Morphemics scientists. Morphological ways of word formation

Morpheme- the smallest unit of language that has some meaning (as defined by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933). The term was introduced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. The division of morphemes into parts leads only to the selection of insignificant elements - phonemes.

Morphs and allomorphs

Strictly speaking, morpheme, being an abstract linguistic unit, is not a sign, but a class of signs. The concrete realization of a morpheme in a text is called morph or (most recently) morph.

At the same time, morphs representing the same morpheme may have a different phonetic appearance depending on their environment within the word form. A set of morphs of one morpheme that have the same phonemic composition is called allomorph.

So, in the sentence I run and you run, but he does not run" morpheme "run-" represented by three morphs ( run- in running, beige- in running and beige- in running) and only two allomorphs ( run- and beige-).

The relationship between morph, allomorph and morpheme is approximately the same as between the background (speech sound), allophone and phoneme. It is important to understand that in order for two morphs to belong to the same allomorph, they do not have to have exactly the same sound: only the phonemic composition and stress must be the same.

In everyday life, even among specialists in morphology, the term "morpheme" is often used in the sense morph. Sometimes such indistinction in word usage penetrates even into published scientific texts. One should be careful in this regard, although in the overwhelming majority of cases it is clear from the context what kind of entity - a concrete text morphe or an abstract linguistic morpheme - is being discussed.

Morpheme classification

Roots and affixes

Morphemes are classified into two main types - root (roots, or basics), and affixal (affixes).

Root- the main significant part of the word. The root is an obligatory part of any word - there are no words without a root. Root morphemes can form a word both accompanied by affixes and independently.

Affix- an auxiliary part of the word, attached to the root and serving for word formation and expression of grammatical meanings. Affixes cannot form a word on their own - only in combination with roots. Affixes, unlike some roots (such as cockatoo) are not singular, occurring only in one word.

Classification of affixes

Affixes are divided into types depending on their position in the word. There are two types of affixes most common in the languages of the world - prefixes, located before the root, and postfixes located after the root. The traditional name for the prefixes of the Russian language is prefixes.

Depending on the expressed meaning, postfixes are divided into suffixes(having a derivational, that is, derivational meaning) and inflections(having a relational, that is, indicating a relationship with other members of the sentence, meaning). The traditional name for inflections of the Russian language is graduation, since they are mostly located at the very end of words.

There are languages that do not use prefixes (Turkic, some Finno-Ugric), and all grammar is expressed by postfixes. Some other languages, such as Swahili (Bantu family, Central Africa), use prefixes and almost no postfixes. The Indo-European languages, to which the Russian language belongs, use both prefixes and postfixes, but with a clear preponderance towards the latter.

In addition to prefixes and postfixes, there are other types of affixes. Interfixes- service morphemes that do not have their own meaning, but serve to connect roots in compound words (for example, forehead- about-shaking). Confixes- combinations of a prefix with a postfix, which always act together, surrounding the root (as, for example, in the German word ge-lob- t - "praised"). Infixes- affixes inserted in the middle of the root (found in Indonesian languages). Transfixes- affixes, which, breaking the root, consisting of only consonants, break themselves and serve as a “layer” of vowels among consonants, determining the grammatical meaning of the word (found in Semitic languages, in particular, in Arabic).

Literature

A. A. Reformatsky. Introduction to linguistics
Modern Russian language (edited by V. A. Beloshapkova)

Morphemics

Litnevskaya E. I.

Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. In this definition, both parts are equally important - the minimal and meaningful: the morpheme is the smallest unit of the language that has meaning, it is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word.

In Russian, the alphabetic and sound composition of morphemes is not unchanged: non-phonetic (that is, not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, the end of a phonetic word and other sounds) alternations of vowels and consonants are widely represented in morphemes.

These alternations are not accidental, they are explained by historical processes that took place in the language in ancient times.

In modern Russian, the following alternations are presented in the composition of morphemes.

o / # (fluent vowel): sleep - sleep;

e / # (fluent vowel): day - day;

e / o: delirium - wander;

o / a: look - look;

e / o / # / and: I will collect - collect - collect - collect;

o / y / s: dry - dry - dry up;

Consonant alternations and their combinations:

1) alternation of paired hard with paired soft:

[b] - [b "]: mol [b] a - mol [b "] e;

[in] - [in "]: tra [in] a - tra [in "]e;

[g] - [g "]: but [g] a - but [g "] e, etc.

2) alternation of posterior lingual with hissing:

g / f: leg - leg;

k / h: hand - pen;

x / w: fly - front sight;

3) alternation of dental with hissing:

d / f / railway: drive - drive - driving;

t / h / w: shine - candle - lighting;

s / f: to carry - I drive;

s / w: wear - wear;

c / h: cucumber - cucumber;

st / w: sad - sad;

4) alternation of labials with a combination of labial + [l "]:

b / bl: love - love;

p / pl: buy - buy;

in / ow: to catch - I catch;

f / fl: graphite - graffle;

m / ml: feed - feed.

Other alternations are also presented in Russian, but they are less common, for example: Cossack - Cossack, friend - friends.

The alternations listed above are reflected in the letter in different letters. However, the non-phonetic alternation of a hard consonant with a soft consonant paired with it is indicated not by a consonant, but by a subsequent vowel: ru[k]a - ru[k"]e.

Often in one morpheme a whole series of consonant alternations is presented, the most common of which is the triple alternation of a paired hard / paired soft / consonant of another formation, for example:

[s] / [s "] / [w]: carried - to wear - a burden;

[in] / [in "] / [vl"]: catching - catching - catching.

In addition, in Russian it is possible to alternate a vowel and combine a vowel with a consonant:

a (i) / im: remove - remove;

a (i) / in: reap - reap;

and / oh: beat - fight;

e / oh: sing - sing.

In the same morpheme, alternations of both vowels and consonants can be represented, for example: move - walk - walk - walk (o / a, d / w / zhd).

Classification of morphemes of the Russian language.

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix, word-forming suffix, postfix), called affixes, and formative (ending and forming suffix), called inflections.

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that the root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes (home) and without endings (metro). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

Roots that can be used in a word alone or in combination with inflections are called free. There are 6 such roots in the language. Those roots that can only be used in combination with affixes are called related, for example: s-nya-t / pod-nya-t, agit-irov-t / agit-atsij-ya.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix, postfix

Word-forming non-root morphemes (affixes) serve to form new words and are divided into prefixes (prefixes), suffixes and postfixes. These kinds of affixes differ in their place in relation to the root and other morphemes.

A prefix is a word-forming morpheme that precedes the root (re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, in some places), including before another prefix (before-sort-take, not-clear).

A word-forming suffix is a word-forming morpheme that comes after the root, but before inflection, if the word has inflection (table-ik, red-e-t); in a derivative word of the Russian language there are often several suffixes, for example: pis-a-tel-nits-a.

A postfix is a word-building morpheme that comes after endings and formative suffixes.

Postfixes -sya (-s), -to, -either, -nibud (mind-th-sya, to-tho) are presented in Russian.

Morpheme. What is a morpheme? What is morphemic parsing of a word?

The question is closed because it is a duplicate of the question "Morpheme - what is it? What are the types of morphemes?"

A morpheme is a part of a word, and its most minimal. Any of the words, in Russian, consists of morphemes, divided into two types: these are obligatory, called the root (for example: water - water - waterfall - submariner, all these words have approximately the same meaning associated with water and a common root) and not obligatory, included in the lexeme or not (for example: walk, leave, leave, enter) With the help of morphemic parsing of words, we can parse its structure and determine and select words that are related in meaning. With morphemic analysis, first of all, you can determine the basis of the word and its root, just as if the word changes in some way, then you need to find its ending using conjugation and declension.

Any word is divided into minimally significant parts, which are called morphemes. Morphemes are:

roots (the main morpheme in the word),
suffixes,
prefixes,
interfixes (connecting vowels),
postfixes,
endings.

The section of the science of language that studies the composition of a word is called morphemic.

Vladsandrovich

The word morpheme itself is translated as part of the word, and, accordingly, morphemic analysis is the analysis of the word in parts.

Most of the parts of these words are known to everyone, since the school course includes such analyzes, these are: suffix, prefix, root and others.

In addition, there are some additional characteristics, such as the derivation of the stem of a word or the method of formation. Of course, the norms and requirements for parsing standards change, and therefore, their change is a necessity that arose as a given of time and is a natural phenomenon of parsing a word and all other norms in the Russian language.

Metelitsa

Morphemes are the parts that make up words: roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings and interfix (a connecting vowel in a compound word). All these parts of a word are found during morphemic parsing of a word, that is, morphemic parsing of a word is parsing a word into its constituent parts, in other words, morphemic parsing is also called parsing by composition.

In morphemic analysis, morphemes of words are distinguished in various ways: by changing the word, selecting words with the same root, selecting words containing the same morpheme.

Valentina51

a morpheme is a significant part of a word, and morphemic studies these parts (root, prefix, suffix, ending). accordingly, morphemic parsing is the parsing of a word by composition, not to be confused with morphological parsing, when a word is parsed as a part of speech. In textbooks, the task of parsing a word by composition is indicated by the number 2 above the word.

Katalina

The significant part of a word is called a morpheme. It follows that we will deal with morphemic analysis in the case of parsing a word by composition: we will find the root, select the prefix, determine the suffix and ending. Parsing the word by composition, we must not forget that this is done on the basis of modern rules of the Russian language.

Moreljuba

A morpheme in Russian means the smallest part of a word that can be distinguished in it. Each word is just the same and consists of a different number of morphemes. In turn, morphemes have the following names:

Morpheme parsing involves the selection of all possible morphemes in a particular word.

A MORPHEME is a significant part of a word, words in Russian are made up of morphemes (that is, significant parts). The root, suffix, prefix and ending are all morphemes. But there is BUT here - a significant part of the word, it is not the same as part of the word, and many are mistaken, confusing these meanings.

Adventurer 2000

Good afternoon, as you know, at school, words are analyzed by composition, the following parts can be distinguished in words:

So all these parts are called morpheme. Therefore, all people face this at school and learn how to parse a word.

Morpheme means "shape" in Greek. Significant part of a word, two-sided unit of language. One side is called semantic (content). The second side is phonetic (expression).

Any word that is broken down into minimally meaningful parts, which are called morphemes. Morphemes (translated from ancient Greek as "form"), these are: roots (this is the most important morpheme in a word), suffixes (after the root), prefixes (before the root), interfixes (connecting (fluent) vowels), postfixes (after the end), endings (not part of the word).

And the branch of the science of language that studies the composition of a word is called morphemic.

Morphemes are

Yana Andreeva

A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has a meaning (as defined by the American linguist Leonardo Bloomfield in 1933). The division of morphemes into parts leads only to the selection of insignificant elements - phonemes.
Morphs and allomorphs
In most concepts, the morpheme is considered as an abstract language unit. A concrete realization of a morpheme in a text is called a morph or (more commonly) a morph.

So, in the sentence “I run, and you run, but he does not run,” the morpheme “run-” is represented by three morphs (run-run, run-run and run-run) and only two allomorphs (run- and run). -).

The variation of the expression plan of the morpheme forces some theorists (namely, I. A. Melchuk and N. V. Pertsov) to conclude that the morpheme is not a sign, but a class of signs.

So, in the works of N. V. Pertsov it is stated that “in everyday life, even among specialists in morphology, the term“ morpheme ”is often used in the meaning of morph” and that “sometimes such indistinguishability in word usage penetrates even into published scientific texts” . N.V. Pertsov believes that “you should be careful in this regard, although in the vast majority of cases it is clear from the context what kind of entity - a concrete textual morphe or an abstract linguistic morpheme - is in question.”

Classification of morphemes. Roots and affixes
Morphemes are divided into two main types - root (roots), and affixal (affixes).

The root is the main significant part of the word. The root is an obligatory part of any word - there are no words without a root (except for rare secondary formations with a lost root like the Russian "you-well-be (prefix-suffix-ending)"). Root morphemes can form a word both accompanied by affixes and independently.

Affix is an auxiliary part of a word, attached to the root and serving for word formation and expression of grammatical meanings. Affixes cannot form a word on their own - only in combination with roots. Affixes, unlike some roots (like, for example, cockatoo), are not single, occurring only in one word.

Classification of affixes
Affixes are divided into types depending on their position in the word. The two most common types of affixes in the languages of the world are prefixes, located before the root, and postfixes, located after the root. The traditional name for Russian language prefixes is prefixes. The prefix clarifies the meaning of the root, conveys the lexical meaning, sometimes expresses the grammatical meaning (for example, the aspect of verbs).

Depending on the expressed meaning, postfixes are divided into suffixes (having a derivational, that is, derivational meaning) and inflections (having a relational meaning, that is, indicating a connection with other members of the sentence, meaning). The suffix conveys both lexical and (more often) grammatical meaning; can translate a word from one part of speech to another (transposing function). Inflections are word-changing affixes. The traditional name for inflections of the Russian language is endings, since they are mainly located at the very end of words.

Viki Bokareva

Prefix, root, suffix, ending are morphemes (parts of words). Each of them has its own semantic meaning. For example, the prefix in the word arrived denotes an approach. Morphemes as part of a word are studied in a special section of the science of morphemic language.

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics deals with two main questions:
1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme.

Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part of the word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root morphemes. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table ) and without endings ( kangaroo ). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if ), interjections ( yeah, hello ), many adverbs ( very, very ), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache ) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan ). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go-ty.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and formative (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Prefix- a derivational morpheme that stands before the root or another prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, in some places, re-do).

Suffix- derivational morpheme, standing after the root (table- ik , red- e- t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a derivational morpheme standing after the ending or formative suffix (mind-th- Xia , whom- or ).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express

The ending

The ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) And serves to link words in a phrase and sentence, that is, it is a means of agreement (new- th student), management (letter brother- y) or connection of the subject with the predicate (I id- at , you go- eat ).

Only modified words have endings. Functional words, adverbs, invariable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Changed words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that do not have the indicated grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerund.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- and -st- a , tr- ex -hot-, sofa -bed-, sofa- a -bed- and .

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.

Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a table-shaped a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at on the table- at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form of a table indicates that this is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information that is significant. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

You must not confuse words with a zero ending and words in which there are no and cannot be endings - immutable words. Only inflected words can have a null ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form word forms.
Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: this suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participle forms. Non-verb formative suffixes are represented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.

Most verbs have two different kinds of stem: one is the present/future simple stem, and the other is the infinitive stem as well as the past tense: read j - and chita - , rice - and rice - , run - and running - , dialect - and speak - .

There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( id -ut, id -ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense ( w -l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: tere- th, ter- l-a, tr- ut; weep- th, mok- l-a, wet- ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried ti, carried l-a, carried ut; carried ty, carried l-a, carried ut.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have a different stem of the past tense) and the conditional mood are formed.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:
write- th - write- l- (would - write- vsh-th
write y - write usch-th - write and- .

The basis

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word.

The basis- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word is the basis, For example: if, coat, yesterday. Changed words do not include endings and / or formative suffixes in the stem, For example: window- about, lying- th, dare- her, read- l-a, did- nn-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -sya ( teach- l-a-s), bases of indefinite pronouns containing suffixes - something, - either, - anything ( to- hoo), the bases of some compound nouns ( sofa- a- bed- i) and complex numbers ( heel- and- ten- and). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

Morphemic analysis is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Determine what part of speech the word is; indicate its base and ending.
2. Set the lexical meaning of the word and determine how it is formed (from which word and with the help of which morphemes); indicate prefixes, suffixes and the root of the word.

Sample morpheme parsing

carpenter

Sample reasoning:
carpenter - a form of the verb carpenter; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix -l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpenter-i).

The basis- carpenter-.

The verb carpentry is formed from the noun carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - ‘to be a carpenter’; the difference between the base carpenter and the carpenter is the suffix -a-, in the bases the alternation of k / h is represented.
The noun carpenter in the modern language is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Therefore, carpenter / carpenter is the root.

Thus, the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix -l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix -a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating stem, the root carpenter. The basis of the word carpenter is.

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Whatis morpheme and morpheme

Morphemics (from the Greek morph - form) is a branch of the science of language that studies the composition (structure) of a word. Morphemics deals with two main questions:

1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,

2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. Among morphemes prefixes, roots, suffixes, interfixes (connecting vowels), postfixes, endings are distinguished.

In this definition, both definitions are equally important - minimal and significant; a morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a meaning.

The minimum unit of an audio stream is sound. Sounds in a strong position can distinguish words: pond and rod. But the sounds do not denote either concepts, or objects, or their signs, that is, they do not matter.

In the course of lexicology, words are studied - grammatically designed meaningful units that serve to name objects of reality. Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, but they do it more precisely, dissected (cf .: table and desk).

Another significant unit is the offer. Its difference from morphemes and words is, firstly, that it is a larger unit consisting of words, and secondly, that the sentence, having a target and intonation design, serves as a unit of communication, communication.

A morpheme differs from units of all other language levels: a morpheme differs from sounds in that it has a meaning; from words - by the fact that it is not a grammatically formalized unit of naming (it is not characterized as a dictionary unit belonging to a certain part of speech); from sentences - by the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are the "building material" for sentences.

In Russian, the alphabetic and sound composition of morphemes is not unchanged: non-phonetic (i.e., not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, the end of a phonetic word and other sounds) alternations of vowels and consonants are widely represented in morphemes. These alternations are not accidental, they are explained by historical processes that took place in the language in ancient times, so the alternations are of a systemic nature.

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root morphemes. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root of the word

The main morpheme in a word is the root. The root is the common part of related words, which contains their main meaning. Words with the same root are called single-root. For example, words teach, student, teacher, study, educational, scientist, learn, study, learn contain the same root -uch- and therefore are single root. All these words denote objects, signs, or actions related to the action of `teach.' Words bush, bush, bush, bush, bush- single-rooted, since they contain the same root - bush- and denote objects, signs or actions related to the bush. Words with the same root make up a word-formation nest. Nests can be large or small. So, a nest with a root -uch- significantly larger than the nest with a root -bush-.

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that the root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table) and without endings ( kangaroo). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

The definition of a root as "a common part of related words" is correct, but not an exhaustive description, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur in only one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographical names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it "expresses the main lexical meaning of the word." For most words, this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik small table. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any particular morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of the lexical meaning - `children's holiday' - is not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go.

According to some examples of fiction, journalistic literature and colloquial speech, one may get the impression that words consisting only of prefixes or suffixes are possible, for example: " Democracies, humanisms - go and go for isms isms"(V.V. Mayakovsky). But this is not so: in such cases, the suffix turns into a root and, with or without an ending, forms a noun. To find the root in a word, you need to pick up cognate (related) words. So, in the word recess we extract the root -men-, choosing single-root words change, exchange, replacement etc. in the word express find the root -skaz-, comparing the original word with the words to retell, to tell, to tell, a story, a fairy tale etc.

You need to be able to distinguish between roots that match in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Such roots are called homonymous. Let's compare, for example, two derivational nests of words:

· one) carry, carry, transfer, tray, skid, cast-offs, porter- root -nose-;

2) nose, nasal, spout, nose, bridge of nose- root -nose-.

Words with homonymous roots are not cognate.

Phraseologism leave with a nose means `to leave with nothing, to deceive, to fool', and stay with the nose- ʻbe fooled, fail.' But what does the nose have to do with it? The fact is that this phraseological unit arose when there was another word in the Russian language nose(one-root word wear) with the meaning of `offering to the bride as a ransom for her.' If the matchmakers came with such an offering to the bride's house and were refused in this house, then their offering was not accepted, they remained with their "nose". Word nose with such a meaning has fallen into disuse and is preserved only as part of a phraseological unit. But there is another word in the language nose, denoting a part of the person, coinciding in sound with the lost one, so we now associate the phraseological unit with the remaining word.

The alternation of vowels and consonants in the root

In the formation of new words and forms of words in many roots, alternations of sounds are possible, as a result of which different variants of the same root are formed. For example, in the words ask, ask, ask the same root -prosk-, which has alternations s/w and o/a.

Vowel alternations

1) o/a: rip - unravel, adjust - adjust, catch - catch; this alternation is very often observed in the formation of imperfective verbs with the help of suffixes -iva-/-yva-.

2) Runaway vowels about and e:

about/null sound: mouth - mouth, needle - needle, hundred - hundred;

e/null sound: stump - stump, father - father, pine - pine, spring - Spring.

3) e/o: delirium - wander, lead - drive, drive - carry, carry - wear, rattle - thunder.

4) Full agreement / disagreement:

oro/ra: enclose - fence, health - health resort;

ee/re: coast - coastal, middle - average;

olo/la: header - header, well - treasure trove;

olo/le: captivate - captivity, milk - mammal.

Dissonance is a lexical and phonetic phenomenon of the modern Russian language: the presence of a combination of ra, la, re, le between consonants in root (or prefixed) morphemes. Through the Old Slavonic written monuments, words with non-vowel combinations penetrated into the Old Russian language and became fixed in it, coexisting with the East Slavic full agreement oro, olo, ere, elo / olo: the country - side, gold - gold, beach - shore, mammal (Milky Way) - milk. Non-vowel and full-vowel formations in the history of the development of the language have undergone various changes: in some cases, the non-vowel variant has been preserved, in others - the full-vowel one; sometimes both words are preserved, but diverged in lexical meaning. Old Slavonic variants have been preserved: time, burden (but pregnant), sweet, brave, scolding (but defense) etc. Only full-vowel variants have survived: harrow, peas, well done, road, cow etc. Words like powder - dust, country - side etc., in the modern language differ in meaning.

In the full-vowel variant of the root, alternation is possible o/a associated with the formation of the imperfect form of the verb using the suffix -willow-: fence off - fence off, swamp - swamp.

It is important to remember that full agreement is possible only within one morpheme (more often the root, sometimes prefixes: through-/through-, re-/pre-) and it must be distinguished from the "false full agreement" that occurs at the junction of morphemes (put, prophet, canteen, measurement, ice).

Consonant alternations

1) k/h: bug - bug, bake - bakes;

c/h/c: fisherman - fishing - fishing;

2) g / f: meadow - meadow, I can - you can;

g/f/z: friend - to be friends - friends;

3) cotton: fly - fly, dry - drier;

4) d / f: rare - less often, sit - I sit;

d / w / w: give birth - give birth - birth;

5) t / h: twirl - twirl, steep - steeper;

t / h / w: light - candle - lighting;

6) h / f: bottom - lower, cut - cut;

7) s / w: paint - paint, high - higher;

8) c / h: finger - finger, hare - hare;

9) b / bl: chop - ruble, love - fall in love;

10) p / pl: save - save, purchase - purchase;

11) in / vl: new - update, catch - catch;

12) f / fl: graphite - graffle;

13) m/ml: feed - feeding, break - refraction;

14) st / w: thick - thicker, plant - grow;

15) sk / u: search - search, drag - drag.

Experience shows that of all the listed cases of alternations, the greatest difficulties for schoolchildren are cases 9-13 (alternation of the labial with the combination "labial + l"). Here, the most common errors in morphemic analysis: many do not see the alternation and single out the root without l, and interpret l as a suffix. Therefore, when explaining, it is worth emphasizing (and explaining with examples) that each distinguished morpheme has a certain meaning, and if you highlight the suffix -l-, it does not add any meaning to the word, for example: buy - buy, feed - feed (cf. drive - drives , burning - burning); update - update, update.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and formative (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

There are several terminological traditions in linguistics. The most common is the terminology in which all non-root morphemes are called affixes. Further, affixes are subdivided in it into derivational affixes and inflections. Another fairly authoritative tradition assigns the term affixes only to word-forming morphemes.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

A prefix is a derivational morpheme that precedes a root or another prefix ( re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, somewhere, re-o-det).

A derivational suffix is a derivational morpheme that comes after the root ( table-ik, red-e-t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, a postfix is also distinguished - a word-forming morpheme that comes after the ending or formative suffix ( mind-th-xia, anyone).

Prefix

Prefix- a morpheme that comes before the root and usually serves to form new words. The prefix can be placed directly before the root (transition) or before another prefix (retake). Some prefixes, like roots, can appear in different versions, i.e. in them alternations of vowels and consonants are possible:

1) in all prefixes on a consonant, a fluent vowel is possible about at the end of the prefix:

tear - tear up, pick up - pick up, pick up - accelerate;

2) in consoles over-/pre-, through-/through- full-vowel and non-vowel variants are presented: partition - barrier, streak - excessive.

In attachments for -h- presented alternation s/c (carefree - restless), and in the attachment once- also alternating a/o (play out - draw).

Prefixes are more autonomous in word structure than suffixes:

1) prefixes can have a side, weaker stress in polysyllabic words: ultravioletnew,

2) they do not cause grammatical alternations in the root, unlike suffixes, which can cause such alternations: hand - pen,

3) by adding only one prefix, a word of another part of speech cannot be formed, unlike suffixes: adding a suffix may not change the part of the word ( house - house-ik), and to form a word of another part of speech ( white - white-e-t, white-out-a),

4) prefixes are often not associated with a specific part of speech ( under-work, under-sleep), while suffixes are usually assigned to a specific part of speech:- Nick- serves to form nouns, - Liv- - adjectives, - willow- - verbs),

5) the meaning of the prefix is usually quite specific and only modifies the meaning of the original stem, while the meaning of the suffix can be either very specific (- yonok- denotes the cub of the one who is named in the root), and very abstract (- n- denotes an attribute of an object).

Suffix

A suffix (from Latin suffixus - `attached') is a morpheme that comes after the root before the ending and serves to form new words or word forms. The suffix can come directly after the root (carpenter) or after another suffix (carpentry).

Suffixes that serve to form new words are called word-forming (word-forming). Most of these suffixes For example, the suffix -ovate- forms adjectives with the meaning of incomplete quality from other adjectives: grey --->grayish, dark---> dark, liquid--->runny, pale--->paleish; suffix -in- forms possessive adjectives from nouns denoting animals: horse--->equine, elk--->moose, goose--->goose, falcon --->falcon; suffix -tel forms nouns with the meaning of the acting person from verbs: learn--->teacher, read--->reader, live --->inhabitant.

Suffixes that serve to form word forms are called formative (inflectional). With the help of formative suffixes, some verb forms are formed, for example, the suffix -th forms an indefinite form ( read), -l-- past tense form (was reading), -I-- imperfect participle (reading), -yusch- - active present participle (reading). With the help of formative suffixes, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are formed, for example: newer, brighter, newest, highest.

In suffixes for -to- possible alternation k/h, as well as fluent vowels, for example: examination - checks - verification.

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

When connecting morphemes in a word, insignificant connecting elements, called interfixes in linguistics, can be used. The main type of interfixes are connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about-(airplane), -e-(half-e-waters), -uh-(double decker),-ex-(three-storey),-and- (five-and-story). Such connecting vowels at the junction of roots are not morphemes in the generally accepted sense (although a number of linguists consider them morphemes with a special, connecting meaning). The stems of the word are not interrupted by connecting elements.

Sometimes the term "interfix" is used to describe a wider range of phenomena - all connecting elements used in word formation and inflection. At the same time, the following types of interfixes in word formation are distinguished:

1) connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about-(airplane), -e-(half-e-waters), -uh-(double decker),-ex-(three-storey),-and- (five-and-story) other,

2) consonants inserted between a root and a suffix or between two suffixes; - l-(resident),-in-(singer), -j-(coffee),-t-(argot-t-ichesy),-w-(cine);

in shaping:

-j-(leaf-j-i),-ov-(son-ov-me),-er-(mat-er-and),-en-(tribe-en-a). The function of insignificant elements in inflection is also performed by vowels at the end of the verb stem, which have no meaning and close the verb stem: -a-(write),-e-(mountains),-about-(half-o-th), -and- (be in love).

How, with this understanding, is the question of the status of interfixes in morphemic analysis resolved? There is no consensus among linguistic scholars on this issue; interfixes of different groups are usually qualified differently.

Connecting vowels at the junction of roots (group 1) do not join either one or the other root and remain between morphemes; with morphemic articulation of a word, they can be distinguished by brackets, underlining or circling the connecting element with a circle: sam(o)let-F ¬ myself + fly.

As for the interfixes of the second group used in word formation, there are three points of view:

1) leave them between morphemes (ne (v) ets),

2) attach them to the root (singer),

3) attach them to the suffix (pe-vec).

Each of these points of view has arguments for and against. The algorithm of morphemic parsing adopted by us corresponds to the third point of view: the suffix is that segment of the derived stem that distinguishes it from the generating stem, for example, singer ¬ to sing.

The interfixes used in the inflection of nouns are considered to be extensions of the root (mother - mother-and), and the vowels at the end of the verb stem are designated as suffixes (chit-a-t).

Zero derivational suffix

Suppose that it is necessary to determine the morphemic composition of the word run. At first glance, it consists of a root and a zero ending. However, in this case the word run, like any non-derivative word, must directly and directly name some object of extralinguistic reality, be unmotivated. But it's not. Any native Russian speaker for an explanation of what is run, uses the following interpretation: "This is when they run." Indeed, nouns with an uncharacteristic meaning of an action or attribute are derivatives in Russian, they are formed from verbs or from adjectives: run ® run-rel-I , walk ® walking , blue ® syn-ev-a , strict ® strictness. Similarly: run away ® run, walk ® move, blue ® blue, quiet ® silence. From verbs and adjectives, nouns were formed, which is possible only by adding suffixes. Indeed, these words also use a suffix. This suffix is zero.

To select a zero word-forming suffix, two conditions are necessary:

1) the word must be derived, motivated by another word of the language (therefore, the word din does not have a zero suffix)

2) there must be a derivational meaning that can be expressed by a non-zero suffix, but in this case it is not materially expressed: run ® run-F-, run ® run-relative .

With the help of a zero word-forming suffix, words of different parts of speech are formed:

nouns

1) with the meaning of an abstract action, formed from verbs: blow up ® explosion-F-, enter ® entrance-F-. Alternative suffixes: -enij- (walking-enij-e), -rel- (running-relative) other;

2) with the meaning of an abstract feature, formed from adjectives: blue ® blue-F-, deaf ® backwoods-F- . Alternative suffixes: -ev- (sin-ev-a), -in- (tish-in-a), -ost- (strict-ost);

3) with the meaning of an object or person related to the action (producing it, being its result, etc.), formed from the verb (nakip-Ж- ¬ to boil) or two generating bases - the basis of the noun and the basis of the verb: steamboat-Ж- ¬ steam + walk , marriage + make. Alternative suffixes - -nick-, -ets-: heat exchange-Nick¬ warmly + exchange, farmer ¬ Earth + make;

adjectives:

1) from verbs: enter-J-th ¬ enter. Alternative suffix - - n-: res-n-oh ¬ cut;

2) from nouns: everyday-F-th ¬ weekdays. Alternative suffix - -n-: forest-n-oh ¬ forest.

There are other cases of null derivational suffixation, but they are less common.

In complex 1, the method of forming such words is called suffix-free; in complex 2, words of this kind are not considered at all.

Postfix

A postfix is a morpheme that comes after an ending and usually serves to form new words.

There are few postfixes in Russian. The most common - -sya, which serves to form verbs (learn, get carried away, hide). Postfix -sya has an option -ss, in personal forms of the verb acting after vowels (learning, carried away, hid). In addition, there are postfixes something, something, something, which serve to form indefinite pronouns and pronominal adverbs, for example: some, someone's, someone; somehow, somewhere, sometime. These postfixes are written with a hyphen.

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.

Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have a meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express the grammatical meanings of a word - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, inclination, time, degrees of comparison, etc.).

The ending

The ending is a changeable morpheme that serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence and forms the form of a word, expressing the meanings of gender, number, person and case. For example, in a noun table the ending -a expresses the meaning of the masculine singular of the genitive case, in the verb is reading the ending -et expresses the meaning of the 3rd person singular. Termination can be null: table(cf. table[a]), kind(cf. kind[s]) , was reading(cf. was reading[and]).

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen when changing these words: tr-and-st-a, tr-ex-sot-, sofa-bed-, sofa-a-bed-and.

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. A null ending is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a in the shape of table-a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at in table-at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table says that it is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, meaningfully. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

Zero endings are widely represented in the language and occur in nouns, adjectives and verbs in the following positions:

1) masculine nouns of the 2nd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: boy - I. p., table - I. / V. p.;

2) feminine nouns of the 3rd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: night;

3) nouns of all genders in R. p. plural: countries, soldiers, swamps.

But in this position, non-zero endings can also be represented: night-she - articles- . The correctness of parsing such words is achieved by declining the word. If the sound [th "] disappears during declination, then it belongs to the ending: night-her, night-ami. If [th"] is traced in all cases, then it refers to the basis: articles - become [th" -a] - become [th "-a] mi. As we can see, in these forms the sound [th "] is not expressed at the letter level, it is "hidden" in an iotized vowel. In this case, it is necessary to identify and designate this sound. "], "hidden" in an iotized vowel with j, without brackets, entered in the right place: articles j-s.

A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in -ya, -ya, -ya. The impression is incorrect that these sound complexes are endings. Two-letter endings in the initial form are present only for those nouns that are substantiated adjectives or participles. Compare:

genius, genij-th, genij-th

army-i, army-she - tables-th, tables-th, etc.

4) short singular masculine adjectives: handsome, smart;

5) possessive adjectives in I p. (V. p.) singular; despite the external similarity of the declension, qualitative and possessive have a different morphemic structure in these cases:

Such a morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is easy to understand, given that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed using derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -ij- from nouns: mom ® mom-in-, fox ® fox-i-. In oblique cases, this possessive suffix is - uy- is realized in [j], which is "hidden" in an iotized vowel;

6) a verb in the form of the masculine singular in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the conditional mood: dela-l- (by) - cf.: dela-l-a, dela-l-i;

7) a verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: write-and-, write-and-te;

8) in short participles, the zero ending, as in short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-n-. morphemic interfix derivational

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form word forms.

In educational complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is introduced, in complexes 1 and 3 - no, however, they say that "a suffix is a significant part of a word, which usually serves to form new words"; this "usually" is the idea that suffixes can serve not only for word formation, but also for form formation.

Basically, all formative suffixes are present in the verb: these are the suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participle forms (if we consider participle and gerund participle as forms of the verb, as complexes 1 and 3 do). Not in the verb, formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjective and adverb.

Historically, most verbs have two modifications of the stem - the infinitive and the present tense (for perfective verbs - the future). In addition to them, you can sometimes talk about the basis of the past tense.

Since word forms that have the same stem (in terms of its constituent morphemes) are combined into a verb word, it is more correct to say that a verb can have several types of stem, each of which is used in a certain set of word forms. In other parts of speech, the stem may also have a different form in different word forms (for example, son - sons), but for them it is the exception rather than the rule, while for verbs it is the rule rather than the exception. In this regard, not very successful word usage has been fixed, when different types of the same stem are called different stems.

To highlight the basis of the infinitive, you need to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: write, gnaw, weave, take care (or take care-F).

To highlight the basis of the present / simple future tense, it is necessary to separate the personal ending from the form of the present / simple future tense; it is preferable to use the 3rd person plural form (since this stem itself can have a different form in different forms): write-ut, workj-ut, treat-at.

To highlight the basis of the past tense, it is necessary to discard the formative suffix of the past tense from the form of the past tense - l- or -Ж- and ending; it is preferable to use any form other than the form husband. kind of unit numbers, since it is in it that a zero suffix can be represented, which can complicate the analysis: carried-l-a, writing-l-a.

Most verbs have two different types of stem: one is the stem of the present / simple future, and the other is the stem of the infinitive, as well as the past tense: chitaj- and chita-, risuj- and risova-, run- and run-, talk-and talk - . There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: (id-ut, id-ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense (sh-l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, wet-l-a, wet-ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carry, carry-l-a, carry-ut; take it, take it, take it, take it.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:

write - write - l - (would) - write - vsh - th

write-at - write-usch-th - write-and-.

The following formative suffixes are present in the verb:

1) the infinitive is formed by formative suffixes -t / -ti: read-t, carry-t. The infinitives on -whose there are two ways to highlight inflection: oven or oven-F, where F is a zero formative suffix (historically in whose the end of the stem and the infinitive indicator proper overlapped) .

In educational complexes 1 and 3, the infinitive indicator is described as an ending. This is due to the fact that in these complexes, unlike complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is not introduced, and the part of the word without an ending is considered to be the basis, therefore, in order to exclude the infinitive indicator from the stem, it is given the status of the ending. This is not true, since the infinitive indicator does not have the grammatical meanings of gender, number, person or case that are mandatory for the ending and indicates only the infinitive - an invariable verb form.

2) the past tense of the indicative mood is formed by the suffixes -l- (deeds-l-) and -Ж-: carried-Ж- - cf.: carried-l-a.

3) the same suffixes are presented in the conditional mood: affairs-l-by, carried-W-by.

4) the imperative mood is formed by suffixes -and-(write-and-) and -F- (do-F-, sit-F-) .

To clarify that forms like do and sit down are formed by a zero formative suffix, not a suffix * th,*-d, it must be remembered that the form of the imperative mood is formed from the basis of the present tense: write-y - write-and. In verbs like read this is not so obvious, since the stems of the infinitive and the present tense differ only in the presence of the present tense in the stem j at the end of the base: read j-th - read. But the grammatical meaning is expressed by a morpheme that is not included in the stem. This morpheme is a zero formative suffix: read -Ж- (the zero ending has a singular value - cf.: read-W-those).

5) the participle as a special form of the verb is formed by the suffixes -ash-(-yash-), -usch-(-yush-), -sh-, -vsh-, -im-, -om- / -em-, -nn- , -onn- / -enn-, -t-: run-ug-th, take-t-th (graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets, alternating suffixes through a slash) .

6) the gerund as a special form of the verb is formed by the suffixes -a (-ya), -v, -shi, -lice, -uchi (-yuchi): delaj-ya, bud-uch.

7) a simple comparative degree of an adjective and an adverb is formed using the suffixes -e (higher), -ee / -ee (faster), -she (earlier), -zhe (deep);

8) a simple superlative degree of comparison of an adjective is formed with the help of formative suffixes -eysh- / -aysh- (fast-eysh-th, high-aysh-th).

As we can see, not only the ending can be zero, but also the formative suffix, which stands out when the meaning of mood or time is not materially expressed in some verbs:

a) a suffix that forms the past tense of the indicative mood and the conditional mood of a number of verbs in the masculine singular (nes-Ж-). In the same verbs, when forming forms of the feminine or neuter singular or plural, the suffix is used -l- (nes-l-a);

b) the imperative mood suffix for a number of verbs, which were mentioned above (do-Ж-, take out-Ж-).

The basis

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word. The basis is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word forms the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. For modified words, endings and / or formative suffixes are not included in the stem, for example: window-o, lie-be, dare-her, read-l-a, done-n-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the bases of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -s (uch-l-a-s), the bases of indefinite pronouns containing the suffixes -to, -either, -any (to-tho), the bases of some complex compound nouns (sofa-a-bed-and) and compound numerals (fifth-and-ten-and). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Principles of morphemic analysis of a word

Morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition) begins with the allocation of a stem and formative morphemes - an ending and / or a formative suffix (if any).

At the same time, it is necessary to remember about j, which may be "hidden" in an iotated vowel after a vowel or separator. If it closes the stem of the word, it must be entered ( impression). If this is not done, you can make a mistake in the composition of the suffix or not notice the suffix in the word at all. So, for example, in Russian there is no suffix -*neither-, but there is a suffix - nij-: sing® ne-nij-e. the word is heaven contains the suffix - j-, which is not expressed at the literal level: under-heaven-is-j-e.

After that, the basis of the word must be divided into the root (roots) and word-forming morphemes, if they are in the word. In some textbooks (in particular, in complex 2), the following procedure is proposed for this: the root is distinguished in the word as a common part of related words, then what remains in the word is distinguished as a prefix (prefixes) and a suffix (suffixes) in accordance with our ideas about whether there is such a suffix or such a prefix in Russian. But such an analysis can lead to errors; there is not enough validity in its procedure. To avoid mistakes, the morphemic analysis of the stem must be connected with the analysis of word-formation.

The algorithm of morphemic parsing of the stem, associated with its derivational parsing, was substantiated by the Russian linguist Grigory Osipovich Vinokur (1896-1947).

What is base productivity? Derivativeness is understood as the education of a given basis from another basis at the synchronous level, in the modern language. How do we know that one basis is formed, that is, derived from another? The meaning of a derived basis can always (and should) be explained through the meaning of the basis, which is a generating (basic) basis for it, and not through a direct reference to the object of extralinguistic reality designated by it. For example: table ¬ table. Motivation: table - this is a `small table.' The interpretation of a derivative word necessarily includes the generating word (stem). This criterion is called the criterion of motivation.

The criterion of motivation emphasizes that the semantic connection between the derivative and the producer should be felt in the modern language (at the synchronous level). Historically, one word can be derived from another. So, for example, the word forget historically derived from the word be, word capital- from the word table. But for a modern native speaker, the semantic connections between them are destroyed. Meaning of the word capital cannot be explained through the meaning of the word table, therefore, they are not related by derivative relations. Word capital(similar forget) is non-derivative, which means that its basis is indivisible at the synchronous level, the root of this word is capitals. Mixing synchronous morphemic and etymological analysis of words in the study of the modern Russian language is unacceptable.

Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem

In word formation, sometimes a prefix and a suffix are attached to the generating stem at the same time, for example, windowsill ¬ window(there are no words in Russian * subwindow and * windowsill). But often word-forming morphemes are attached sequentially:

white-th white-e-be whiten.

It turns out a word-formation chain, in each link of which a new word-forming morpheme is "put on" on the original generating stem. Consequently, in order not to be mistaken in the definition of the morphemic structure of a word, during its morphemic analysis, it is necessary to restore this word-formation chain and sequentially “remove” word-forming morphemes from the derived stem under study. To the word under study, its generating is selected - the word (base) from which it is formed, the closest in form and necessarily motivating in meaning to the word given for analysis (motivation criterion). Then the stem of the generating word and the stem of the derived word are compared. The difference between them is the suffix (prefix) with which the word under study is formed. Further to the generating, if it is not a non-derivative word, it is necessary to select its generating. And so it is necessary to build a word-building chain "on the contrary" until it reaches a non-derivative word. When constructing each link in the chain, it is necessary to prove the correctness of its construction by explaining the value of each derivative through the value of its generator. For example:

recovered-enij-e - recover-be - healthy

Motivation: recovery- the same as get well(result) or recover(process), denotes an action or its result, get well- become healthy.

Thus, the process of determining the morphemic composition through the word-formation chain does not begin with the selection of the root, but ends with it. From the word, as it were, affixes are "removed"; what is left is the root.

The only exception to this pattern are words with related roots. Connected, as already mentioned, is a root that is not used independently, that is, only with formative morphemes, but is always found in conjunction with word-forming prefixes and suffixes, and can attach to itself various well-defined prefixes and / or suffixes. The analysis of such words is carried out through the construction of morphemic squares, in which the given root must be used with another suffix (prefix), and the suffix (prefix) with another root:

o-u-t - o-t-t

oh-de-th - one-de-th

It is this algorithm of stem morphemic parsing: the construction of a word-building chain for words with a free root and the construction of a morphemic square for words with a connected root - that should be used in the morphemic parsing of a word.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

In the morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition), first the ending and the formative suffix (if any) are distinguished in the word, the stem is emphasized.

After that, the basis of the word is divided into morphemes.

As we have already said, two opposite approaches to the morphemic articulation of the stem are possible: formal-structural and formal-semantic.

The essence of formal-structural morphemic analysis is that the root is first of all singled out as a common part of related words. Then, what comes before the root, the student should be aware of as a prefix (prefixes) in accordance with the student's ideas about whether he met similar elements in other words. Same with suffixes. In other words, the main thing in the analysis is the effect of recognition by the student of morphemes, the external similarity of some parts of different words. And this can lead to massive errors, the reason for which is ignoring the fact that the morpheme is a significant linguistic unit. The lack of work to determine the meaning of morphemes leads to errors of two types, which have a different nature:

Errors in determining the root of the word are associated with the indistinguishability of the synchronous morphemic and historical (etymological) composition of the word. Moreover, complex 2 takes the indistinguishability of the modern and historical morphemic composition of words as a setting that sometimes helps in determining the correctness of spelling, which is quite consistent with the general spelling and punctuation orientation of the course and the textbook as a whole. So, in a textbook on theory, as an illustrative material, such an example of morphemic parsing of a word is given art(art). Obviously, such an approach cannot contribute to the correct selection of the root in the modern structure of the word and leads to the selection of insignificant segments in the stem.

Errors in the selection of prefixes and suffixes are associated with the morpheme division algorithm - with the majority of students thinking about a word as a string of morphemes that should be "recognized" as already encountered in other words. The extreme expression of this kind of parsing is cases like key(cf.: pilot), box (upholsterer). But even with a correctly defined root, one often encounters an incorrect definition of the number and composition of prefixes and suffixes if there are more than two of these morphemes in a word. This is due, firstly, to the morpheme division algorithm and, secondly, to the fact that in textbooks words with more than one prefix and / or suffix are practically not given.

The formal-structural approach to the morphemic articulation of a word is not exclusively an attribute of school practice. A similar approach has been implemented in a number of scientific publications, for example, in A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova, where it is stated that "morpheme analysis does not depend much on word-formation, since usually when dividing a word, a comparative method is used, in which it is practically not taken into account what is formed from what."

The formal-structural approach is opposed to the formal-semantic (formal-semantic) approach. The main setting of this approach and the morphemic parsing algorithm come from the works of G.O. Vinokur and consist in the continuity of morphemic articulation and word-formation analysis. The fact that this approach is expedient and even the only possible one has been written by many scientists and methodologists for many decades.

The approach of educational complexes to the question of the principles and algorithm of morphemic division is different: educational complexes 1 and 3 offer a formal-semantic approach to the morphemic division of a word (complex 3 to a greater extent than complex 1), complex 2 is formal-structural.

The algorithm for morphemic parsing of the stem consists in constructing a word-formation chain "on the contrary": prefixes and suffixes are, as it were, "removed" from the word, while the root is singled out last. In parsing, it is always necessary to correlate the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of its generator; the producing basis in modern Russian is the motivating basis. If there is no relation of motivation between the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of the generating (in our view) word, the generating is chosen incorrectly.

Thus, the order of parsing the word by composition is as follows:

1) highlight the ending, formative suffix (if they are in the word),

2) highlight the stem of the word - part of the word without endings and formative suffixes,

3) highlight the prefix and / or suffix in the basis of the word through the construction of a word-formation chain,

4) highlight the root in the word.

1) carpenter

Sample reasoning:

carpenter- verb form carpentry; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix - l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by zero ending (compare: carpenter-and).

The basis - carpentry-.

Verb carpentry formed from a noun a carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - `to be a carpenter'; the difference between the basis carpentry and a carpenter- suffix - a-, alternation is presented in the basics to / h.

Noun a carpenter in modern language it is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Hence, a carpenter / carpenter- root.

So the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix - l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix - a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating basis, the root carpenter. stem carpentry.

Sample writing:

carpenter - form ch. carpentry ¬ carpenter, striping to / h.

2) dressing

Sample reasoning:

Dressing- noun, ending - e(it is this segment of the word that changes when it is declined: dress up, dress up, dress up).

At the junction of the ending and the stem, the sound [th "] is pronounced in all forms, which is "hidden" in the letter e standing after a vowel. Therefore, this sound belongs to the basis, closes it. The base of the word dress up[th"].

Word dressing derived from the verb dress: dressing - `the process of dressing is the same as dressing.' The difference between the basis dressing and verb stem clothing- segment - neither[th"]-, which is a word-forming suffix.

The verb to dress is derived from the verb dress and has an imperfect form. The means of word formation - suffix - wa-.

The verb to dress is non-derivative, but there are verbs in the language undress, re-dress with the same root, but different prefixes, therefore, we are dealing with a related root - de- and a prefix about-.

...

§one. Morpheme

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. It is not divided into smaller significant parts. Words are built from morphemes, while the meanings of morphemes are components of the general meaning of the word.

Morphemes are divided into derivational and inflectional (shaping).

Word-building morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word.

Inflectional (formative) morphemes are needed to form the forms of modified words and express the grammatical meaning of words.

§2. Types of derivational morphemes

Word-forming morphemes include root, prefix, suffix and interfix.

Root- the main morpheme common to related words and expressing the main lexical meaning of the word.

Remember:

Words without a root in Russian are impossible.

In words house, house ik, house ische, ova house, earphone house, home gardening, house island there is a root house. In the given examples of compound words, this is the first of two roots. There can be several roots in a word, as can be seen from the example.

In Russian, there are words consisting only of the root. These are, first of all, service words: prepositions: on, to, above, unions: and, but, if, interjections: Oh, oh, hello, some adverbs: very, there, as well as immutable nouns: coffee, underground and adjectives: beige, khaki.

Prefix is a morpheme that occupies a position in the word before the root, for example with run, when you go, rethink. There can be several prefixes, as well as roots, in a word: demon with mental, imp by powerful.

Remember:

A word cannot consist only of a prefix.

Suffix- a morpheme that occupies a position in a word after the root, for example, human new, shore ow oh. In many Russian words, not one, but several suffixes: violence essentially, America an iz irova nn.

Remember:

A word cannot consist only of a suffix.

Somewhat special in the system of morphemes is interfix.
Interfixes in Russian include letters about and e as connecting vowels in compound words. Interfixes participate in word formation, but do not add their own meaning: warm about move, steam about WHO, myself about var.

§3. Types of formative morphemes

Form-building morphemes include, first of all, endings and suffixes.

The ending- this is a morpheme that serves to change the word, form its forms and express meanings: number, gender, case, person. Endings are needed to connect words in a sentence.
Only modified words have endings. Examples:

listening yu, listening, listening, listening, listening, listening

ch. present time of the 1st ref., forms of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular. and plural. h.

dachas a, dacha, dacha, dacha, dacha, o dacha

noun 1st fold, female, unit h., im., genus., dates., wine., tv., p. pad.

Zero ending
The termination may be null, i.e. not expressed, not represented, but such an ending also carries information about the grammatical meaning.
Example: table - zero ending (n. m.r., 2nd skl., name = vin. fall.), read - zero ending (ch. past tense, m.r., pl.) .

Remember:

These words and these forms have zero endings:

for nouns of the 2nd and 3rd cl. in the form of I.p. and V.p. in the singular, if their forms are the same, as in inanimate nouns: house, horse, mother, night
for nouns of all declensions in the form R.p. in plural: cars, windows, soldiers, armies
for short adjectives in singular form. m.r.: healthy, glad, happy
in verbs in the indicative mood, past. time, units, m.r.: read, write, count
for verbs in the form of the conditional mood, singular, m.p.: read, write, count would
for verbs in the imperative mood singular: write, read, count
in short passive participles in the singular form. m.r.: written, read

Do not confuse:

Zero ending and no ending for immutable words. This is a gross error, common in parsing.

Formative suffixes- these are morphemes that stand in the word after the root and serve to form the forms of the word. Examples: suffix of the indefinite form of the verb -th, -ti: chita be, id ti, past tense suffix -l: go l, imperative mood -and: see and, degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs -e:hush e.

We discuss the problem of interpretation.

Formative suffixes or endings?

Some authors consider formative suffixes as endings. Their logic is as follows: if a morpheme is used to form new words, this is a suffix, and if different forms of the same word are formed with the help of a morpheme, then these are endings. According to this logic, it turns out that the indicator of the past tense -l is the ending, and the indicator of the infinitive too. After all be in love and I loved It's the same word, only the forms are different.

I recommend that the guys not be surprised when they meet a new interpretation for themselves. Nothing can be done, there are issues on which researchers have not yet agreed. The main thing is to be consistent and always comment on controversial phenomena in the same way.

test of strength

Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.

Final test

What is the smallest meaningful part of a word?
- Morpheme
Is the meaning of the morpheme a component of the overall meaning of the word?
What morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word?
- word-building
- Formative (inflectional)
What morpheme is common for related words and expresses the main lexical meaning of the word?
- Root
- Prefix
- Suffix
Can a word consist only of a prefix?
Can a word consist only of a suffix?
What morpheme is used to express the meanings of person, gender, number, case?
- Suffix
- The ending
Why are interfixes needed?
- For word formation
- To pass a new value
- For shaping
What morpheme is used to connect words in a sentence?
- Root
- Suffix
- The ending
Do verbs have a conditional ending in the masculine singular?

Right answers:

Morpheme
word-building
Root
The ending
For word formation
The ending

In contact with

Morphemics scientists. Morphological ways of word formation

Morphs and allomorphs

Morpheme classification

Roots and affixes

Classification of affixes

Literature

Morphemics

Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes

Classification of morphemes of the Russian language.

Morpheme. What is a morpheme? What is morphemic parsing of a word?

Morphemes are

Classification of Russian morphemes

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

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Classification of Russian morphemes

The alternation of vowels and consonants in the root

Vowel alternations

Consonant alternations

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Prefix

Suffix

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

Zero derivational suffix

Postfix

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Principles of morphemic analysis of a word

Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

Similar Documents

§one. Morpheme

§2. Types of derivational morphemes

§3. Types of formative morphemes

We discuss the problem of interpretation.

test of strength

Final test

What is the smallest meaningful part of a word?

Is the meaning of the morpheme a component of the overall meaning of the word?

What morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word?

What morpheme is common for related words and expresses the main lexical meaning of the word?

Can a word consist only of a prefix?

Can a word consist only of a suffix?

What morpheme is used to express the meanings of person, gender, number, case?

Why are interfixes needed?

What morpheme is used to connect words in a sentence?

Do verbs have a conditional ending in the masculine singular?

Right answers: