Question No. 2. Forms and methods of empirical research: fact, observation and experiment; comparison, measurement, description and systematization.

Forms and methods of scientific research.

Empirical level- the object under study is reflected from the side of external connections, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relations. Experimental research is directly directed to the object.

The signs of empirical knowledge are the collection of facts, their primary generalization and description of the observed data, their systematization and classification - the main methods and means - comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction. At the same time, experience is not blind, it is planned and constructed by theory.

empirical and theoretical. In science, empirical and theoretical levels of research are distinguished. This difference is based on:

Methods of cognitive activity.

The nature of the results achieved.

empirical research involves the development of a research program, the organization of observation and experiments, the description and generalization of experimental data, their classification, and initial generalization. In a word, empirical knowledge is characterized fact-fixing activity. Theoretical knowledge e - this is essential knowledge, carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders. Here the tools are concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses. Historically, empirical knowledge precedes theoretical knowledge, but only in this way it is impossible to achieve complete and true knowledge.

empirical research, reveals all new data observations and experiments, sets new tasks for theoretical thinking, stimulates it to further improvement. However, the enriching theoretical knowledge puts before observation and experiment increasingly difficult tasks.

Anything observation does not start with collection facts but from an attempt to solve some problem, which is always based on a well-known assumption, guess, problem statement.

Statement of the problem and research program. People seek to know what they do not know. Problem- this is the question with which we turn to nature itself, to life, to practice and theory. To pose a problem, at times, is no less difficult than to find its solution: the correct formulation of the problem to a certain extent directs the search activity of thought, its aspiration. When a scientist poses a problem and tries to solve it, he inevitably develops a research program, builds a plan for his activities. In doing so, he proceeds from the intended answer to his question. This supposed answer acts as a hypothesis.

Observation and experiment. Observation- this is a deliberate, directed perception, aimed at revealing the existing properties and relations of the object of knowledge. It can be direct and indirect devices. Observation acquires scientific significance when, in accordance with the research program, it allows to display objects with the greatest accuracy and can be repeated many times under varying conditions.

But a person cannot confine himself to the role of only an observer: observation only fixes what life itself gives, and the study requires an experiment, with the help of which the object is either reproduced artificially, or placed in given conditions that meet the goals of the study. During the experiment, the researcher actively intervenes in the research process.

In the process of cognition, a thought experiment is also used, when a scientist in his mind operates with certain images, mentally puts an object in certain conditions.

Experiment bilateral. On the one hand, it is able to confirm or refute the hypothesis, and on the other hand, it contains the possibility of revealing unexpected new data.

Thus, experimental activity has a complex structure: theoretical foundations of the experiment- scientific theories, hypotheses; material basis - devices; direct implementation of the experiment; experimental observation; the quantity and quality of the analysis of the results of the experiment, their theoretical generalization.

A necessary condition for scientific research is the establishment facts. Fact, from factum- “done”, “accomplished”. A fact is a phenomenon of the material or spiritual world, which has become a certified property of our consciousness, the fixation of an object, phenomenon, property or relationship. “Facts are the air of a scientist”, - said Pavlov. The most characteristic of a scientific fact is its reliability. The fact must be comprehended, substantiated. Facts are always mediated by our understanding, interpretation. For example, testimonials. People talk about the same thing, but somehow differently. Thus, evidence is by no means a complete guarantee of the real reliability of a fact.

Facts do not in themselves constitute sciences. Facts must be subjected to selection, classification, generalization and explanation, then they will be included in the fabric of science. Fact contains a lot of random. Therefore, the basis for scientific analysis is not just single fact, but a lot of facts reflecting the main trend. Only in mutual connection and wholeness facts can serve as a basis for theoretical generalization. Any theory can be constructed from appropriately selected facts.

Description. In the course of observations and experiments, description and recording are carried out. The main scientific requirement for a description is its reliability, the accuracy of reproduction of observational and experimental data. E.Mach considered the description as the only function of science. He noted: "Does the description give everything that a scientific researcher can ask for? I think so!" Explanation and foresight max essentially reduced to a description. From his point of view, theories are, as it were, compressed empirical evidence. E.Mach wrote: "The speed with which our knowledge expands thanks to theory betrays to it a certain quantitative advantage over simple observation, while qualitatively there is no essential difference between them, either in terms of origin or in terms of the final result." Atomic-molecular theory max called "the mythology of nature." A similar position was taken by the famous chemist W. Ostwald. On this occasion A. Einstein wrote: “The prejudice of these scientists against atomic theory can undoubtedly be attributed to their positivist philosophical attitude. This is an interesting example of how philosophical prejudices prevent the correct interpretation of the facts even by scientists with bold thinking and subtle intuition. A prejudice that has survived to this day , lies in the conviction that the facts themselves, without a free theoretical construction, can and should lead to scientific knowledge.

Integration in science is connected, first of all, with the unification of various methods of scientific research. The development of the methodology of science has led to a single scientific standard, of course, these methods are a level of abstraction and in each specific area they have their own objectivity. In addition, there are general scientific methods, such as the use of mathematical methods for studying objects in all sciences without exception. Integration goes in terms of combining theory and vision of their internal relationship based on the discovery of the fundamental principles of being. This does not mean the abolition of these sciences, but this is only a deeper level of penetration into the essence of the phenomena under study - the creation of general theories, metatheories and general methods of proof. There is a unification of sciences on the principle of a new level of abstraction, an example of which again is the theory of systems.

Methods of empirical research

¨ observation

¨ comparison

¨ dimension

¨ experiment

Observation

Observation- this is a purposeful perception of an object, due to the task of activity. The main condition for scientific observation is objectivity, i.e. the possibility of control by either repeated observation or the use of other research methods (for example, experiment). This is the most elementary method, one of many other empirical methods.

Comparison

This is one of the most common and versatile research methods. The well-known aphorism "everything is known in comparison" is the best proof of this.

Comparison is the ratio between two integers a and b, meaning that the difference (a - b) of these numbers is divisible by the given integer t, called module C; spelled a = b(mod, t).

In the study comparison called the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, the common that is inherent in two or more objects is established, and the identification of the common, repeating in phenomena, as you know, is a step on the way to the knowledge of the law.

In order for a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements.

1. Only such phenomena should be compared between which a certain objective commonality can exist. You can not compare obviously incomparable things - it does not give anything. At best, only superficial and therefore fruitless analogies are possible here.

2. Comparison should be carried out according to the most important features Comparison based on non-essential features can easily lead to confusion.

So, formally comparing the work of enterprises producing the same type of product, one can find a lot in common in their activities. If at the same time a comparison is omitted in such important parameters as the level of production, the cost of production, the various conditions in which the compared enterprises operate, then it is easy to come t methodological error leading to one-sided conclusions. If, however, these parameters are taken into account, it becomes clear what is the reason and where the real sources of the methodological error lie. Such a comparison will already give a true idea of ​​the phenomena under consideration, corresponding to the real state of affairs.

Various objects of interest to the researcher can be compared directly or indirectly - by comparing them with some third object. In the first case, qualitative results are usually obtained (more - less; lighter - darker; higher - lower, etc.). However, even with such a comparison, it is possible to obtain the simplest quantitative characteristics that express quantitative differences between objects in numerical form (more than 2 times, more than 3 times, etc.).

When objects are compared with some third object that acts as a standard, quantitative characteristics acquire special value, since they describe objects without regard to each other, provide deeper and more detailed knowledge about them (for example, to know that one car weighs 1 ton , and the other - 5 tons - this means to know about them much more than what is contained in the sentence: "the first car is 5 times lighter than the second. " This comparison is called measurement. It will be discussed in detail below.

With comparison, information about an object can be obtained in two different ways.

First of all, it very often acts as a direct result of the comparison. For example, the establishment of any relationship between objects, the discovery of differences or similarities between them is information obtained directly by comparison. This information can be called primary.

Secondly, very often, obtaining primary information does not act as the main goal of comparison, this goal is to obtain secondary or derivative information that is the result of processing primary data. The most common and most important way of such processing is inference by analogy. This conclusion was discovered and investigated (under the name "paradeigma") by Aristotle.

Its essence boils down to the following: if, as a result of comparison, several identical features are found out of two objects, but some additional feature is found in one of them, then it is assumed that this feature should also be inherent in the other object. In a nutshell, the analogy can be summarized as follows:

A has signs X 1, X 2, X 3, ..., X p, X p +,.

B has signs X 1, X 2, X 3, ..., X p.

Conclusion: "Probably, B has a sign X n +1". Inference based on analogy is probabilistic in nature, it can lead not only to truth, but also to error. In order to increase the likelihood of obtaining true knowledge about an object, you need to keep in mind the following:

¨ inference by analogy gives the more true value, the more similar features we find in the compared objects;

¨ the truth of the conclusion by analogy is directly dependent on the significance of similar features of objects, even a large number of similar, but not essential features, can lead to a false conclusion;

¨ the deeper the relationship of the features found in the object, the higher the probability of a false conclusion;

¨ the general similarity of two objects is not a basis for inference by analogy, if one of them, regarding which the conclusion is made, has a feature that is incompatible with the transferred feature. In other words, to obtain a true conclusion, it is necessary to take into account not only the nature of the similarity, but also the nature of the difference between objects.

Measurement

Measurement has historically evolved from the comparison operation, which is its basis. However, unlike comparison, measurement is a more powerful and universal cognitive tool.

Measurement- a set of actions performed using measuring instruments in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in the accepted units of measurement. Distinguish direct measurements(for example, measuring the length with a graduated ruler) and indirect measurements based on the known relationship between the desired value and directly measured values ​​.

The measurement assumes the presence of the following main elements:

measurement object;

units of measurement, i.e. reference object;

measuring instrument(s);

measurement method;

observer (researcher).

For direct measurement the result is obtained directly from the measurement process itself (for example, in sports competitions, measuring the length of a jump with a tape measure, measuring the length of carpets in a store, etc.).

When measured indirectly the desired value is determined mathematically on the basis of knowledge of other quantities obtained by direct measurement. For example, knowing the size and weight of building bricks, it is possible to measure the specific pressure (with appropriate calculations) that a brick must withstand when building multi-storey buildings.

The value of measurements is evident even from the fact that they provide accurate, quantitatively defined information about the surrounding reality. As a result of measurements, such facts can be established, such empirical discoveries can be made that lead to a radical break in the ideas that have been established in science. This applies primarily to unique, outstanding measurements, which are very important milestones in the history of science. A similar role was played in the development of physics, for example, by A. Michelson's famous measurements of the speed of light.

The most important indicator of the quality of measurement, its scientific value is accuracy. It was the high accuracy of T. Brahe's measurements, multiplied by the extraordinary diligence of I. Kepler (he repeated his calculations 70 times), that made it possible to establish the exact laws of planetary motion. Practice shows that the main ways to improve the accuracy of measurements should be considered:

improving the quality of measuring instruments, operating on the basis of certain established principles;

creation of devices operating on the basis of the latest scientific discoveries. For example, now time is measured using molecular generators with an accuracy of up to 11 digits.

Among the empirical methods of research, measurement occupies approximately the same place as observation and comparison. It is a relatively elementary method, one of the components of the experiment - the most complex and significant method of empirical research.

Experiment

Experiment - the study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the course of the process in the right direction This is the most complex and effective method of empirical research It involves the use of the simplest empirical methods - observation, comparison and measurement . However, its essence is not in particular complexity, "syntheticity", but in a purposeful, deliberate transformation of the phenomena under study, in the intervention of the experimenter in accordance with his goals during natural processes.

It should be noted that the establishment of the experimental method in science is a long process that took place in the acute struggle of the advanced scientists of the New Age against ancient speculation and medieval scholasticism. (For example, the English materialist philosopher F. Bacon was one of the first to oppose experiment in science, although he advocated experience.)

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who considered experience as the basis of knowledge, is rightfully considered the founder of experimental science. Some of his studies are the basis of modern mechanics: he established the laws of inertia, free fall and the movement of bodies on an inclined plane, the addition of movements, discovered the isochronism of the pendulum oscillation. He himself built a telescope with a 32-fold magnification and discovered mountains on the Moon, four satellites of Jupiter, phases near Venus, spots on the Sun. In 1657, after his death, the Florentine Academy of Experience arose, which worked according to his plans and aimed primarily at conducting experimental research. Scientific and technological progress requires an ever wider application of the experiment. As for modern science, its development is simply unthinkable without experiment. At present, experimental research has become so important that it is considered as one of the main forms of practical activity of researchers.

Benefits of experiment over observation

1. During the experiment, it becomes possible to study this or that phenomenon in a "pure" form. This means that any kind of "skirt" factors obscuring the main process can be eliminated, and the researcher obtains accurate knowledge about the phenomenon of interest to us.

2. The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects of reality in extreme conditions:

at ultra-low and ultra-high temperatures;

at high pressures:

at huge intensities of electric and magnetic fields, etc.

Working under these conditions can lead to the discovery of the most unexpected and surprising properties in ordinary things, and thus allows you to penetrate much deeper into their essence. Superconductivity can serve as an example of this kind of "strange" phenomena discovered under extreme conditions relating to the field of control.

3. The most important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability. During the experiment, the necessary observations, comparisons and measurements can be carried out, as a rule, as many times as necessary to obtain reliable data. This feature of the experimental method makes it very valuable in research.

All the advantages of the experiment will be discussed in more detail below, when presenting some specific types of experiment.

Situations Requiring Experimental Investigation

1. A situation when it is necessary to detect previously unknown properties of an object. The result of such an experiment are statements that do not follow from the existing knowledge about the object.

A classic example is the experiment of E. Rutherford on the scattering of X-particles, as a result of which the planetary structure of the atom was established. Such experiments are called research.

2. The situation when it is necessary to check the correctness of certain statements or theoretical constructions.

Observation, measurement, experiment as a method of scientific knowledge

Logic and philosophy

This activity increases from observation to model experiment. In the act of scientific observation, one can single out: 1 object of observation; 2 subject of observation observer; 3 means of observation; 4 observation conditions; 5 a system of knowledge based on which the purpose of observation is set. The following features of scientific observation should be emphasized: it relies on a developed theory or individual theoretical provisions; serves to solve a certain theoretical problem, to formulate new problems, to put forward new hypotheses or to test existing hypotheses; It has...

QUESTION #24

Observation, measurement, experiment as a method of scientific knowledge

According to Radugin (p. 113)

Methods for obtaining empirical knowledge

The empirical level of scientific knowledge includes all those methods, techniques, methods of cognitive activity, as well as the formulation and consolidation of knowledge, which are the content of the material and sensory activity of a person. From the point of view of methods of obtaining knowledge and their role in the cognitive process, they can be divided into two groups: 1) methods for isolating and studying an empirical object; 2) methods of processing and systematization of the obtained empirical knowledge.

The methods for isolating and studying an empirical object include the following:observation, measurement, experiment, model experiment.

The order in which we have arranged these methods corresponds to the degree of activity of the researcher. This activity increases from observation to model experiment. All previous methods (more simple) are included in the subsequent (more complex).

a) Scientific observation

Observation, as the most elementary method, underlies all empirical methods. Both measurement and comparison involve observation, but the latter can be carried out without the former. In science, observation is used to obtain empirical information about the area under study, as well as to test and validate the truth of empirical judgments.

Scientific observation is a method of cognition, which consists in a deliberate, purposeful, direct, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the outside world.

In the act of scientific observation, one can single out: 1) the object of observation; 2) the subject of observation (observer); 3) means of observation; 4) conditions of observation; 5) a system of knowledge, on the basis of which the goal of observation is set. The following features of scientific observation should be emphasized:

- relies on a developed theory or individual theoretical provisions;

- serves to solve a certain theoretical problem, formulate new problems, put forward new or test existing hypotheses;

- has a reasonable planned and organized character;

- is systematic, excluding errors of random origin;

- uses special means of observation - microscopes, telescopes, cameras, etc., thereby significantly expanding the scope and possibilities of observation.

The most important requirement for scientific observation isrequirement of intersubjectivity. This implies that each observer can repeat the observation with the same result. Only if this requirement is met will the result of observation be included in science.The intersubjectivity of observation is important because it indicates the objectivity of the result of observation. If all observers who repeated some observation received the same result, then this gives us reason to consider the result of the observation as objective scientific evidence. Of course, the intersubjectivity of an observation cannot justify its result with certainty, since all observers can be mistaken (if, for example, they all proceed from false theoretical premises), but intersubjectivity protects us from the mistakes of one or another particular observer.

Observations are divided into direct and indirect. Atdirect observationthe scientist observes the chosen object itself. However, this is not always possible. For example, objects of quantum mechanics or many objects of astronomy cannot be observed directly. We can judge the properties of such objects only on the basis of their interaction with other objects. This kind of observation is calledindirect observations. Indirect observation is based on the assumption of a certain regular connection between the properties of directly observed objects and the observed manifestations of these properties, and contains a logical conclusion about the properties of an unobserved object based on the observed effect of its action. For example, when studying the behavior of elementary particles, a physicist directly observes only their tracks in a cloud chamber, which are the result of the interaction of an elementary particle with vapor molecules filling the chamber. By the nature of the tracks, the physicist judges the behavior and properties of the particle being studied.

It should be noted that no sharp boundary can be drawn between direct and indirect observation. In modern science, indirect observations are becoming more common as the number of instruments used in observation increases and the scope of scientific research expands. The observed object affects the device, and the scientist directly observes only the result of the interaction of the object with the device.

In observation, the activity of the subject is not yet aimed at transforming the subject of study. The object either remains inaccessible to purposeful change, or is deliberately protected from possible influences in order to preserve its natural state. Possibilityfix an object in its natural stateis the main advantage of the observation method.

b) Measurement

The activity of observation can be significantly increased by measuring the object, its properties and relationships. Measurement refers to quantitative methods of knowledge.Measurement is a method of cognition through the process of representing the properties of real objects in the form of a numerical value.In other words, measurement is the establishment of a numerical relationship between the properties and relations of objects.

It is an activity based on the creation and use of measuring equipment, material tools as a means of measurement, including certain physical processes, based on certain theoretical premises. It should be noted that devices and measuring equipment, in turn, are created on the basis of various empirical and theoretical concepts. This allows you to remove the costs and subjective moments that are present in the usual sensory contemplation, significantly improve the accuracy of the results. For example, such a concept ismeasurement rules: equivalence, additivity, units of measure.

Equivalence rule: if the physical values ​​of the measured quantities are equal, then their numerical expressions must also be equal.

If the physical value of one quantity is less (greater) than the physical value of another quantity, then the numerical expression of the first must be less than (greater than) the numerical expression of the second.

Additivity rule: the numerical value of the sum of two physical values ​​of a certain quantity must be equal to the sum of the numerical values ​​of this quantity.

This operation should be distinguished from arithmetic addition. The operation of joining two different values ​​of the same quantity does not always obey this rule. Quantities, the combination of which obeys the specified rule are called "additive". Such, for example, are weight, length, volume in classical physics. If two bodies are joined together, then the weight of the resulting set (disregarding the mass defect) will be equal to the sum of the weights of these bodies. quantities,those that do not obey this rule are called "non-additive".Temperature is an example of a non-additive quantity. If two bodies with a temperature of, say, 20°C and 50°C are joined together, then the temperature of this pair of bodies will not be equal to 70°C. concepts, because the empirical nature of these properties imposes restrictions on the operations performed with the corresponding quantitative quantities.

Unit rule. We must choose some body or easily reproducible natural process and characterize the unit of measurement by means of this body or process. For temperature, as we have seen, a measurement scale is set by choosing two extreme points, for example, the freezing point of water and its boiling point, and dividing the tube segment between these points into a certain number of parts. Each such part will be a unit of temperature measurement - a degree. The unit of measure for length is the meter, and the unit for time is the second. Although the units of measurement are chosen arbitrarily, certain restrictions are imposed on their choice. The body or process chosen as a unit of measurement must remain unchanged in size, shape, periodicity. Strict observance of these requirements would be possible only for an ideal standard. Real bodies and processes are subject to change under the influence of environmental conditions. Therefore, bodies and processes that are as resistant to external influences as possible are chosen as real standards.

The consistent application of the measurement method in scientific research, which was initiated by the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Tycho Brahe, Galileo, Newton, played a significant role in the development of classical natural science. The principle of the quantitative approach proclaimed by Galileo, according to which the description of physical phenomena should be based only on quantities that have a quantitative measure, became the methodological foundation of natural science, which led to its rapid, progressive development. The measurement method is the object of study of the independent scientific discipline "metrology".

c) Experiment

The most important method of empirical knowledge is experiment. The experiment includes observation and measurement, as well as physical impact on the objects under study.An experiment is a method of cognition, during which a direct material impact is carried out on a real object or its surrounding conditions, produced in order to cognize this object.

An experiment is always a question addressed to nature. But for a question to be meaningful and allow a definite answer, it must be based on prior knowledge of the area under study. This knowledge is provided by the theory, and it is the theory that raises the question, the answer to which nature must give. Therefore, the experiment as a kind of material activity is always associated with theories. Initially, the question is formulated in the language of theory, i.e.in theoretical terms,denoting abstract, idealized objects. In order for experiment to answer the question of theory, this question must be reformulated in empirical terms., whose values ​​are empirical objects(data are empirical).

The experimental method involves carrying out the following operations in accordance with the problem being solved:

- constructivization of the object: isolating the object or subject of research, its isolation from the influence of side effects and obscuring the essence of phenomena, studying in a relatively pure form;

- empirical interpretation of the original theoretical concepts and provisions, the choice or creation of experimental tools;

- targeted impact on the object: systematic change, variation, combination of various conditions in order to obtain the desired result;

- multiple reproduction of the course of the process, fixing data in the protocols of observations, their processing and transfer to other objects of the class that have not been studied.

The following elements can be distinguished in the experiment: 1) the purpose of the experiment; 2) the object of experimentation: 3) the conditions in which the object is or is placed: 4) the means of experiment; 5) material impact on the object.

The purpose of the experiment may be to establish any patterns or to discover facts. experiments,carried out for this purpose are called"search engines". The result of the search experiment is new information about the area under study. However, most often the experiment is carried out in order to test some hypothesis or theory. Such an experiment called "testing". It is clear that it is impossible to draw a sharp line between these two types of experiment. One and the same experiment can be set up to test a hypothesis, and at the same time provide unexpected information about the objects under study. In the same way, the result of a search experiment can force us to abandon the accepted hypothesis or, on the contrary, give an empirical justification to our theoretical reasoning. In modern science, the same experiment is increasingly serving different purposes.

There are two types of experiment:laboratory and natural.Keeping the general principles of conducting an experiment: the presence of a certain situation, the participation of an independent and dependent variable, they differ from each other in two factors:the degree of realism of the situation and the degree of control of the researcher over the situation. The laboratory experiment is carried out under artificial conditions, with strict control over all influencing factors. In other words, the purity of the experiment in the laboratory experiment is maximized, and it gives fairly accurate data on the dependences of the variables. However, the laboratory situation is far from being realistic in the natural situation, and therefore the question arises of the legitimacy of extrapolating the results of a laboratory experiment to real life situations. It remains unclear whether a causal relationship persists between factors O and X outside the experiment, and if it persists, to what extent.

The specificity of the experiment as an empirical method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that an artificial situation is purposefully and thoughtfully created in it, in which the property under study stands out,best seen and appreciated. The experiment differs from observation by intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who deliberately manipulates the factors and registers the corresponding changes in the behavior of the object under study. The factors involved in an experimental study are called variables . They are classified into two types: independent variable and dependent variable. A variable that is manipulated or changed is calledindependent variable. An independent variable is a condition that the experimenter systematically changes to evaluate its effect on another variable. A variable that is expected to change in response to changes in the independent variable is called dependent variable. In other words, an experiment is a research method in which the researcher studies the influence of one class of variables (independent variables) on another class of variables (dependent variables). This assumes that the dependent variable should change as a function of changes in the independent variable. Measured changes in the dependent variable are considered to be "dependent" on the manipulation of the independent variable. Such is the scheme of the classical experiment, which has developed in science on the basis of the interpretation of the principle of determinism as an unambiguous causal relationship.

It was assumed that, knowing the initial state of the system under certain constant conditions, it is possible to predict the behavior of this system in the future; one can clearly single out the phenomenon under study, implement it in the desired direction, strictly order all interfering factors, or ignore them as insignificant (for example, exclude the subject from the results of cognition). The growing importance of probabilistic-statistical concepts and principles in the real practice of modern science, as well as the recognition of not only objective certainty, but also objective uncertainty, and understanding in this regard of determination as relative uncertainty (or as a limitation of uncertainty), has led to a new understanding of the structure and principles of the experiment. The development of a new experimental strategy was directly caused by the transition from the study of well-organized systems, in which it was possible to distinguish phenomena that depend on a small number of variables, to the study of so-called diffuse or "poorly organized" systems. In these systems, it is impossible to clearly distinguish individual phenomena and distinguish between the action of variables of different physical nature. This required a wider application of statistical methods, in fact, introduced the "concept of the case" into the experiment. The program of the experiment began to be designed in such a way as to maximally diversify numerous factors and take them into account statistically.

Thus, the experiment from a single-factor, rigidly determined, reproducing single-valued connections and relationships, has turned into a method that takes into account many factors of a complex (diffuse) system and reproduces single-valued and multi-valued relationships, i.e. the experiment acquired a probabilistic-deterministic character.

In cases where a direct experimental study of the object itself is impossible or difficult, economically inexpedient or undesirable for some reason, resort to the so-calledmodel experiment, in which the study is no longer the object itself, but the model that replaces it.Under the model they mean some really existing or mentally represented system, which, replacing another system in cognitive processes - the original, is in contact with it.relation of similarity (similarity).Thanks to this relation, the study of the model allows one to obtain information about the original, about its essential properties and relationships.

Models can be material and mental, depending on whether they are created from material means and function according to the objective laws of nature, or they are constructed mentally in the mind of the researcher, who performs all operations with them in his mind, using, of course, certain rules and laws. The most important feature of any model is its similarity to the original in one or more of the strictly fixed and justified relationships.

Material models reflect the corresponding objects in three forms of similarity: physical similarity, analogy and isomorphism as a one-to-one correspondence of structures. A model experiment deals with a material model, which is both an object of study and an experimental tool. With the introduction of the model, the structure of the experiment becomes much more complicated. Now the researcher and the device interact not with the object itself, but only with the model that replaces it, as a result of which the operational structure of the experiment becomes much more complicated. The role of the theoretical side of the study is increasing, since it is necessary to substantiate the similarity relationship between the model and the object, and the possibility of extrapolating the obtained data to this object.

d) Empirical scientific fact

The considered empirical methods of cognition as a result give factual knowledge about the world or scientific facts.An empirical fact is a certain empirical reality given in the perception of a person, fixed by various information means and interpreted on the basis of certain socio-cultural and theoretical attitudes.

To obtain an empirical fact, it is necessary to carry out at least two types of operations. First, the rational processing of observation, measurement, and experimental data and the search for stable, invariant content in them. To form a fact, it is necessary to single out recurring features in them and eliminate random perturbations and errors associated with observer errors. If a measurement is made during the observation, then the observation data is recorded as numbers. Then, in order to obtain an empirical fact, a certain static processing of the measurement results is required, a search for average statistical values ​​in the set of these data. If instrumental installations were used during the observation process, then along with the observation protocols, a protocol of control tests of the instruments is always drawn up, in which their possible systematic errors are recorded. During statistical data processing, these errors are also taken into account; they are removed from observational and experimental data in the process of searching for their invariant content.

Secondly, in order to establish a scientific fact, it is necessary to interpret the invariant content revealed in observations and experiments. In the process of such an interpretation, previously obtained theoretical knowledge is widely used. Thus, an empirical scientific fact cannot be interpreted as some immediate given that exists independently of what people think about them, and therefore is neither true nor false.

An empirical scientific fact is the result of the material and practical activities of people and has a complex epistemological structure. In this structure, at least 4 elements can be distinguished: 1) the objective component (real events, processes, relationships, properties, etc.); 2) the informational component (information intermediaries that ensure the transfer of information from the source to the receiver - a means of fixing facts (linguistic, technical, etc.); 3) the sociocultural component (the conditionality of the fact by the qualitative and quantitative possibilities of observation, measurement, experiment existing in a given era); 4) cognitive component (dependence of the method of fixing and interpreting facts on the system of initial abstractions of the theory, theoretical schemes).

If we consider a fact in the unity of all its four sides, then, apparently, the concept of truth in the classical sense is not applicable to it, because a scientific fact is not only a reflection of reality, but at the same time an expression of the material and spiritual achievements of a certain culture, its methods of cognition and practical experience. exploration of the world, its worldview and sensory-emotional perception of reality. From this follows the socio-cultural relativity of facts. For example, the fact that the weight of metals increases when fired will not be a fact of a culture that does not know weights. From the point of view of philosophy, this means that a certain property of the objects of the real world was either not reflected in this culture, or was reflected in other facts.

At the same time, if we take into account the complex structure of the fact, then, apparently, one cannot speak of the "discovery" of facts. The word "discovery" is an echo of the era of the dominance of metaphysical thinking, when it was believed that the world is divided into "situations" and "states of affairs", regardless of the practical and cognitive activity of man. Contemplating nature, the subject encounters "states of affairs" and "discovers" them. For modern epistemology, such a concept of knowledge is completely unacceptable. A person does not "discover" facts prepared in advance by nature, but actively influences nature, leaving an imprint of his personality and activity on it, considering it from the point of view of his practical tasks, inventing and improving spiritual and material means of understanding and transforming the world, dividing reality into situations and the state of affairs with the help of the conceptual tools he created, highlighting in fact aspects that are practically important for him, etc.Facts arise as a result of human activity, as a result of his active creative impact on the world.. For the appearance of a fact, it is not enough to formulate some proposition. It is also necessary to create the material and practical side of the fact and bring all its four components into line. This is a long and complex process that is more like creativity than simple copying.

According to Tarasov (pp. 88-90)

Methods of scientific knowledge- "a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality" (77. p. 364). In this regard, it is customary to divide the methods of cognition into empirical and theoretical. Empirical methods include: observation, experiment, measurement.

Most often, the process of cognition begins with the study of the observed properties of relations. Observation -purposeful, deliberate and systematic perception of phenomena. The observer does not simply perceive the phenomenon, but questions nature, posing some questions and tasks regarding it. Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable and impossible.

observation can be direct (through the senses) and indirect when the observed places devices between himself and the object (microscope, telescope, Geiger counter, etc.) to enhance their cognitive abilities. At the same time, it should be noted that indirect observations are increasingly used in modern science, especially when it comes to the study of the mega- and microworld.

You can observe both one object and several (for the purpose of comparison). It is possible to observe both the studied object itself (direct observation) and its models (indirect observation). In the end, observation can be both an objectively real process, and performed only in the imagination of the researcher.

Special difficultyobservations differ in social - cultural, psychological, sociological sciences, where its result is largelydepends on the personality of the observerand its relation to the phenomenon under study. Here, in addition to simple applied included observationwhen it takes placedirect contactresearcher with the object of observation (individual, group).

In this case, the event is analyzed as if " from within ", and the researcher is requiredneutral attitudeto what is happening, the ability to distinguishessential features, objectively and deeply interpret them.

Distinguish covert surveillancewhen the participants in the activity don't guess about the presence of the researcher, and open when the researcher informs the participants of their intentions. In the last decade, the method of participant observation has been updated due to the need to comprehend the social and cultural world, understanding the ideas, goals, and motives that operate in it.

However, since with the help of observation we usually know not the process as a whole, butonly certain sections, then in the science of generalization only based on surveillance data not being built . Moreover, they are not built on the basisrandom observations, which can also take place in science. The data of this type of observation is clearly not enough for a full-fledged scientific research, they can only be the initial (prerequisite) impulse to formulate a problem, put forward a hypothesis, etc.

Although in the practice of scientific research, certain principles are put forward in order to increase the degree of reliability and depth of scientific observation data. Here are some of them: a) explore, perhaps more diverse objects, the conditions in which they are located; b) explore the most typical features of the objects under study, etc.; c) clearly formulate the objectives of observation; d) develop an observation plan; e) exercise control over the correctness and reliability of the observation results.

Experiment - this is a way to obtain information about the quantitative and qualitative changes in the state of an object as a result of the impact on it of some managed and controlled factors (variables ). It is the selectionsignificant variablesis the most important point of this method of cognition.

The experiment presupposes the existence of a research goal, hypothesis, observation, subject-tool practical activity aimed at purposefully changing the object under study.

The nature experimental situationexperiments are divided into field (natural situation) and laboratory, by nature objects under study- on the technical, economic, social(legal, pedagogical, aesthetic), by specificstask— for research and applied.

As a result of improving the methodology of experimental research, the use of the most complex instruments and equipment in it, extremelywide rangeapplication of this method, which allows, in comparison with observation, to more deeply cognize the phenomena under study.

A mental experiment makes it possible to abstract from a whole range of limitations of real processes, to idealize them and thus consider them in limiting conditions and states. There are two types of thought experiments: a) thought experiments that can subsequently be carried out in practice; b) not able to be realized in reality.

For example, G. Galileo's thought experiments with throwing objects onto the deck of a ship by a sailor climbing a mast in order to determine the trajectory of the fall (case a) in our classification are known), A. Einstein's thought experiment is also known with a huge elevator that has broken off and is flying down, where at this time, an experiment is being conducted (situation b) in our classification), the situation is also close to anecdotal).

In general, the experiment allows you to minimize the time and effort to study the object, create an opportunity for repetition in order to more accurately measure and substantiate the existence or non-existence of the studied properties and relationships, reduce the personal component when interpreting the findings. Therefore, in comparison with observation, experiment is a deeper empirical method of cognition. The disadvantage of the experiment is the high costs.

Measurement - this is a way of obtaining, first of all (but not only), quantitative information about an object, when one (measured) value is correlated (compared) with another, taken as a standard. Measurement of properties is carried out using measuring instruments, in the exact sciences - mathematical methods or technical devices. In social sciences - test, questionnaires.

It is also necessary to have a measurement scale (a unit of measurement) and measurement rules. Distinguish by type direct and indirect measurement.

The most important characteristic of the measurement process is accuracy . It is always limited, since during the measurement process the measurement process itself introduces distortions into the object under study, plus the imperfection of measuring instruments, the researcher’s negligence, etc. However, the more accurate the measurement is, the more reliable the conclusions obtained.

empirical knowledge- a necessary stage of knowledge, without which the next one is impossible, theoretical level of knowledge.

Theoretical knowledgeaimed at forming a holistic picture of the process, knowledge of the essence of the objects under study. The theoretical methods of cognition are primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis called a method of cognition, with the help of which the object under studymentally dismemberedinto components that are studied separately.

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Source of available data.

In almost all statistical packages, it is specified by a string of values

variables.

Synonym: case.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Observation

general scientific method of empirical research. In sociology, it is used mainly for collecting and simple generalization of primary information. The latter are the recorded acts of verbal or real behavior of the unit of observation. Unlike the natural sciences, where N. is considered the simplest type of research, in sociology, scientific N. is one of the most complex and time-consuming methods. Its complexity is due to the specifics of the relationship between the subject and the object of observation, in which a person acts as both a subject and an object. This relationship is in fact a subject-subject social relationship, which predetermines the inevitability of their mutual influence in the research process, and therefore the possibility of obtaining artifacts, “deformed” information. Therefore, the use of this method is usually associated with the development of complex technical methods that ensure the reliability of the initial data. The reliability of N. is ensured primarily by the adequacy of its conditions to the type of interaction between the subject and the object, the degree of formalization of the procedure, and the representativeness of information. For any sociological N., depending on whether the observed know about it or not, the following types of interaction are characteristic: 1. Included (participating) N., when the observed are aware of the presence of the researcher in the group. The subject, by virtue of the very fact of inclusion, feels the influence of the object, to a certain extent he himself becomes the object. The object responds to the presence of the subject. In this case, it is necessary;) a complex correction of the data H, which are deformed due to the "disturbing" mutual influence of the subject and object. 2. Included N., when the observed do not know about it. The subject also feels the influence of the object, but the object does not react to the presence of the subject. The reliability of information in this case increases, but there are problems of research ethics, registration and completeness of information. 3. Non-included N., when the observed are aware of it. The object does not significantly affect the subject, but itself reacts to its presence. This reaction (change of behavior) is the main reason for the deformation of the primary data and must be taken into account by the subject. 4. Non-included N., when the observed do not know about it. In the interaction of the subject and the object, in fact, there is no "disturbing" influence. However, the possibility of deformation and loss of information increases due to a more limited field of observation. In this case, as in the previous one (3), there is a high probability of organizational and technical errors. In these types of interaction between subject and object, N. the problem of eliminating "disturbing" factors is solved as a problem of taking into account specific conditions, scientific organization and conduct of research, as well as sufficient control of data for validity, stability and accuracy. To ensure this, the object of N. must first of all be defined in a specific empirical situation. Depending on whether it is natural or artificially created, the type of interaction is also determined. The empirical situation must then be codified in terms of hypothesis and research program. Accordingly, he develops headings of indicators I. A unified system for indicating empirical situations makes it possible to unify data, carry out their comparability and quantitative processing on a computer or manually. As a result, sociological N., contrary to widespread skepticism, make it possible, with good training of observers, to obtain data whose correlation reaches 0.75-0.95. The main advantage of N. is that this method allows you to directly study the interactions, connections and relationships between people and make reasonable empirical generalizations. At the same time, on the basis of such generalizations, it is more difficult to establish the patterns of phenomena, to identify their determinants, to distinguish between chance and necessity in social processes. Therefore, sociological N. should be used in combination with other methods of research, to provide a comprehensive examination of the object.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

The word 'empirical' literally means 'that which is perceived by the senses'. When this adjective is used in relation to the methods of scientific research, it serves to refer to the methods and methods associated with sensory (sensory) experience. Therefore, they say that empirical methods are based on the so-called. "hard (irrefutable) data" ("hard data").

Empirical cognition is characterized by fact-fixing activity in the system of the epistemological relation "subject-object". The main task of empirical knowledge is to collect, describe, accumulate facts, perform their primary processing, answer the questions: what is what? what happens and how?

This activity is provided by: observation, description, measurement, experiment.

1. Observation. Observation is a deliberate and directed perception of an object of knowledge in order to obtain information about its form, properties and relationships.

The process of observation is not passive contemplation. This is an active, directed form of the epistemological relationship of the subject in relation to the object, reinforced by additional means of observation, fixing information and its translation.

Quite clear requirements are imposed on the observation: the purpose of the observation; choice of methodology; observation plan; control over the correctness and reliability of the results obtained; processing, comprehension and interpretation of the received information. Observation, which is elementary in nature, turns out to be far from simple. Being the primary generator of facts, observation can be the road to truth, or it can pave the way to error. Hence the need for special attention to observation, the precise fulfillment of all the requirements of this operation of cognition, and, in addition, the implementation of control observation.

2. Description. The description, as it were, continues the observation, it is a form of fixing the information of the observation, its final stage.

With the help of the description, the information of the sense organs is translated into the language of signs, concepts, diagrams, graphs, acquiring a form convenient for subsequent rational processing (systematization, classification, generalization, etc.). The description is carried out on the basis of an artificial language, which is distinguished by logical rigor and unambiguity.

The description may be oriented towards qualitative or quantitative certainty. A quantitative description requires fixed measuring procedures, which necessitates the expansion of the fact-fixing activity of the subject of cognition by including such a cognition operation as measurement.

3. Measurement. The qualitative characteristics of an object, as a rule, are fixed by instruments, the quantitative specificity of an object is established by means of measurements.

Measurement is a technique in cognition, with the help of which a quantitative comparison of quantities of the same quality is carried out.

Measurement is by no means a secondary technique, it is a kind of system for providing knowledge. D. I. Mendeleev pointed out its significance, noting that knowledge of measure and weight is the only way to discover laws. In the process of measurement, the subject of cognition, by establishing quantitative relationships between phenomena, discovers some common connections between them. By measuring certain physical quantities of mass, charge, current, the subject of knowledge reveals the qualitative certainty of the object under study, its essential properties.

4. Experiment. Unlike ordinary observation, in an experiment, the researcher actively intervenes in the course of the process being studied in order to gain additional knowledge.

An experiment is a special technique (method) of cognition, representing a systemic and repeatedly reproducible observation of an object in the process of deliberate and controlled trial effects of the subject on the object of study. In the experiment, the subject of cognition studies the problem situation in order to obtain comprehensive information. The investigated object of observation is controlled under specially specified conditions, which makes it possible to fix all properties, connections, relationships, changing the parameters of the conditions. In other words, an experiment is the most active form of epistemological relationship in the "subject-object" system at the level of sensory cognition.

Providing accessibility and reproducibility makes the experiment one of the most effective means of testing hypotheses and theoretical conclusions. The special activity of the subject of cognition in the experiment does not call into question the objective content of knowledge, because the experiment does not "create" the object of cognition, but only works with it, entering into a state of "dialogue", and not limited to a one-sided "monologue". And, nevertheless, since the experimenter sets the conditions, the experiment is fraught with the danger of "distortion", overestimation of some properties and relations and underestimation of others. All this requires a special technological discipline from the researcher, i.e., the formulation of the problem and the advancement of a working hypothesis for its solution; determination of the parameters of the experiment and the creation of an experimental setup (environment); ensuring control over the conditions of the experiment and the possibility of repeated control; fact-fixing activity of the subject of cognition and description of the result obtained.

Modern science uses mainly qualitative and quantitative experiments. A qualitative experiment establishes the presence or absence of a supposed property, a feature of the object under study. A quantitative experiment is more complex, because its procedures are focused on measuring those quantities that express the qualitative certainty of an object, its essence.