title is not a trifle and will please my

home,” writes Zhikharev, who became a student in 1805 at the age of 16. “I foresee,” he continues, “that it will not be long for me to listen to my good professors. Father, delighted with my 14th grade, hurries the service.

1 Khavanova O.V. Merits of fathers and talents of sons. S. 12.

Paulsen F. German universities. S. 110.

3 A History of the University in Europe. P. 321.

Thus, the "rejuvenation" of the students of Moscow University in the early XIX

in. associated with the influx of students of young nobles.

The main problems of organizing student life are: did students stand out as a separate group, and with the help of what attributes did this happen. According to paragraph 21 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", the ultimate goal of a student's studies is to receive a certificate. This certificate performed a certain social function (which, as a rule, did not exist in Western universities) - it provided "protection" when entering the service. Noble students in the 18th century sought to obtain a certificate that gave the right to production in the next rank. For raznochintsy, the university had to specifically "petition" for their rank-and-file production.

Initially, the university was considered by the state almost exclusively as an educational institution for the training of officials, who can be taken away without waiting until the end of their period of study. A significant number of students who did not complete the course were appointed to serve in the Senate and other state institutions, and were appointed teachers. So, in 1767, 42 students were taken to the Legislative Commission, which disrupted the normal course of education, since after that only 5 students remained at the “higher” faculties: 4 in law and 1 in medicine.

The Patriotic War of 1812 interrupted the normal course of study for many of the students, during which many of them dropped out of school, joined the militia or went to provide medical care to the army. Among the reasons for the dismissal of students during this period, there is already a desire to continue education in other educational institutions. For example, Vasily Matveyevich Chernyaev in 1812 moved to the medical faculty of Kharkov University.

The rules of conduct at the university were quite strictly regulated. The first of the intra-university acts regulating the life of students was adopted in 1765. Students were forbidden to quarrel and fight, especially duels and seconds. This project was published in 1765 under the title "The Charter, to the observation of which all university students undertake in writing." For admission to students, a certificate of "good manners" was required. Students had to "dress decently, avoiding cynical vileness, as well as excessive panache", "live modestly and in proportion to their incomes, without entering into any debts."

Uniform was the corporate sign of the university. “The university had its own uniform, similar to the uniform of the Moscow province,” crimson with a blue velvet collar and white buttons. The first mention of the introduction of a uniform at the university dates back to 1782 and is associated with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Empress Catherine II. The uniform of the Moscow province, which both professors and students had to wear, then consisted of a red cloth camisole, knee-length pantaloons, stockings, shoes and a black triangular hat.

But not all students wore such a uniform. The only exceptions were the days of university-wide celebrations. From the notes of Timkovsky it is known that “the students did not have any specific uniform in their attire”, even “not everyone had a university uniform. Everyone, even those on a salary, was dressed as he could and as he wanted. Ilya Fedorovich himself wore a "Novgorod blue and black" uniform.

“Forms,” recalled Poludensky, who studied at the university in the 1790s, “as now, self-styled students did not have, as for the state students, they had

coats and uniforms. There was a difference in uniforms between the raznochintsy and the nobles, and, as was said before, they lived separately. “At first, the raznochintsy had a blue uniform with red cuffs, and the nobles had a red one with blue cuffs.” In fact, the difference in uniforms between raznochintsy and nobles was only among high school students. “When raznochintsy gymnasiums were promoted to students,” P.I. Strakhov, - they exchanged a crimson dress for a green noble one.

On October 14, 1800, Moscow University's own uniform was officially approved, different from the uniforms of other departments - a dark green caftan, "the collar and cuffs on the caftan are crimson, the buttons are white, in one half with the coat of arms of the Empire, and in the other with the attributes of learning." On April 9, 1804, a new student uniform was approved by the decree “On uniforms for Moscow University and subordinate schools”: “a single-breasted caftan of dark blue cloth, with a standing collar and crimson cuffs”, decorated with gold embroidery. But even during the reign of Alexander I, students, especially those of their own kind, continued to wear their own dress. According to the memoirs, "students, both state-owned and private, went in particular dresses, of course, almost all in frock coats and rare in tailcoats." And even in the 1820s, according to Pirogov's memoirs, "uniforms did not yet exist."

The situation changed only in the reign of Nicholas I. When examining the university, it was noticed that the students "do not have a uniform and defined uniform in all respects." On May 22, 1826, a decree was issued “On allowing state students of Moscow University to have shoulder straps on their uniforms” “to distinguish them from their own”, and on September 6, 1826, a decree “On uniforms for students of Moscow University and for pupils of a noble boarding school and gymnasium” . According to him, a blue single-breasted student uniform was adopted. The uniform was needed so that "students, having a uniform dress, accustomed to order and to their future appointment for public service."

No less, and even more important sign of a student than a uniform, was a sword. In § 23 of the Draft on the Establishment of Moscow University, it was indicated that the sword was given to students "for encouragement", "as is the case in other places." The sword was a symbol of personal dignity; it was worn by the nobles. Thus, non-nobles, receiving the title of students, were, as it were, equal in rights with the noble class. In addition, in accordance with the Charter of 1804, a university student entering the service was immediately enrolled in the 14th grade, which gave the rights of personal nobility. Therefore, after 1804, the handing over of the sword already had not only a symbolic, but also a real meaning of a change in the social status of the former commoner. THEM. Snegirev recalled how, after his graduation in 1807 as a student, “with childish admiration he put on a student uniform, a three-cornered hat and hung a sword, which he put on his bed with him ... It seemed to me that not only relatives and neighbors, but also counter and the transverse ones looked at my sword, and what flattered my childish vanity most of all, the guards and soldiers saluted me.

Here we see a clear resemblance to German universities. Paulsen notes that if in the Middle Ages “university statutes forced the scholastic to wear spiritual dress, from the middle of the 17th century the student, both in dress and manners, considers himself a model of a nobleman. And along with the sword, this necessary accessory of a noble costume, the duel also penetrated into the university world. It is characteristic that at the same time fencing teachers appeared at the universities (in the Middle Ages, students were forbidden to carry weapons). So “the forms of life of the nobility acquire the value of an ideal; the place of the medieval scholar, the cleric-seminarian, is occupied by an academic student of the 17th century, who plays the role of a cavalier.

According to § 24 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", a university court was established. The appearance of such a university court confirmed

corporate nature of the first Russian university: after all, for any

of the European University, such a court was an inalienable property and exercised the right of "academic freedom" of the members of the corporation, according to which none of them (a professor, a student or even an employee of the university) was under the jurisdiction of the city authorities, but could be tried only by the same members as him. corporations, and only in accordance with the laws issued by his university. True, at Moscow University this norm did not take root well and acted without fail only in relation to students, while gymnasium teachers in the second half of the 1750s. had several clashes with the Moscow magistrate, trying to prove that they did not have the right to arrest them for misconduct (in particular, for debts). The University Charter of 1804 confirmed the corporate law of the university court.

On the conduct of cases in the university court in the XVIII century. give a presentation of excerpts from the minutes of the University Conference. The court was carried out by the director of the university together with other members of the Conference. The punishments for students who violated discipline (mainly due to fights) were deprivation of the sword, imprisonment for several days in a punishment cell, dismissal from state scholarships, and finally, expulsion from the university.

A special kind of violation of university regulations were cases of student marriage. Although there was no direct prohibition of a student from marrying in any university laws, however, the curator Adodurov wrote: “I was informed that student Yudin married among those who were on state support ... And as it does not happen in any Academy and university, and students not only is it indecent, but it also creates a great obstacle in teaching the sciences. Student Yudin was deprived of his scholarship.

Some students have fled the university. In the order of the curator Adodurov about the "runaway student" Ivan Popov dated October 30, 1768, just such a case is described. For his act, student Popov was expelled from the university and sent to the office of the Synod, since he came from a clergy class. Thus, the expelled student was deprived of the increase in social status he had achieved, returning back to his class.

Students in the 18th century begins to realize his own identity, to realize himself as a kind of community, different from other inhabitants of the city. This manifested itself, in particular, in clashes between representatives of the university and city dwellers. Such skirmishes begin from the very first years of its existence. Already in 1757

in the city, a fight between high school students and “titular junkers” (students of colleges) was recorded. Its instigator Pyotr Argamakov, the son of the university director, along with other participants was arrested and punished with rods.

“The city police,” recalled Pirogov, who studied at Moscow University in 1824-1828, “did not have the right to dispose of students and the guilty had to be delivered to the university.” This privilege was abolished by decree of Nicholas I dated

September 4, 1827 "On the assignment of students of Moscow University, living outside the university, to the supervision of the city police."

Students who were unable to study on their own allowance were admitted to the state kosht on the basis of a petition, subject to good academic performance, good behavior and presentation of a certificate of poverty, signed by several persons of noble birth. The first state students received 40 rubles a year. In 1799, their salary, which was paid out in thirds, was already 100 rubles. in year. If the number of state students exceeded the established number, they could be paid a student stipend, i.e. the same as received by state-owned high school students. Since 1804, the state kosht was 200 rubles a year, and in the medical department - 350 rubles. First of all, those students whom the government was preparing to serve as doctors or teachers were admitted to state-owned hospitals. After graduating from university, they were to

as compensation to the state for education, serve at least 6 years under the Ministry of Public Education.

Some students lived in apartments with friends or relatives. M.A. Dmitriev lived with his uncle. By kinship with Professor Barsov, Poludensky lived in his apartment. Without the help of acquaintances or relatives, it would be quite difficult for self-sufficient students to support themselves.

A favorite place for student meetings was the tavern "Great Britain", where comradely drinking parties were sometimes held. In general, students often visited taverns. “It happened very often,” Dmitriev recalled, “that, returning at one in the afternoon from lectures, I had to go on foot back either to Tverskaya or Kuznetskaya Most to dine with a restaurateur.”

In a letter from Göttingen to his brother, A.I. Turgenev, Nikolai, responding to the reproach of A.F. Merzlyakova, who “was hurt to see his friend’s brother often in the coffee shop and with Chebotarev,” writes: “I went there not for pranks, not to drink and fool around there, but for pleasure, completely allowed. There I often found acquaintances, friends, talked with them, drank tea, coffee, read newspapers and nothing more.

“According to the formidable saying of Sandunov at that time: “The samovar is a tavern tool and is not suitable for school”, this tool was vetoed, and therefore some had copper teapots and thus consoled themselves with tea drinking. Others fled for this business to the taverns Tsaregradsky (in Okhotny Ryad) and Znamensky (not far from the present Treasury Chamber). In these bright establishments (now there are no traces of them), some of the students were regular patrons. In taverns, students drank not only tea, but also stronger drinks. “It happened like this: the sex served tea, after a few seconds the spoon knocks, the sex rushes in. They say to him: “Give more hot water”, he grabs a kettle, in which there is still a lot of water (and no water is needed) and brings the same kettle, as if with water, but it contains aqua vitae. It can be seen that at that time the conditions of tavern establishments did not allow trading in precious moisture, and the owners were afraid of spies, who no doubt were everywhere. State-owned students managed to visit the tavern even in the morning before lectures.

Zhikharev preferred dinners and balls to other entertainment, he often attended opera and ballet. Pupils of the university with less demanding requests had fun in a different way: they participated in fistfights on Neglinnaya, where, according to the memoirs of I.M. Snegirev, “bursaks of the theological academy and students of the university converged, wall to wall: the little ones started, the big ones ended. The Neglin patchworkers helped the university students.”

Many students liked to walk in Maryina Roshcha or Sokolniki on holidays. Lyalikov recalls that the students “did not miss the so-called monastic festivities on their temple holidays. Once, I remember, the three of us hired a boat at the Moskvoretsky Bridge (Aug. 6) and sailed to the Novospassky Monastery. They also swam to the Sparrow Hills, ate milk and raspberries in Maryina Roshcha and Ostankino.

The students also visited the theatre. The University Theater was one of the first in Russia. Students and high school students took part in the preparation of the performances. The theater had an educational mission, bringing the university closer to Russian society. In addition to theatrical performances, masquerades were also given at Christmas time or Shrovetide, and "on Sundays and holidays, evening dances or concerts sometimes took place."

Since 1760, the student troupe has become professional and is called the Russian Theatre. Such Russian actors as Troepolskaya, Lapin, Mikhailova and others began their activities in the university theater. In 1776, the entrepreneur Medox created the first permanent public professional theater in Moscow, for which in 1780 Medox built a large building on Petrovka Street - Petrovsky theatre. It was in it that in 1783 the comedy "Undergrowth" by Fonvizin was shown for the first time in Moscow. The troupe included outstanding actors, among them - Peter

Alekseevich Plavilshchikov, who graduated from Moscow University in 1779. In 1825, a new building was built on the site of the Petrovsky Theater (now the Bolshoi Theatre).

Students spent the money saved from tuition fees, as well as earned by translating books and private lessons, to visit the theater and buy books.

An important role during the stay of students at the university was given to their church life. When the university was located in the building of the Apothecary House, students went to services in the Kazan Cathedral. After the university acquired Repnin’s house, “next to this place, standing nearby along Nikitskaya Street, was the parish stone church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, or St. Dionysius the Areopagite, was renamed university and attached to it. On April 5, 1791, she was consecrated in the left wing of the university building under construction at Mokhovaya Church in the name of St. martyr Tatiana. In September 1817, the church of St. George on Krasnaya Gorka, and in 1820 a chapel was consecrated in honor of St. martyr Tatiana.

According to the memoirs of Poludensky, at the end of the XVIII century. At that time, there was no special church at the university, and students were taken in turn to different parish churches.

As Lyalikov recalled, students “usually fasted during the first week of Great Lent. Vespers were listened to in the large dining room in the constant presence of Sandunov and both sub-inspectors. The choir was one of their own." “We communed the Holy Mysteries,” he recalled, “in St. George’s Church on Mokhovaya. Imagine (even now it surprises me): during the entire time, quite a long time, the communion of students (there were 40 of us, and three times as many medical students) Sandunov and Mudrov were holding a veil in front of those approaching the chalice, like inspectors. Students visited not only the university church, but also other Moscow churches. “In general, we were often told to go to services in our parish (George on Krasnaya Gorka) church; but everyone constantly went to the neighboring Nikitsky Monastery or in groups somewhere far away, for example, to Donskoy, Novodevichy. The reasons for choosing this or that church were both beautiful singing and a good sermon in this temple. Zhikharev was a lover of church singing. After mass, however, he can go to see an art gallery (of the late Prince Golitsyn) or horse races.

Students also showed themselves as part of the literary space of Moscow. In the XVIII century. The university included a whole complex of institutions. It operated a library, a printing house and a bookstore. It was in the university printing house that the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti began to be printed, around which lovers of literature united. Gymnasium students and students of Moscow University were involved in the work on the issue of this newspaper. “Literary and typographical activity at the university,” Shevyrev writes, “every year revived more and more. The newspapers aroused the attentive participation of the public. In 1760 it was impossible to find a complete copy of the previous year's newspapers in a bookshop.

In the early 1760s, a new group of periodicals appeared at Moscow University - literary magazines. University publications were conceived as a plan to educate society through cultural impact on it.

The first four magazines (“Useful Amusement”, “Free Hours”, edited by Kheraskov, “Innocent Exercise” (published by I.F. Bogdanovich), “Good Intention”), published at Moscow University in the early 1760s, were literary publications. Well-known writers participated in them - Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Trediakovsky and a large group of young people who began to try their hand at creativity.

In 1771, on the initiative of curator Melissino, Moscow University formed its first official scientific society - the Free “Russian” Assembly. It was founded "to correct and enrich the Russian language, through the publication of useful, and especially for the instruction of the youth of need, writings and translations,

verse and prose." Melissino himself was the chairman of the meeting, he was replaced by the director of the university

M.V. Priklonsky. The members of the society included many "noble persons", such as Princess Dashkova, historian M.M. Shcherbatov, Sumarokov and Prince Potemkin himself. The meetings of the Assembly were held very solemnly and magnificently. According to the descriptions of contemporaries, Potemkin sat at the table, "exhibiting the diamond buckles of his shoes, flaunting them in front of the students who, in uniforms, standing around, were present at these meetings." The Free Russian Assembly attracted the Russian elite to the cause of education, which made it possible to exert a significant influence on society and generate many supporters, including Novikov and M.N. Muraviev.

Societies of a somewhat different nature appeared at Moscow University in the 1780s. Their appearance is associated with the activities of Freemasons, primarily Novikov and Schwartz. Novikov himself was a pupil of the Moscow University; Kheraskov attracted him to work at the university. On May 1, 1779, the university concluded a contract with Novikov, according to which the university printing house was leased to him for ten years. Novikov's main goal was to spread enlightenment, "which he understood only as based on religious and moral principles, mainly in a mystical spirit." To translate foreign books, he attracted students, thereby providing them with significant material support. Since 1779, he has been publishing the Morning Light magazine in Moscow.

In 1779 Novikov met Schwartz, a professor of German at the university. Their common goals were "the training of teachers in the spirit of Masonic ethics, the introduction of new rules of education." Thanks to their labors, in 1779 the Teacher's (Pedagogical) Seminary was opened, and in 1782 - the Translation (Philological) Seminary. The first of them was intended to prepare students for teaching, and the second - to translate foreign works into Russian. On March 13, 1781, at the university, on the initiative of Schwartz, the first student society was opened under the name "Assembly of University Pupils". The goal of the society was to "improve the Russian language and literature" through writings and translations. Many students were active participants in the meeting. M.I. Antonovsky “composed a charter for this society, the rules of which, considering the members of this society, were so well educated that, upon leaving the university and entering the public service, they then turned out to be the most capable people for it, so that a rare one of them now serves without distinction ( except for those persecuted by envy and malice), less than the 4th grade.

In 1782, on a Masonic basis, a Friendly Scientific Society was formed around the university. It brought together more than 50 people. More than 20 students studied under his supervision, including the future metropolitans Seraphim (Glagolevsky) and Mikhail (Desnitsky), professors P.A. Sokhatsky, A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky and P.I. Strakhov. It was the circle of Novikov's comrades in the Friendly Scientific Society that produced literary publications at the university in the 1780s.

In 1781, Novikov published the "Moscow Monthly Edition", in 1782 the journal "Evening Dawn" began to be published, and from 1784 - "The Rest of the Worker". The content of these magazines mainly consisted of poems or "discourses" written by students on moral and philosophical topics. "The Rest of the Worker" had a pronounced occult-mystical orientation, as evidenced by the fact that articles such as "On the Science Called Cabal" were placed there, and the well-known mystic Swedenborg was also given a positive assessment.

Such an obvious propaganda of mysticism could not fail to attract the attention of the authorities. In a decree dated December 23, 1785, Catherine II wrote that “many strange books” were being printed in Novikov’s printing house, and Archbishop Platon was ordered to examine them and test Novikov in the law of God. As a result, Novikov's circle was persecuted:

in 1786 the Philological Seminary and the Friendly Learned Society were closed. As a result, student literary activity froze for several years.

Students of Moscow University took an active part in the social and literary life of Russia. Many of them were talented writers, poets; some of them became publishers. Thanks to the translation activities of students, Moscow and all of Russia got acquainted with Western literature. The process of education and upbringing continued outside the walls of university classrooms, in private apartments. Student circles formed new views, laid down a system of values, thus, the process of the student's entry into public life took place. This is how the “cultural colonization” of urban space by the university took place.

Thus, the transfer of European university realities to Russia took place, although the local soil created certain specifics. Moscow University, like European ones, was a corporation, the signs of which were relative autonomy, its own court, uniform and some other privileges.

The everyday life of students at Moscow University still bore the imprint of the estates they came from, and the formation of a single "corporate" denominator in the period under review is out of the question. At the same time, communication brought young men from different social groups together and formed a common space of ideas. Ultimately, the initial history of the students of Moscow University at that time testifies to the ongoing process of the formation of a student corporation, awareness of common interests and life tasks, which in many ways became characteristic of students in the middle of the 19th century.

The university brought together representatives of different classes by organizing common forms of life. Although raznochintsy prevailed among students and professors at the university for a long time, it was closely associated with the culture of the nobility.

When starting to study the topic, students should remember that in the second half of the 19th century, important changes were taking place in Russian culture. This was largely due to the major historical events that took place in Russia. The most important factor that had a huge impact on the development of all aspects of society was the abolition of serfdom and the bourgeois reforms that followed it. Thanks to these transformations, capitalism developed rapidly in Russia, which changed the entire old economic system of the country, led to a change in the social and spiritual image of the population, its way of life, mores, and to an increase in cultural needs.

The development of education should be considered on the example of the transformative policy of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin. The rise of science and technology was also associated with educational reforms. It is necessary to consider the scientific activities of the Russian Academy of Sciences, university professors, numerous scientific and scientific and technical societies that arose in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

The education reforms also resulted in a noticeable growth of libraries and museums, periodicals and book publishing.

The development of Russian literature in the second half of the XIX century. was caused by the crisis of relations between the authorities and society after the Crimean War, therefore, the ideas of public service, citizenship, and exposure of the existing reality were put forward in a central place in it. Considering in general terms the work of N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy and others, students should try to formulate the main line of development of Russian literature in the period under consideration and the degree of its influence on the spiritual development of society.

The issue of the development of Russian art must be considered, paying attention to the new social processes that took place in the country. In particular, the appearance of a diverse intelligentsia, thanks to which the attitude of cultural figures to their place and role in society has changed.

In the second half of the 19th century, a national art school was finally formed in Russia, the achievements of which embraced not individual types of art, but precisely artistic culture as a whole, embracing various types of art, and the entire system of their interaction, and the relationship of art with society.

Considering the question of the development of architecture, it should be noted that as a result of the rapid development of capitalist relations after the abolition of serfdom, the number of cities, especially large centers, grew.

New methods of building were born, new building materials were used.

The main artistic trend in the architecture of this time was eclecticism. Among the Russian architects of the post-reform era there were many outstanding masters. Students should get acquainted with the work of A.E. RezanovA, A.M. Gornostaev, V.O. Sherwood and others.

The question of the development of Russian painting requires knowledge that the leading center for the training of professional architects, sculptors, and artists was still the Russian Academy of Arts. It should not be denied that the Academy trained specialists of the European level. However, the restriction of freedom of creativity by academic dogmas caused discontent among the part of her students who shared democratic convictions. Dissatisfaction with the academic teaching system among some students of the Academy of Arts in the 60s. 19th century led to the first organized action against the academic order. In the history of Russian culture, this event is known as the "Riot of the Fourteen". Students need to understand the reasons for the protest of young artists, study materials about the activities they created in 1863. "The First St. Petersburg Artel of Free Artists".

It is especially important to analyze the reasons for the creation, the composition of the participants, the ideological guidelines of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions.

Considering the work of masters of fine arts, it is necessary to single out the main directions in the development of painting: everyday genre, historical painting, portrait and landscape painting

Students should study the biographies of such famous painters of the second half of the 19th century as V.G. Perov, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin and others.

The development of sculpture in the period under study was associated with the work of sculptors of the academic direction - M.O. Mikeshin and A.M. guardian. The realistic direction in sculpture was expressed in the work of M.M. Antokolsky.

The democratization of the country's artistic life, which took place in the early 1860s, led to qualitative, radical shifts in the entire way of musical life. This is confirmed by the development of musical criticism and theoretical thought about music; organization in 1860 of the Russian Musical Society (RMO). Its goal was to "develop musical education and a taste for music in Russia and encourage domestic talent." In 1862, in St. Petersburg, and in 1866, in Moscow, on the initiative of the famous pianists and conductors brothers A. G. and N. G. Rubinshten, conservatories were opened. For the first time, the profession of musician acquired a legal status; the title of "free artist", assigned at the end of the course, meant a certain civil status.

The successor of the creative tradition of M. I. Glinka was P. I. Tchaikovsky, whose name is associated with the development of Russian musical culture of the era under study. The realistic traditions of M. I. Glinka were further developed in the work of the members of the circle of composers of the realistic direction - “The Mighty Handful”, which included M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. P. Borodin and Ts. A. Cui. Students should study their biographies, know the main musical works. Theatrical life in the 1860s-1890s was represented by opera houses - the Bolshoi and Mariinsky, as well as drama theaters. The leading role was played by the Maly and Alexandrinsky theatres. Students must study dramaturgy, directing features, theatrical education system; get acquainted with the history of the creation of the capital's theaters, as well as the work of the leading artists who worked in them (M. S. Shchepkin, P. M. Sadovsky, P. A. Strepetova, G. N. Fedotov, M. N. Yermolov - at the Maly Theater; V. V. Samoilov, P. V. Vasiliev, K. A. Varlamov, M. G. Savina - at the Alexandrinsky Theater.

It is important to note that after the abolition of the monopoly of the Imperial Theaters in 1882, the creation of theaters in the Russian provinces began. Students must prepare performances about the theaters of the Don.

Abstract topics:

1. New trends in Russian culture in the post-reform period.

2. "Wanderers" and their social significance.

3. Provincial theater in the second half of the 19th century (on the example of the development of theaters in Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Novocherkassk).

Sources and literature:

1. Botkina A.P.M. Tretyakov in life and art. M., 1960.

2. Minchenkov Ya.D. Memories of the Wanderers. L., 1961.

3. Tenisheva M. K. Impressions of my life. L., 1991.

1. Allenov M.M. and others. Russian art X - early XX: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Graphic arts. M., 1989.

2. Aronov A.A. World art culture: Russia: the end of the 19th - 20th centuries. Study guide. M., 1999.

3. Gordeeva E. M. Composers of the "Mighty Handful". M., 1986.

4. Zezina M.R. Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. Culture of Russia in the IX-XX centuries. - M., 1996.

5. Kondakov I.V. Culture of Russia. M., 1999.

6. Kuleshov V.I. History of Russian literature of the 19th century. M., 1997.

7. Culture and art of Russia in the 19th century. M., 1985.

8. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1971.

9. Lisovsky V. G. Academy of Arts. L., 1988.

10. Likhachev D.S. Russian art from antiquity to the avant-garde. M., 1993.

11. Nikitin V.S. Tchaikovsky: old and new. - M., 1990.

12. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1987.

13. Essays on Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. \ edited by N.M. Volynkin. M., 1982.

14. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and audience of Russian capitals. 1875-1917. - L. 1990.

15. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and audience in provincial Russia. Second half of the 19th century. - M., 1979.

16. Plotnikov V.I. Folklore and Russian fine arts of the second half of the 19th century. L., 1987.

17.

18. Poznansky V.V. Essays on the history of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1976.

19. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. M., 1991.

20. Ryabtsev Yu. S. History of Russian culture: Artistic life and life of the XVIII-XIX centuries. M., 1997.

21. Sarabyanov D.V. History of Russian art of the second half of the 19th century: a course of lectures. M., 1989.

22. Soboleva E.V. The struggle for the reorganization of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the middle of the XIX century. L., 1971.

23. Soboleva E.V. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1983.

24. Sternin G.Yu. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. M., 1995. Shchetinina G.I. The ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late XIX - early XX century. M., 1995.

25. Shchetinina, G.I. The ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late 19th-early 20th century M., 1995.

26. Eymontova, R. G. Russian universities on the verge of two eras: From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985.

27. Yakovkina N. I. History of Russian culture: XIX century. SPb., 2000.

Tests

to the topic: "Russian culture in the second half of the nineteenth century".