People's militia in troubled times. How Minin and Pozharsky created the second people's militia

The summer of 1611 brought new misfortunes to Russia. In June, Polish troops stormed Smolensk. In July the Swedish king Charles IX seized the Novgorod land. The local nobility conspired with the invaders and opened the gates of Novgorod for them. It was announced the creation of the Novgorod state with the son of the Swedish king on the throne.

Failure of the First Militia

The headman of Nizhny Novgorod, Kuzma Minin, having collected the necessary funds, offered to lead the campaign to Dmitry Pozharsky. After his consent, the militia from Nizhny Novgorod went to Yaroslavl, where for several months they gathered forces and prepared for a march on Moscow.

Kuzma Minin

In the autumn of 1611, the creation of the Second Home Guard began in Nizhny Novgorod. Its organizer was the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin. Due to his honesty, piety and courage, he enjoyed great respect among the townspeople. Nizhny-city zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin called on citizens to donate property, money and jewelry to create armed detachments capable of fighting traitors and interventionists. At the call of Minin, fundraising began for the needs of the militia. The townspeople collected considerable funds, but they were clearly not enough. Then they imposed an emergency tax on the inhabitants of the region. With the collected money, they hired service people, who mainly consisted of residents of the Smolensk land. The question arose of who should be the leader.

Dmitry Pozharsky

Soon an experienced governor was also found, ready to take over the leadership of the military side of the enterprise - Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. He participated in the popular uprising against the Poles in Moscow in March 1611 and was then seriously wounded.

Why was it difficult to choose a leader? After all, there were many experienced governors in the country. The fact is that during the Time of Troubles, many service people moved from the tsar’s camp to the “Tushinsky thief” and back. Change has become commonplace. Moral rules - fidelity to word and deed, inviolability of the oath - have lost their original meaning. Many governors could not resist the temptation to increase their wealth by any means. It became difficult to find such a governor who would not "appear in treason."

When Kuzma Minin proposed Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, the people of Nizhny Novgorod approved this choice, since he was among the few who did not stain themselves with treason. Moreover, during the uprising of Muscovites in March 1611, he participated in street battles in the capital, led a detachment and was seriously wounded. In his patrimony near Suzdal, he was treated for wounds. Nizhny Novgorod envoys were sent there with a request to lead the fight. The prince agreed.

Formation of the Second Militia

In the spring of 1612, the second militia left Nizhny Novgorod and moved towards Yaroslavl. There it lingered for four months, forming an army from detachments from all over the country. Prince Dmitry Pozharsky was responsible for the military training of the army, and Minin was responsible for its provision. Minin was called "a man elected by the whole earth."

Here, in Yaroslavl, in April 1612, from elected representatives of cities and counties, they created a kind of zemstvo government "Council of the whole earth." Under him, the Boyar Duma and orders were created. The Council officially appealed to all the subjects of the country - "Great Russia" - with a call to unite to defend the Fatherland and elect a new tsar.

Relationship with the First Militia

The relations between the leaders of the Second Militia and the leaders of the First Militia, I. Zarutsky and D. Trubetskoy, who were near Moscow, were very difficult. Agreeing to cooperate with Prince Trubetskoy, they categorically rejected the friendship of the Cossack ataman Zarutsky, known for his deceit and changeability. In response, Zarutsky sent an assassin to Pozharsky. It was only by a lucky chance that the prince survived. After that, Zarutsky with his detachments moved away from Moscow.

A trained, well-armed army moved towards Moscow. At the same time, a large army led by Hetman Khodkevich, one of the best Polish commanders, was moving from the west to the capital to help the Poles. Chodkiewicz's goal was to break through to the Kremlin and deliver food and ammunition to the besieged Polish soldiers, because hunger began among them.

In August 1612, the forces of the Second Home Guard approached Moscow. Together with Trubetskoy's Cossacks, they repulsed the offensive of a large Polish army under the command of Hetman Jan Chodkiewicz, who arrived from the Commonwealth. A fierce battle took place on August 22, 1612 near the Novodevichy Convent. Pozharsky resisted and did not let Khodkevich's detachments go to the Kremlin. But the hetman was not going to resign himself. He decided to strike the next blow.

On the morning of August 24, the Poles appeared from Zamoskvorechye. They were not expected from there. Out of surprise, the militia began to retreat. The Poles almost approached the Kremlin. The besieged were triumphant, whether victory, they already saw the banners of the hetman's attacking troops. But suddenly everything changed. Even during the battle, Minin begged Pozharsky to give him people for an ambush. material from the site

In battles with Khodkevich, Kuzma Minin personally led hundreds of noble cavalry to attack. The monks of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery rendered great help to the militia. Appealing to the religious feelings of the Cossacks, they convinced them to forget about self-interest for a while and support Minin and Pozharsky.

The attack led by Minin, which was supported by the Cossacks, decided the outcome of the battle. As a result, Khodkevich's detachment lost its convoy and was forced to move away from Moscow. The Poles in the Kremlin remained surrounded.

On October 22, 1612, the Cossacks and Pozharsky's troops took Kitai-go-rod. The fate of the Poles who settled in the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod was sealed. Suffering greatly from hunger, they did not last long. Four days later, on October 26, the Moscow boyars and the Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated.

Thus, as a result of the Second People's Militia, Moscow was liberated.

King Sigismund III tried to save the situation. In November 1612, he approached Moscow with an army and demanded that his son Vladislav be elevated to the throne. Now, however, this prospect has caused general indignation. Having failed in several battles, the king turned back. He was urged on by severe frosts and food shortages. An attempt at a new intervention failed at the very beginning.

The collapse of the First Zemstvo militia did not lead to the end of Russian resistance. By September 1611, a militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. It was headed by the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, who invited Prince Dmitry Pozharsky to command military operations. In February 1612, the Second Militia set off on a campaign to the capital.

Nizhny Novgorod

At the beginning of the 17th century, Nizhny Novgorod was one of the largest cities in the Russian kingdom. Having emerged as a frontier fortress of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus on its eastern border, it gradually lost its military significance, but acquired a serious trade and craft significance. As a result, Nizhny Novgorod became an important administrative and economic center on the Middle Volga. In addition, in Nizhny there was a rather large and rather heavily armed “stone city”, its upper and lower tenements were protected by wooden forts with towers and a moat. The Nizhny Novgorod garrison was relatively small. It consisted of approximately 750 archers, fodder foreigners (mercenaries) and serf servants - gunners, collars, zatinshchiks and state blacksmiths. However, this fortress could become the core of a more serious army.

An important geographical position (it was located at the confluence of the two largest rivers of inland Russia - the Oka and the Volga) made Nizhny Novgorod a major trading center. In terms of its trade and economic significance, Nizhny Novgorod stood on a par with Smolensk, Pskov and Novgorod. In terms of its economic importance, it occupied at that time the sixth place among Russian cities. So, if Moscow gave the royal treasury at the end of the 16th century 12 thousand rubles of customs duties, then Nizhny - 7 thousand rubles. Rod city was connected with the entire Volga river system and was part of the ancient Volga trade route. Fish from the Caspian Sea, furs from Siberia, fabrics and spices from distant Persia, bread from the Oka were brought to Nizhny Novgorod. Therefore, the trade settlement, in which there were up to two thousand households, was of primary importance in the city. There were also many artisans in the city, and workers (loaders and barge haulers) in the river port. The Nizhny Novgorod Posad, united in the zemstvo world with two elders at the head, was the largest and most influential force in the city.

Thus, in terms of its military-strategic position, economic and political significance, Nizhny Novgorod was one of the key points in the eastern and southeastern regions of the Russian state. No wonder the 16th-century publicist Ivan Peresvetov advised Tsar Ivan the Terrible to move the capital to Nizhny Novgorod. It is not surprising that the city became the center of the people's liberation movement, which engulfed the Upper and Middle Volga regions and neighboring regions of Russia, and Nizhny Novgorod residents actively joined the struggle for the liberation of the Russian state.

Nizhny Novgorod and Troubles

During the Time of Troubles, Nizhny Novgorod was threatened more than once by the Poles and Tushinos. At the end of 1606, large bandit formations appeared in the Nizhny Novgorod district and adjacent districts, which were engaged in robberies and atrocities: they burned villages, robbed residents and drove them to full. This "freedom" in the winter of 1608 captured Alatyr and Arzamas, setting up its base in it. Tsar Vasily Shuisky sent his governor with troops to liberate Arzamas and other cities occupied by "thieves". One of them, Prince Ivan Vorotynsky, defeated the rebel detachments near Arzamas, took the city and cleared the areas adjacent to Arzamas.

With the advent of False Dmitry II, various gangs became more active again, especially since part of the boyars, the Moscow and district nobility and boyar children went over to the side of the new impostor. The Mordovians, Chuvashs and Cheremis also rebelled. Many cities also went over to the side of the impostor and tried to persuade Nizhny Novgorod to do the same. But Nizhny Novgorod stood firmly on the side of Tsar Shuisky and did not change his oath to him. The citizens of Nizhny Novgorod have never let enemies into the city. Moreover, Nizhny not only successfully defended itself, but also sent its army to help other cities and supported the campaign of Skopin-Shuisky.

So, when at the end of 1608 the inhabitants of the city of Balakhna, having changed their oath to Tsar Shuisky, attacked Nizhny Novgorod, the voivode Andrey Alyabyev, according to the sentence of Nizhny Novgorod, hit the enemy, and on December 3, after a fierce battle, he occupied Balakhna. The leaders of the rebels were captured and hanged. Alyabyev, barely having time to return to Nizhny, again entered the fight against a new enemy detachment that attacked the city on December 5. Having defeated this detachment, the Nizhny Novgorodians took Vorsma.

In early January 1609, the troops of False Dmitry II attacked Nizhny under the command of the voivode Prince Semyon Vyazemsky and Timofey Lazarev. Vyazemsky sent a letter to Nizhny Novgorod residents, in which he wrote that if the city did not surrender, then all the townspeople would be exterminated, and the city would be burned to the ground. Nizhny Novgorod did not give an answer, but they themselves decided to make a sortie, despite the fact that the enemy had more troops. Thanks to the suddenness of the attack, the troops of Vyazemsky and Lazarev were defeated, and they themselves were taken prisoner and sentenced to hang. Then Alyabiev freed Murom from the rebels, where he remained as the royal governor, and Vladimir.

An even more active struggle was waged by the inhabitants of Nizhny Novgorod against the Polish troops of King Sigismund III. Simultaneously with Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod called on all Russians to liberate Moscow. It is interesting that letters with such appeals were sent not only on behalf of the governor, but also on behalf of the townspeople. The importance of urban settlements in the fight against enemy intervention and internal unrest has seriously increased. On February 17, 1611, earlier than others, the Nizhny Novgorod squads marched to Moscow and fought bravely under its walls as part of the First Zemstvo militia.

The failure of the first militia did not break the will of the Nizhny Novgorod residents to resist, on the contrary, they were even more convinced of the need for unity for a complete victory. Nizhny Novgorod residents maintained constant contact with Moscow through their scouts - the boyar son Roman Pakhomov and the townsman Rodion Moseev. They penetrated the capital and obtained the necessary information. The Nizhny Novgorod scouts even managed to establish contact with Patriarch Hermogenes, who was languishing in the Kremlin in the underground cell of the Chudov Monastery. Gonsevsky, embittered by the fact that the patriarch denounced the interventionists and their henchmen, called on the Russian people to fight and, not daring to openly deal with Hermogenes, sentenced him to starvation. Once a week, only a sheaf of unthreshed oats and a bucket of water were allowed to feed the imprisoned. However, this did not humble the Russian patriot. From the underground dungeon, Hermogenes continued to send out his letters with calls to fight against the invaders. These letters also reached Nizhny Novgorod.

Minin

From Nizhny, in turn, letters were distributed throughout the country with a call to unite to fight the common enemy. In this strong city, the determination of people to take the fate of a dying country into their own hands was ripening. It was necessary to inspire the people, instill in people confidence in victory, readiness to make any sacrifices. We needed people who had high personal qualities and such an understanding of what was happening in order to lead the popular movement. A simple Russian man from Nizhny Novgorod Kuzma Minin became such a leader, a folk hero.

Little is known about Minin's origins. However, it is known for certain that the version of the non-Russian origin of K. Minin (“baptized Tatar”) is a myth. On September 1, 1611, Minin was elected to the zemstvo elders. “The husband is not glorious by birth,” the chronicler notes, “but he is wise, intelligent and pagan in sense.” The high human qualities of Minin were able to appreciate the people of Nizhny Novgorod, nominating Sukhoruk to such an important post. The position of zemstvo headman was very honorable and responsible. He was in charge of the collection of taxes and ruled the court in the suburb, he had great power. The townspeople had to obey the zemstvo headman "in all worldly affairs," those who did not obey, he had the right to force. Minin was a "favorite" person in Nizhny Novgorod for his honesty and justice. Great organizational talent, love for the Motherland and ardent hatred for the invaders made him the "fathers" of the Second Zemstvo Militia. He became the soul of the new militia.

Minin began his exhortations to “help the Moscow state” both in the “zemstvo hut”, and at the market where his shop stood, and near his house in ordinary meetings of neighbors, and at gatherings where letters that came to Nizhny Novgorod were read to the townspeople, etc. .d. In October 1611, Minin appealed to the people of Nizhny Novgorod with a call to create a people's militia to fight foreigners. At the alarm, the people gathered at the Transfiguration Cathedral for a gathering. Here Kuzma Minin delivered his famous speech, in which he urged the people of Nizhny Novgorod not to spare anything to protect their native country: “Orthodox people, we will want to help the Muscovite state, we will not spare our stomachs, but not only our stomachs - we will sell our yards, we will lay down our wives, children and we will beat brow, so that someone becomes our boss. And what praise will be to all of us from the Russian land that such a great deed will happen from such a small city as ours. I know that as soon as we move towards this, many cities will come to us, and we will get rid of foreigners.

Kuzma Minin's ardent call received the warmest response from Nizhny Novgorod residents. On his advice, the townspeople gave the "third money", that is, the third part of their property, for the militia. Donations were made voluntarily. One rich widow of the 12 thousand rubles she had donated 10 thousand - a huge amount at that time, striking the imagination of Nizhny Novgorod residents. Minin himself donated not only “his entire treasury” to the needs of the militia, but also silver and gold salaries from icons and jewelry of his wife. “You all do the same,” he said to the posad. However, voluntary contributions alone were not enough. Therefore, a compulsory collection of the “fifth money” was announced from all Nizhny Novgorod residents: each of them had to contribute a fifth of their income from fishing and trading activities. The collected money was to be used to distribute salaries to service people.

Peasants, townspeople and nobles joined the Nizhny Novgorod militia as volunteers. Minin introduced a new order in the organization of the militia: the militia was given a salary that was not equal. Depending on military training and combat merit, the militias were assigned (divided) into four salaries. Those who were turned on the first salary received 50 rubles a year, on the second - 45, on the third - 40, on the fourth - 35 rubles. Monetary salaries for all militias, regardless of whether he was a nobleman or a peasant, made everyone formally equal. Not noble origin, but skill, military abilities, devotion to the Russian land were the qualities by which Minin assessed a person.

Kuzma Minin not only himself was attentive and sensitive to every soldier who came to the militia, but also demanded the same from all commanders. He invited a detachment of service Smolensk nobles into the militia, who, after the fall of Smolensk, not wanting to serve the Polish king, abandoned their estates and went to the Arzamas district. The arriving Smolensk soldiers were warmly welcomed by the people of Nizhny Novgorod and provided with everything necessary.

With the full consent of all the inhabitants and city authorities of Nizhny Novgorod, on the initiative of Minin, the “Council of All the Earth” was created, which in its nature became the provisional government of the Russian state. It included the best people of the Volga cities and some representatives of local authorities. With the help of the "Council" Minin led the recruitment of warriors in the militia, and resolved other issues. The inhabitants of Nizhny Novgorod unanimously invested him with the title of "an elected man of the whole earth."

Minin's appeal to the people of Nizhny Novgorod in 1611. M. I. Peskov

Commander of the Second Militia

The question was extremely important: how to find a governor who would lead the Zemstvo militia? Nizhny Novgorod did not want to deal with local governors. Okolnichiy Prince Vasily Zvenigorodsky did not differ in military talents, and was related to Mikhail Saltykov, hetman Gonsevsky's henchman. He received the rank of roundabout according to the letter of Sigismund III, and was appointed to the Nizhny Novgorod province by Trubetskoy and Zarutsky. Such a person was not to be trusted.

The second governor, Andrey Alyabyev, skillfully fought and served faithfully, but was known only in his Nizhny Novgorod district. The townspeople wanted a skilled governor, not marked by "flights", and known among the people. Finding such a governor in this troubled time, when the transitions of governors and nobles from one camp to another became a common thing, was not easy. Then Kuzma Minin proposed to elect Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky as governor.

His candidacy was approved by the people of Nizhny Novgorod and the militias. A lot spoke in favor of the prince: he was far from the corrupt ruling elite, did not have a duma rank, a simple steward. He did not manage to make a court career, but more than once distinguished himself on the battlefield. In 1608, being a regimental commander, he defeated the Tushino troops near Kolomna; in 1609 he defeated the gangs of ataman Salkov; in 1610, during the dissatisfaction of the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov with Tsar Shuisky, he kept the city of Zaraysk in loyalty to the tsar. Then he defeated the Polish detachment sent against Lyapunov and the "thieves" Cossacks, who tried to take Zaraysk. He was faithful to the oath, did not bow to foreigners. The fame of the heroic deeds of the prince during the Moscow uprising in the spring of 1611 reached Nizhny Novgorod. Nizhny Novgorod also liked such traits of the prince as honesty, disinterestedness, justice in making decisions, decisiveness and balance in his actions. In addition, he was nearby, he lived in his patrimony just 120 miles from Nizhny. Dmitry Mikhailovich was treated after severe wounds received in battles with enemies. The wound on the leg was especially difficult to heal - lameness remained for life. As a result, Pozharsky received the nickname Lame.

To invite Prince Dmitry Pozharsky to the voivodship, the citizens of Nizhny Novgorod sent an honorary embassy to the village of Mugreeevo, Suzdal district. There is evidence that before and after that, Minin repeatedly visited him, together they discussed the organization of the Second Zemstvo militia. Nizhny Novgorod people went to him "many times, so that I could go to Nizhny for the Zemstvo Council," the prince himself noted. As was customary then, Pozharsky for a long time refused the offer of Nizhny Novgorod. The prince was well aware that before deciding on such an honorable and responsible business, it is necessary to think over this issue well. In addition, Pozharsky wanted from the very beginning to receive the powers of a large governor, to be commander in chief.

In the end, Dmitry Pozharsky, who had not yet fully recovered from his injuries, gave his consent. But he also set a condition that the people of Nizhny Novgorod themselves choose from among the townspeople a person who would become with him at the head of the militia and deal with the “rear”. And he offered Kuzma Minin to this position. That's what they decided on. Thus, in the zemstvo militia, Prince Pozharsky assumed a military function, and the “elected man of the whole earth” Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk became in charge of the economy of the army, the militia treasury. At the head of the second zemstvo militia stood two people, elected by the people and invested with their confidence - Minin and Pozharsky.

"Minin and Pozharsky". Painter M. I. Scotty

Militia organization

At the end of October 1611, Prince Pozharsky arrived in Nizhny Novgorod with a small retinue and, together with Minin, set about organizing a people's militia. They developed vigorous activity to create an army that was supposed to liberate Moscow from the invaders and initiate the expulsion of the interventionists from the Russian land. Minin and Pozharsky understood that they could solve such a big task facing them only by relying on the “popular multitude”.

Minin showed great firmness and determination in raising funds. From the tax collectors for the militia, Minin demanded that the rich not make indulgences, and the poor should not be unfairly oppressed. Despite the total taxation of Nizhny Novgorod residents, there was still not enough money to provide the militias with everything they needed. I had to resort to forced loans from residents of other cities. The clerks of the richest merchants of the Stroganovs, merchants from Moscow, Yaroslavl and other cities connected with Nizhny Novgorod by trade were subject to taxation. By creating the militia, its leaders began to show their strength and power far beyond the borders of the Nizhny Novgorod district. Letters were sent to Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kazan and other cities. In a letter sent on behalf of the Nizhny Novgorod militia to residents of other cities, it was said: “From all the cities of the Moscow state, there were nobles and boyar children near Moscow, Polish and Lithuanian people were besieged by a strong siege, but the flow of nobles and boyar children from Moscow parted for a temporary sweets, for robberies and kidnappings. But now we, all sorts of people of Nizhny Novgorod, having referred to Kazan and all the cities of the lower and Volga regions, having gathered with many military people, seeing the final ruin of the Muscovite state, asking God for mercy, we all go with our heads to help the Muscovite state. Yes, Smolensk, Dorogobuzh and Vets came to Nizhny Novgorod from Arzamas ... and we, all the people of Nizhny Novgorod, after consulting among ourselves, sentenced: to share our stomachs and houses with them, give salaries and help and send them to help the Moscow the state."

The Volga cities responded to the appeal of Nizhny Novgorod in different ways. Such small towns as Balakhna and Gorokhovets immediately got involved. Kazan reacted to this call at first rather coolly. Her "sovereign people" believed that "royal Kazan - the main city of the Ponizovye" should excel. As a result, the service people of the border regions who arrived in the vicinity of Arzamas after the fall of Smolensk, Smolensk, Belyan, Dorogobuzh, Vyazmichi, Brenchan, Roslavtsy and others, become the core of the militia along with the Nizhny Novgorod people. They gathered about 2 thousand people, and they were all experienced fighters who had participated in battles more than once. Later, nobles from Ryazan and Kolomna came to Nizhny, as well as service people, Cossacks and archers from the "Ukrainian cities" who were in Moscow under Tsar Vasily Shuisky.

Having learned about the formation of the Second Militia in Nizhny Novgorod and not being able to counteract this, the worried Poles turned to Patriarch Hermogenes demanding that he condemn the "traitors". The patriarch refused to do so. He cursed the Moscow boyars who turned to him on behalf of Gonsevsky as "cursed traitors." As a result, he was starved to death. On February 17, 1612 Hermogenes died.

The leaders of the second militia needed to resolve the issue of the remainder of the First militia. The leaders of the Cossack freemen Zarutsky and Trubetskoy still had considerable strength. As a result, since December 1611, two provisional governments have been operating in Russia: the “Council of All the Land” of the Cossacks near Moscow, led by Ataman Ivan Zarutsky, and the “Council of All the Land” in Nizhny Novgorod. Between these two centers of power there was a struggle not only for influence on local governors and for income, but also on the question of what to do next. Zarutsky and Trubetskoy, with the support of the rich and influential Trinity-Sergius Monastery, proposed to lead the militia to Moscow as soon as possible. They feared the rapid growth of the power and influence of the Nizhny Novgorod rati. And they planned to take a dominant position near Moscow. However, the "Council of All the Earth" of Nizhny Novgorod considered it necessary to wait in order to properly prepare for the campaign. It was the line of Minin and Pozharsky.

Relations between the two centers of power became openly hostile after Trubetskoy and Zarutsky began negotiations with the Pskov impostor Sidorka (False Dmitry III), to whom they eventually swore allegiance. True, they soon had to abandon their "kissing the cross", since such an act did not find support among ordinary Cossacks and was sharply condemned by Minin and Pozharsky.

Start of the hike

After hard work, by the beginning of February 1612, the Nizhny Novgorod militia was already an impressive force and reached 5 thousand soldiers. Despite the fact that the work on the military structure of the Second Home Guard had not yet been fully completed, Pozharsky and Minin realized that they could no longer wait and decided to start the campaign. Initially, the shortest route was chosen - from Nizhny Novgorod through Gorokhovets, Suzdal to Moscow.

The moment to attack was convenient. The Polish garrison in Moscow experienced great difficulties, especially an acute shortage of food. The famine forced most of the Polish garrison to leave the devastated city for the surrounding counties in search of food. Of the 12 thousand the enemy troops in the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod remained about 4 thousand. garrison weakened by hunger. The most select detachments of Polish thugs under the command of Hetman Khodkevich settled in the village of Rogachevo, not far from the city of Dmitrov; Sapieha's detachment was in the city of Rostov. There was no help from Sigismund III to the besieged garrison. And the "seven boyars" did not represent any real military force. Thus, it was the most convenient time for the liberation of Moscow.

Voivode Dmitry Pozharsky drew up a plan for a liberation campaign. The idea was to take advantage of the fragmentation of the forces of the interventionists, to break them in parts. At first, it was planned to cut off the detachments of Khodkevich and Sapieha from Moscow, and then defeat the besieged Polish garrison of Gonsevsky and liberate the capital. Pozharsky hoped for the help of the Cossack camps near Moscow (the remnants of the First Militia).

However, Ataman Zarutsky began open hostilities. He decided to capture a number of large cities of North-Eastern Russia and thereby prevent the inhabitants of Nizhny Novgorod from entering and maintain his sphere of influence. Taking advantage of the withdrawal from Rostov of the Great Sapieha Detachment, in February Zarutsky orders his Cossacks to capture Yaroslavl, a strategically important city on the Volga. The Cossack detachment of ataman Prosovetsky was supposed to go there from Vladimir.

As soon as it became known about the actions of Zarutsky, Minin and Pozharsky were forced to change the original plan for the liberation campaign. They decided to move up the Volga, occupy Yaroslavl, bypassing the devastated areas where the Cossack detachments of Zarutsky and Trubetskoy near Moscow were operating, and combine the forces that had risen against the interventionists. Zarutsky's Cossacks were the first to break into Yaroslavl. The townspeople asked Pozharsky for help. The prince sent detachments of his relatives, princes Dmitry Lopata Pozharsky and Roman Pozharsky. They occupied Yaroslavl and Suzdal with a quick raid, taking the Cossacks by surprise and did not allow Prosovetsky's detachments to go there. The detachment of Prosovetsky, who was on the way to Yaroslavl, had no choice but to turn back to the camps near Moscow. He did not take the fight.

Having received news from Lopata-Pozharsky that Yaroslavl was in the hands of the Nizhny Novgorod people, Minin and Pozharsky in early March 1612 ordered the militia to set out from Nizhny Novgorod on a campaign to liberate the capital of the Russian state. In early April 1612, the militia entered Yaroslavl. Here the militia stood for four months, until the end of July 1612.

The government of the seven boyars, who became Polish puppets, did not think about rebuffing the enemy. The people rose up to fight for liberation. In Ryazan, under the leadership of the nobleman Lyapunov, the first militia was formed from the nobles, townspeople and Cossacks. In the spring of 1611 It approached Moscow and began the siege. However, in the summer, a struggle broke out between the nobles of the militia and the Cossack - peasant part, which ended with the murder of Lyapunov and the collapse of the first militia. The situation in the country also worsened due to the fact that Smolensk fell. Taking advantage of Russia's weakness, the Swedes occupied Novgorod. This news caused a new wave of liberation movement. Nizhny Novgorod became the center for the formation of the second militia. The organizer and inspirer of it was the zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin, and headed by Dmitry Pozharsky. By the end of 1612 Moscow was liberated, and the interventionists were defeated. The Time of Troubles ended with great territorial losses for Russia. Smolensk was occupied by the Poles, and Novgorod by the Swedes. According to the Stolbovsky peace treaty of 1617. Sweden returned Novgorod, but left behind Izhora with the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Russia was deprived of access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618 The Deulino truce was concluded, Smolensk land passed to Poland. Economic disruption lasted for a long time. Nevertheless, the historical significance of the fight against the interventionists lies in the fact that the Russian people defended the independence of Russia.

19. The beginning of the reign of the Romanovs. End of Troubles.

In specific historical conditions of the beginning of the XVII century. the priority was the question of restoring central power, which meant the election of a new king. In Moscow, the Zemsky Sobor gathered, at which, in addition to the Boyar Duma, the higher clergy and the nobility of the capital, numerous provincial nobility, townspeople, Cossacks and even black-haired (state) peasants were represented. 50 Russian cities sent their representatives. The main issue was the election of the king. A sharp struggle flared up around the candidacy of the future tsar at the cathedral. Some boyar groups offered to call on the “prince” from Poland or Sweden, others put forward applicants from the old Russian princely families (Golitsyn, Mstislavsky, Trubetskoy, Romanov). The Cossacks even offered the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mniszek (“Vorenka”). After long disputes, the members of the council agreed on the candidacy of 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the cousin-nephew of the last tsar from the Moscow Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ivanovich, which gave reason to associate him with the “legitimate” dynasty. The nobles saw in the Romanovs consistent opponents of the "boyar tsar" Vasily Shuisky, the Cossacks - supporters of "Tsar Dmitry". The boyars, who hoped to retain power and influence under the young tsar, did not object either. On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor announced the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. An embassy was sent to the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery, where Mikhail and his mother “nun Martha” were hiding at that time, with a proposal to take the Russian throne. Thus, the Romanov dynasty, which ruled the country for more than 300 years, was established in Russia. One of the heroic episodes of Russian history belongs to this time. The Polish detachment tried to capture the newly elected tsar, looking for him in the Kostroma estates of the Romanovs. But the headman of the village of Domnina, Ivan Susanin, not only warned the king about the danger, but also led the Poles into impenetrable forests. The hero died from Polish sabers, but also killed the gentry who got lost in the forests. In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the country was actually ruled by the boyars Saltykovs, relatives of the “nun Martha”, and since 1619, after the return of the father of the tsar, Patriarch Filaret Romanov, from captivity, the patriarch and “great sovereign” Filaret. The turmoil undermined the royal power, which inevitably increased the significance of the Boyar Duma. Mikhail could not do anything without boyar advice. The parochial system, which regulated relations within the ruling boyars, existed in Russia for more than a century and was distinguished by its exceptional strength. The highest positions in the state were occupied by persons whose ancestors were distinguished by nobility, were related to the Kalita dynasty and achieved the greatest success in their service. The passage of the throne to the Romanovs destroyed the old system. The kinship with the new dynasty began to acquire paramount importance. But the new system of parochialism did not take hold immediately. In the first decades of the Troubles, Tsar Mikhail had to put up with the fact that the first places in the Duma were still occupied by the highest titled nobility and the old boyars, who once tried the Romanovs and handed them over to Boris Godunov for reprisal. During the Time of Troubles, Filaret called them his worst enemies. To enlist the support of the nobility, Tsar Michael, having no treasury and land, generously distributed duma ranks. Under him, the Boyar Duma became more numerous and influential than ever. After the return of Filaret from captivity, the composition of the Duma was sharply reduced. The restoration of the economy and state order began. In 1617, in the village of Stolbovo (near Tikhvin), an "eternal peace" was signed with Sweden. The Swedes returned Novgorod and other northwestern cities to Russia, but the Swedes retained the Izhora land and Korela. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but she managed to get out of the state of war with Sweden. In 1618, the Daulino Truce was concluded with Poland for fourteen and a half years. Russia lost Smolensk and about three dozen more Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk cities. The contradictions with Poland were not resolved, but only postponed: both sides were not in a position to continue the war any longer. The terms of the armistice were very difficult for the country, but Poland refused to claim the throne. The Time of Troubles in Russia is over. Russia managed to defend its independence, but at a very heavy price. The country was ruined, the treasury was empty, trade and crafts were upset. It took several decades to restore the economy. The loss of important territories predetermined further wars for their liberation, which placed a heavy burden on the entire country. The Time of Troubles further increased Russia's backwardness. Russia emerged from the Time of Troubles extremely exhausted, with huge territorial and human losses. According to some reports, up to a third of the population died. Overcoming the economic ruin will be possible only by strengthening serfdom. The international position of the country has sharply worsened. Russia found itself in political isolation, its military potential weakened, and for a long time its southern borders remained practically defenseless. Anti-Western sentiments intensified in the country, which aggravated its cultural and, as a result, civilizational isolation. The people managed to defend their independence, but as a result of their victory, autocracy and serfdom were revived in Russia. However, most likely, there was no other way to save and preserve Russian civilization in those extreme conditions.

20. Major events during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (salt riot, copper riot, dispute between the tsar and the patriarch, urban uprisings, Stepan Razin's riot).

1646 - Salt riot in Moscow, the population of the city attacked the royal retinue. Muscovites wanted to be given two clerks and the boyar Morozov, who was the tsar's tutor. He managed to hide from the angry people, and Muscovites staged lynching over the clerks Trakhaniotov and Pleshcheev. This influenced the government, and the salt tax was canceled, while at the same time increasing the collection of direct taxes. Soon the situation began to escalate again, the state demanded more money from the population. They began to take a tax not on land, but on yards, they took income tax several times, they issued copper coins that cost like silver ones.

1648 - Publication of a decree on the indefinite search for fugitive peasants. Return to Russia of Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities.

1649 - Compilation of the "Code" (a set of Russian laws).

1654 - Pereyaslav Council. Reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia.

1654-1667 - War with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the annexation of the Left-Bank Ukraine, ending with the Andrusovo truce (January 30, 1667).

1656-1658 - War with Sweden, ending with the Truce of Valiesar (December 20, 1658) for three years.

1658 - Start of construction of new cities in Siberia (Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, Selenginsk).

1662 - Copper riot in Moscow. By that time, prices had risen sharply again, and many refused to trust copper coins and demanded only silver. The rebellion was suppressed, but the minting of coins was stopped.

1662-1666 - Establishment of a regular infantry with the involvement of more than a hundred foreign colonels. 1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising.

1670-1671 - The rebellion led by Stenka Razin, which ended with his execution. The actions of Razin and his followers arouse sympathy and a desire among the people to support them, and over time they attract them so thousands of ordinary people, peasants and townspeople go over to the side of Razin and help the movement achieve its goal. Stepan Razin creates "charming letters" - appeals that entail a simple people, weighed down by constant, unfair taxes. The construction of the first Russian ships in the village of Dedilov on the Oka River.

21. Culture of Russia in the ΧVΙΙ century.

XV11 century A peculiar period in the history of Russian culture. It completes the development of culture over the previous centuries. This transition of culture in the 15th century, in turn, led to very interesting trends in it. Many genres continue to exist, but new content is ripening inside them, exploding them from the inside. There are processes of secularization, secularization of culture, its humanization. Increased interest in the person, his life. All this breaks out of the narrow framework of the medieval canon, sometimes creating crisis phenomena, and sometimes leading to an unprecedented upswing of the spirit, and now stunning our imagination. This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. Church music becomes more festive. “Kants” appear - musical works that were performed outside the church. In Russian architecture of the XV11th century. It also occupies a special place. With great force, the desire to abandon the age-old canons, the “secularization” of art, manifested itself. Wooden architecture played an important role in the development of architecture in general. Even at the end of the fifteenth century. An order of stone affairs arose, concentrating the best forces in this area. The methods of stone architecture were improved, the volumes of buildings became much more complicated. Various aisles and outbuildings adjoin the main array, covered porches-galleries, etc. are becoming widespread. Masters began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, which is why the facades of buildings acquire an unusually elegant, colorful look. The first collections of proverbs appear, many of which have survived to this day. Legends, songs and tales are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who, endowed with heroic traits, finds himself in the same circle with epic heroes. Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections containing various materials. The growth of written office work led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize paper production in Russia. Along with hand-written books, printed books became more and more widespread. The printing house was actively working, which also produced educational literature (for example, “Grammar” by Melety Smotrytsky). Chronicles remained one of the main monuments of socio-political thought and literature. At this time, the patriarchal vaults were created, Belsky, Mazury chroniclers, vaults of 1652, 1686. and many other monuments of chronicle writing. Along with all-Russian, provincial, local, family and even family annalistic compositions appear. The focus of attention of writers of that time increasingly turned out to be questions of economic life and political problems.

22. The beginning of the reign of Peter Ι. Power struggle.

From 1682 to 1696 the Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter (1672-1725) and Ivan (1666-1696). Since they were minors, their sister Princess Sophia (1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689, was the ruler. During this period, the role of Prince V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), the favorite of the princess, intensified.

In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight against the old obsolete boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt with the help of archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system, the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow patriarch and even some archery regiments. Peter kept the throne, punished the rebellious archers, disbanded the archery army, Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.

In 1696 Ivan V died, Peter became the sovereign ruler. The first task of Peter was to continue the struggle for the Crimea. He directed his actions to the capture of Azov - a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and the lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter set about building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, doubling the land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To secure the Sea of ​​Azov, he built the fortress of Taganrog. In 1697, he went with the "Great Embassy" to Europe, combining a diplomatic mission with a variety of educational tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and crafts.

23. Northern war. Main battles.

1. Having enlisted the support of a number of European powers, Peter I declared war on Sweden in 1700, and the Great Northern War (1700–1721) began.

2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first failures, however, did not break Peter, he energetically set about creating a regular army.

3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. New victories followed - the capture of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress, which received the new name Shlisselburg.

4. In 1703, Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. Here later he moved the capital of Russia. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva, the fortress of Ivan-Gorod.

5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the Battle of Poltava, victorious for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.

6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Treaty of Nishtad.

Year and place of the battle

Result

1703 Spring-Fall of Nyenschantz

1704 - Capture of the cities of Yam, Koporye, Derpt, Narva

1710 - Capture of Riga, Revel, Vyborg, Kexholm

1714 - Capture of the Åland Islands, landing on the coast of Sweden

24. The main reforms of Peter Ι.

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) are the maximum strengthening of the power of the tsar, the growth of the military power of the country, the territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

military reform. A regular army was created with the help of conscription, new charters were introduced, a fleet was built, equipment in the Western style.

Public Administration Reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegiums. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. The decree of succession allows the king to appoint anyone heir to the throne. The capital in 1712 was transferred to St. Petersburg. In 1721, Peter took the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was liquidated, the church began to be controlled by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to state salaries. No15

Changes in the economy. Poll tax introduced. Created up to 180 manufactories. State monopolies for various goods have been introduced. Canals and roads are being built.

social reforms. The decree on single inheritance (1714) equated estates with estates and forbade them to be divided during inheritance. Passports are introduced for peasants. Serfs and serfs are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first newspaper Vedomosti, a museum (Kunstkamera), the Academy of Sciences were created. The nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles is introduced, beard shaving, smoking, assemblies.

Results. Absolutism is finally formed. The military power of Russia is growing. The antagonism between the tops and the bottoms is aggravated. Serfdom begins to acquire slave forms. The upper class merged into one nobility.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled, in 1705-1706. there was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - the uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.

25. The era of palace coups in the ΧVΙΙΙ c.

January 28, 1725 Peter 1 died. The question arose about the heir. According to the decree on succession to the throne (1722), the emperor must himself appoint an heir. However, he did not have time to do so. The contenders for the throne were Peter's widow - Ekaterina Alekseevna and his grandson Peter Alekseevich. Menshikov, with the help of the guards regiments, elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne. Since she did not show state abilities, Menshikov actually became the ruler of the country. For better governance of the state, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich - the husband of the eldest daughter of Peter I Anna . The majority of the Supreme Privy Council were the closest advisers to Peter 1, only Prince D. M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility. An attempt by P. A. Tolstoy to oppose A. D. Menshikov led to his exile and death on Solovki. This election opens the era of palace coups. The palace coup is a change of power, carried out by a narrow circle of members of the court groups and the hands of the guards regiments. In May 1727 Catherine 1 died. Shortly before her death, she chose the 12-year-old Tsarevich Peter, the son of the murdered Tsarevich Alexei, as her successor. After the death of Catherine, as during her lifetime, the country was actually ruled by Menshikov, by decree of the emperor he appointed himself generalissimo. Menshikov hoped to marry his daughter Maria to Peter 11. But during Menshikov's illness, the princes Dolgorukovs and Vice-Chancellor Osterman restored Peter against the most illustrious prince. Menshikov was arrested, deposed by decision of the Upper Privy Council, and exiled with his family to the Siberian city of Berezov, where he died 2 years later. The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all the affairs were handled by the four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyns, as well as the master of intrigue A. I. Osterman. Dolgoruky came to the fore. Sixteen-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the closest friend of the king in dog hunting and his other entertainments. Ivan's sister - Catherine became the "sovereign's bride". The nobles who gathered in Moscow for the coronation and wedding, as well as the court that moved to the old capital, witnessed the illness and death of Peter II in the fifteenth year of his life. Peter's death fell just on the day of the announced wedding. The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line. The issue of a new emperor was to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

In the Privy Council, disputes about the candidacy of the ruler of Russia immediately began. It was decided to invite the niece of Peter 1 (daughter of his brother Ivan) - Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). case"). 10 thousand people passed through the Secret Chancellery.

The absolutist state met the demands of the nobles to expand their rights and privileges. So, under Anna Ioannovna, the distribution of land to the nobles resumed. In 1731, the single inheritance introduced by the Petrine decree of 1714 was abolished, the estates were recognized as the full property of the nobility. Two new guards regiments were created - Izmailovsky and Horse Guards, where a significant part of the officers were foreigners. From the 30s of the XVIII century. minors of the nobility were allowed to be enlisted in the guards regiments, trained at home and, after the exam, promoted to officers. In 1732, the land gentry cadet corps was opened to train the nobility. This was followed by the opening of the Naval, Artillery, Page Corps. Since 1736, the term of service for the nobles was limited to 25 years. In the autumn of 1740. Anna Ivanovna fell ill and died in October. But, dying, she took care of the heir: the two-month-old son of Anna Leopoldovna's niece, Ivan 1V Antonovich, was appointed to him, and Biron became regent under him. Biron ruled for only 22 days. He was overthrown by Minich, and Anna Leopoldovna became regent. November 1741. Guards-conspirators, outraged by the dominance of the Germans, enthroned the daughter of Peter 1 - Ekaterina Petrovna (1741-1761). Elizabeth Petrovna proclaimed the goal of her reign to return to the order of her father, Peter the Great. The Senate, the Berg and Manufacture Colleges, and the Chief Magistrate were restored in their rights. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755, January 25) - the first in Russia. The conference at the royal court took the place of the abolished Cabinet of Ministers. The activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. To support the nobility, the Noble Land Bank was established. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III (1761-1762) became Emperor of Russia. The absurd, unbalanced Peter III did not like the Russians, but he idolized Frederick II. An admirer of the Prussian drill, Peter III said that he preferred to be a colonel in the Prussian army than an emperor in Russia. This "adult child" did not develop as a mature person, he spent most of his time in revelry, adored watch parades. His favorite pastime was playing with soldiers.

The six-month reign of Peter III is striking in the abundance of adopted state acts. During this time, 192 decrees were issued. The most important of them was the Manifesto on granting freedom and liberties to the Russian nobility of February 18, 1762. The Manifesto exempted the nobles from compulsory state and military service. A nobleman could leave the service at any time, except for war. It was allowed to travel abroad and even enter a foreign service, give children home schooling. On June 28, 1762, guards officers led by the Orlov brothers and Peter III's wife Ekaterina staged a palace coup. The Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards enthusiastically supported the new ruler, who was proclaimed autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession of Catherine II to the throne was read in the Winter Palace. She was sworn in by the Senate and the Synod. The next day, Peter III signed the abdication. A few days later he died (apparently, he was killed by Alexei Orlov and the guards.

26. "Enlightened absolutism" Catherine II.

It is known that the reign of Catherine coincided with the era of enlightenment. One way or another, the ideology of the enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and others influenced the policy of European monarchs. Catherine did not escape such influence. Possessing a lively mind and developed thinking, she was familiar with the works of the Enlighteners and their views on the state structure and administration. Already as a Russian empress, she corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, discussing with them the problems of organizing power and the role of a monk in managing society. We must not forget that the empress had to implement her views, gleaned from the enlighteners, in a huge autocratic state based on the political and economic domination of the nobility, who did not tolerate infringement of their interests. It was not easy to find the resultant between the goals of power and the privileged class. Nevertheless, the events of the first years of Catherine's reign are traditionally associated with the policy of enlightened absolutism. In addition to the distribution of state lands and peasants already familiar to the aristocracy as a reward to the participants in the palace coup, Catherine carried out a number of transformations that helped strengthen her power. So, she abolished the special, Hetman's rule in Ukraine, reformed the Senate, in which she saw a danger to her autocratic

authorities. In order to avoid the possibility of interference in the competence of the supreme power and to streamline its work, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, thereby making it a purely administrative body, deprived of legislative rights. 4 St. Petersburg and 2 Moscow departments of the Senate became independent institutions with their own range of affairs and their own office, which destroyed the unity of the Senate and weakened it. Contrary to the personal desire of the empress to abandon all the legislative acts adopted by Peter 111, she had to confirm some of them, and above all: Decree on the abolition of the Secret Investigation Office; decree on the transfer to the state. management of monastic and church lands (secularization); prohibition to buy peasants to manufactories. But the most remarkable event of the beginning of the Catherine era, of course, was the work of the Legislative Commission. Even in her youth, having studied the views of European philosophers, and again returning to this occupation as an empress, Catherine came to the conclusion that order and stability in the state, the well-being of subjects can be ensured by achieving compliance with laws. Therefore, she saw her immediate task in creating a new, more advanced system of legislation to replace the archaic Council Code of 1649. Another interesting initiative of Catherine 11 was the creation in 1765. Free Economic Society, which was supposed to promote rational ways of doing business. For this, various works on agronomy, breeding, animal husbandry, etc., began to be published.

27. Diplomacy and wars of Catherine's time.

The reign of Catherine 11 occupies a special place in the history of Russian diplomacy. For the first time after the era of Peter the Great, the outstanding victories of the Russian army were backed up by no less brilliant successes of diplomats. Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations began in 1769 and were conducted on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A. G. Orlov and admirals G. A. Spiridov and I. S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgorukov captured the Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. The troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way for the main forces led by P. A. Rumyantsev to Istanbul. Turkey was forced to ask for peace. Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace 1774. Determined for decades the program of Russian foreign policy in the Black Sea-Balkan direction, the effective mediating role of Russia during the Teshensky Congress of 1779, the proclamation in 1780. The principle of armed naval neutrality, which became a serious contribution of Russia and the strengthening of the legal basis of international relations, the annexation of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, the signing of the Treaty of Geogiev with Eastern Georgia in 1783, the inclusion of Lithuania into the Russian state, the reunification of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine with it. This is not a complete list of the accomplishments of the Catherine era. The focus on non-state interests was organically combined in the foreign policy activities of Catherine the 11th with the diplomatic practice of the era of late absolutism with her desire to “round the borders”, weaken her neighbors. “Rounding the borders”, conducting a multi-vector territorial expansion, Catherine built an empire, guided by the political and moral concepts of her time. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine firmly took the leadership of foreign policy into her own hands and did not release it until the end of her days. As the main feature of Catherine's foreign policy, one should single out the correspondence of the foreign policy pursued by the Empress to the long-term state interests of Russia. Pragmatism, flexibility, ability to use circumstances.

28. Pugachev rebellion 1773-1775

In 1773 In the Yaik Cossack army, Emelyan Pugachev proclaimed himself Peter 111 Fedorovich. Pugachev was a Don Cossack. He called for the dethronement of the noble empress Catherine 11, who occupied him by deceit. E. Pugachev found support in Yaik. The performance began on September 17, 1773. He approached Orenburg and laid siege to it. The number of rebels reached 30 thousand. Human. March 22, 1773 There was a battle

with the tsarist troops, the Pugachevites were defeated. Pugachev issued a manifesto in which he called for the destruction of the nobles and tsarist officials and the release of the peasants from serfdom. To replenish his army, he rushed to the south, where he was joined by the Don and Yaik Cossacks, barge haulers. With them, he approached Tsaritsyn, but he could not take possession of the city. Soon he was defeated by the government army. September 12, 1774 He was captured and handed over to the Russians. January 10, 1775 Pugachev and his closest associates were executed.

29. The uprising of the highlanders of the North Caucasus under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma).

On March 8, 1785, the Chechen religious and political figure Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma) spoke in the village of Aldy with a sermon of ghazavat (holy war) against the Russian army in the Caucasus. In June 1785, the army of Sheikh Mansur defeated the Russian punitive detachment of Colonel Pieri, and in July-August besieged the fortress of Kizlyar. By autumn, the uprising had spread to the territory of Kabarda and Dagestan. In November 1785, Mansur was defeated in Kabarda, and in January 1787, a detachment of Colonel Retinder suppressed an uprising in Chechnya. In the summer, Sheikh Mansur, who had gone beyond the Kuban, led an uprising of the Trans-Kuban Circassians and Nogais, which was suppressed in October of the same year, and in 1788-1789 he led unrest among the Trans-Volga Kirghiz-Kaisaks. In June 1791, Mansur actually led the defense of the Turkish fortress of Anapa. After the capture of Anapa by Russian troops on June 21, 1791, Sheikh Mansur was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress (he died on April 13, 1794 in custody). Despite the suppression of the uprising of Sheikh Mansur, the Russian administration of the Caucasus was actually unable to create its own governing bodies on the territory of Chechnya.

30. The reign of Paul Ι. His domestic and foreign policy.

Domestic politics.

Paul began his reign with a change in all the orders of Catherine's government. During his coronation, Paul announced a series of decrees. In particular, Paul established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne could only be inherited through the male line; after the death of the emperor, he passed to the eldest son or the next eldest brother, if there were no children. A woman could take the throne only when the male line was suppressed. With this etimukaz, Paul excluded palace coups, when emperors were overthrown and erected by the power of the guard, the reason for which was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne (which, however, did not prevent the palace coup on March 12, 1801, during which he himself was killed). Also, in accordance with this decree, a woman could not occupy the Russian throne, which excluded the possibility of the appearance of temporary workers (who accompanied the empresses in the 18th century) or a repetition of a situation similar to the one when Catherine II did not transfer the throne to Paul after he came of age. Pavel restored the system of collegiums, attempts were made to stabilize the financial situation of the country (including the famous action of melting down the palace sets of coins). Manifesto on a three-day corvee forbade the landlords to send corvee on Sundays, holidays, and more than three days a week (the decree was almost never implemented locally). Significantly narrowed the rights of the nobility in comparison with those that were granted by Catherine II, and the procedures established in Gatchina were transferred to the entire Russian army. Fearing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia, Paul I forbade young people to go abroad to study, the import of books, including notes, was completely banned, and private printing houses were closed. The regulation of life reached the point that the time was set when it was supposed to put out the fires in the houses. By special decrees, some words of the Russian language were withdrawn from official use and replaced by others. So, among the confiscated were the words “citizen” and “fatherland” with a political connotation (replaced by “philistine” and “state”, respectively), but a number of Paul’s linguistic decrees were not so transparent - for example, the word “detachment” was changed to “detashment” or "command", "execute" to "execute", and "doctor" to "healer".

Foreign policy.

Paul's foreign policy was inconsistent. In 1798, Russia entered into an anti-French coalition with Great Britain, Austria, Turkey, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. At the insistence of the allies, the disgraced A.V. Suvorov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Austrian troops were also transferred to his jurisdiction. Under the leadership of Suvorov, Northern Italy was liberated from French rule. In September 1799, the Russian army made the famous crossing of the Alps by Suvorov. However, already in October of the same year, Russia broke off the alliance with Austria due to the failure of the Austrians to fulfill their allied obligations, and Russian troops were withdrawn from Europe.

31. Culture of Russia in the ΧVΙΙΙ century.

In the 18th century, the pace of cultural development accelerated, which is associated with economic success. The leading trend was the secular trend in art, which replaced the traditionalist culture of previous centuries, permeated with a religious worldview. The nature of education is changing, it is also becoming mostly secular. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow. From the senior classes of this school, transferred to St. Petersburg, later, in 1715, the Naval Academy was created. Then the Artillery, Engineering, Medical schools, the School of clerical servants, and mining schools were opened. In 1708, a civil printing type, Arabic numerals, was introduced, which made it easier to learn. But education as a whole remained class-based, since it did not become universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. An outstanding event was the creation in 1755 of the Moscow University on the initiative and project of M. V. Lomonosov and the opening in 1757 of the Academy of Arts. Expanded geographical knowledge about the country. The interior regions of Siberia, the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Arctic Ocean, and Central Asia were surveyed. In the middle of the century, the geographer I.K. Kirillov published the first Atlas of Russia. V.N. Tatishchev and M.V.

Lomonosov laid the foundation for Russian historical science. Outstanding scientists of that time worked in Russia: mathematician L. Euler, founder of hydrodynamics D. Bernoulli, naturalist K. Wolf, historian A. Schlozer. Later, a cohort of Russian scientists appeared - astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S.P. Krasheninnikov and I.I. Lepekhin, physicist G.V. Richman. Russian literature was enriched with their works by writers, poets and publicists A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, N.I. Novikov, later A.N. Radishchev, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, N.M. Karamzin and others.

32. Alexander Ι. Domestic and foreign policy.

Alexander I canceled all the innovations of Paul I: he restored the "charter letters" to the nobility and cities, freed the nobles and clergy from corporal punishment, declared an amnesty for all those who had fled abroad, returned up to 12 thousand disgraced and repressed from exile, abolished the Secret Expedition, which was engaged in detecting and reprisal.

After 1801, it was forbidden to publish advertisements for the sale of serfs without land, but it was allowed to carry out such a sale. In 1803, a decree was issued on free cultivators, which allowed the peasants to redeem themselves at will by agreement with the landowners. The censorship charter of 1804 was the most liberal in the 19th century. in Russia. In 1803 - 1804, a reform of public education was carried out: representatives of all classes could study, the continuity of curricula was introduced, and new high fur boots and privileged lyceums were opened - Demidov (in Yaroslavl) and Tsarskoye Selo. State bodies were transformed. management. Through the efforts of M.M. Speransky, the old Petrine collegiums were replaced by ministries. In 1811, the law strictly demarcated the rights and duties of the Senate, the Committee of Ministers, and the State. advice. The new state order management lasted with minor changes until 1917. In 1805 - 1807, Alexander I took part in coalitions against Napoleon, was defeated at Austerlitz (1805) and was forced to conclude the Tilsit Peace Treaty, which was extremely unpopular in Russia (1807). But successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09) strengthened Russia's international position. Were attached Vost. Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812) and Azerbaijan (1813), Duchy of Warsaw (1815). Since 1810, the rearmament of the Russian. armies, the construction of fortresses, but with the archaic system of recruiting and serfdom, this could not be completed. Having granted a liberal constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, he promised in 1818 that this order would be extended to other lands "when they reach the proper maturity." In 1816 - 1819 a peasant reform was carried out in the Baltic states. Secret projects were prepared to abolish serfdom in Russia, but, faced with stiff opposition from the nobles, Alexander I retreated. Since 1816, military settlements have been established, and the role of Alexander I in their creation is no less significant than A.A. Arakcheev. Since 1814, the tsar became interested in mysticism, bringing Archimandrite Photius closer to him.

In 1822, Alexander I issued a rescript on the prohibition of secret societies and Masonic lodges, and in 1821 - 1823 introduced an extensive network of secret police in the guards and the army. In 1825, he received reliable information about a conspiracy against him in the army, went south, wanting to visit military settlements, but caught a bad cold on the way from Balaklava to St. George's Monastery. The unexpected death of Alexander I, a healthy and still young man, gave rise to numerous legends.

33. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army (1812-1815)

Causes and nature of the war. The emergence of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England retained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially annoyed by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops, created military depots there. The threat of invasion loomed over the borders of Russia. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

Napoleon became the aggressor. He began hostilities and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people, the war became liberation and Patriotic, since not only the cadre army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.

The ratio of forces. Preparing for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte.

Active preparations for the war, which Russia has been conducting since 1810, have brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others.

However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while there were about 210 thousand Russian people on the western border, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander in order to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan rested on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from connecting and decide the outcome of the war in one or more border battles. The balance of forces forced the Russian command at first to choose an active defense strategy. As shown by the move

war, it was the most correct decision.

Stages of the war. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deep into Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - the counter-offensive of the Russian army with the aim of completely driving the enemy out of Russia.

The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and forced a march into Russia.

The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, evading the general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with separate units of the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.

The two main tasks faced by the Russian troops were to eliminate disunity (not to allow themselves to be defeated one by one) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first problem was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies joined near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M. I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant the solution of the second problem. M. I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on 17 August. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a pitched battle. It was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.

Battle of Borodino. M. I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and, in accordance with this, deployed his troops. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered with artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. An earth mound was poured in the center, where the artillery and troops of General N. N. Raevsky were located. The army of M. B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, surround it and finally defeat it.

The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.

Early on the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The battle for flushes continued until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. Bagration was seriously wounded. (A few days later he died from his wounds.) Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while that of Napoleon's was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not seek a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command was held in the village of Fili. M. I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

M. I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutinsky march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and, in the area of ​​Krasnaya Pakhra, reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the capture by the French of the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M. I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon's army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested, replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented event in history), it blazed in the flames of fires. It had no food or other supplies. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. all peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander I.

On October 7, the French left Moscow. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the city of Maloyaroslavets. Again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had devastated.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army was like a rout. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon's entry into Russia. Looting and looting French. Russian soldiers provoked resistance from the locals. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders in their native land. The history includes the names of ordinary people (G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina), who organized partisan detachments. "Flying detachments" of soldiers of the regular army, led by regular officers (A. S. Figner, D. V. Davydov, A. N. Seslavin, and others) were also sent to the rear of the French.

At the final stage of the war, M. I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy's forces were dwindling every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and northwest. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near Krasny in early November, when more than half of the 50 thousand people of the retreating army were taken prisoner or fell in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops on November 14-17 across the Berezina River. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. The order of M. I. Kutuzov on the army of December 21 and the Tsar's Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War. But Napoleon still held almost the whole of Europe in obedience. To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations in Europe. In January 1813, Russian troops entered Prussia. Austria, England, Sweden joined Russia. In October 1813, a battle took place near Leipzig - the “battle of the peoples”. Napoleon was defeated. Paris fell in March 1814. In 1814-1815. The Vienna Congress of European States took place, Norton decided the question of the post-war structure of Europe. By decision of the congress, the Polish kingdom became part of the Russian Empire. In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the formation of a quadruple alliance. Victory in the Patriotic War strengthened Russia's international position as a strong European power.

THE FIRST MILITARY OF 1611 is a military and political formation created with the aim of liberating Moscow from the Polish-Lithuanian troops, and further fighting them.

Tra-di-tion of the name-no-va-niya of the os-bo-dating militias (see also the Second militia of 1611-1612) conditions, restoration goes to S.M. So-catch-e-woo and more than once-de-la-et-sya next to the house is-after-to-va-te-lei: lo-kal-nye good-ro-free-com-one-not -niya in-in-sky people, dei-st-in-vav-shie in co-hundred-ve of various state-po-ly-tich. la-ge-ray in the Time of Troubles, from the West and earlier - in 1604-1606 and especially at the end of 1608 - 1609.

For-mi-ro-va-nie of the first militia in Jan-va-re - on-cha-le March 1611, in a non-small step-pe-no sti-hy-noe, became from -ve-tom on a sharp out-of-me-non-situation in the Russian state. From the end of August 1610, there were two processes going on par-ral-lel-but. On the one hand, pro-is-ho-di-lo in more-shin-st-ve cases of good-ro-free-noe at-not-se-nie at-sya- gi ko-ro-le-vi-chu Vla-di-sla-vu (future Polish king Vla-di-glory IV) as a Russian tsar-ryu on os-no-va-nii do-go-vo -ra dated August 17 (27), 1610, under-pi-san-no-go get-ma-nom S. Zhol-kevsky with “Se-mi-bo-yar-schi-noy”, you-stu -deceased on behalf of "all ranks" of the Russian state. The agreement should have been ut-ver-zhde-but on the re-go-in-rachs of the Russian "ve-li-ki" words and the Polish co-ro-la and pre-la-ha-lo, in particular, the re-move of ko-ro-le-vi-cha to the right-of-glory, his quickest arrival in Russia, withdrawal from the country of the ko-ro-left from-rows. On the other hand, the father of Vla-di-slav-va, the Polish king Si-giz-mund III, sought to establish personal power in the Russian state. He did not intend to recognize the agreement either as a whole, or from his separate articles (with the exception of the ty about the selection of a son by the Russian tsar), considered it necessary to pro-ve-de-nie in a second pri-sya-gi one-but-time-men-but on his name and in the name of Vla-di-sla-va. To fight against the forces of False Dmitry II and establish control over the faiths of False Dmitry II of the city-ro-da-mi-ko- ro-lu would-la not-ob-ho-di-ma free from other military actions-st-viy arm-miya, keep-to-keep someone-ruyu he is on-me-re -val-Xia on the medium-st-va from the Russian treasury. From-here-yes you-te-ka-lo to-stand-chi-voe tre-bo-va-nie Si-giz-mun-da III about ka-pi-tu-la-tion gar-ni-zo- on Smo-len-ska (with pri-not-se-ni-em pri-sya-gi only in his name). Ka-pi-tu-la-tion and further fate Smo-len-ska became on the ini-tsia-ti-ve of the Polish se-na-to-ditch from November 1610, practiced ti-che-ski is the only-st-ven-noy te-mine in pe-re-go-vo-ra with the Russian "ve-li-kim in salt-st-vom." “Se-mi-bo-yar-shchi-na” under-der-ji-va-la in the main points on-zi-tsu Si-giz-mun-da III in their letters to by slam and to Smolensk (November 1610 - January 1611). She actually recognized the pre-ro-ha-ti-you of the supreme authority for governing the country (August before -the thief did not give a shaft for this-th right-in-os-no-va-ny).

Separate appointments for various posts (including in pri-ka-zy) in Mo-sk-ve on behalf of ko-ro-la began from the end of August 1610 years, mas-co-vye - from se-re-di-ny september-rya. On-chi-naya from September 1610, Si-giz-mund III began to osu-sche-st-in-lyat many-numbered p-s-lo-va-niya in-places and yes, here- a rank without re-al-no-go accounting for layers-living-shih-sya in a land-of-the-she-ny in one county or another. At the end of the year, in the Ko-ro-Left headquarters near Smo-Len-sk, on-know-cha-whether for order-state duties is already middle and bottom -th-levels, both in a hundred-person and in a place (then, after-after-to-wa-whether separate po-lo-va-nia in the city-ro- to-vye-vo-vo-dy of the Polish and Lithuanian ways-ty-whose).

Under the pretext of fighting against the ot-ry-da-mi False Dmitry II S. Zhol-kevsky on the ini-tsia-ti-ve “Se-mi-bo-yar-schi-ny "introduced the ko-ro-lev-sky gar-ni-zon into Mo-sk-va on the night of September 21 (October 1), 1610 (in ok-tyab-re-but-yab-re took the key -vye-zi-tion in the Kremlin, Ki-tai-go-ro-de and Bel-scrap go-ro-de). The decision of “Se-mi-bo-yar-schi-ny” and the activity of the call from the se-re-di-ny no-yab-rya - December 1610, control whether-ro-wa-lissed by the commanding king-ro-left gar-ni-zo-nom A.K. Gon-sev-skim and sent-slan-ny-mi Si-giz-mun-dom III of his becoming-len-ni-ka-mi. Kill the False Dmitry II on December 11 (21), 1610, causing a crisis in the troops of the self-title and on the territories under his control ri-to-ri-yah, po-zvo-li-lo Si-giz-mun-du III uk-re-drink and there your influence.

In-for-ma-tion about na-me-re-ni-yah and dey-st-vi-yah of the Polish co-ro-la in-stu-pa-la in the cities of the Russian state as from Mo- sk-you, and from “ve-whether-to-go in-sol-st-va” from near Smolensk (in December 1610, the eye-for-elk fak-ti-che-ski under the are- stoma).

Po-dav-le-resurrection in Mo-sk-ve prin-qi-pi-al-but from me-ni-lo lo-zung-gi and po-lytic program-mu first militia. In the April cross-country-ce-lo-val-nyh gra-mo-tah, races-sy-lav-shih-sya on behalf of P.P. La-pu-no-va in the city-ro-dames, sfor-mu-li-ro-va-ny refrain from bringing in-not-se-niya with-sya-gi and Si-giz-mun-du III , and ko-ro-le-vi-chu Vla-di-slav-vu, ban on the eye-for-them any help, any service, tre-bo-va - armed struggle with the goal of expelling the Russian state from the territory of the Russian state (pre-zh-de everything from Mo-sk-you and from under Smol-len-ska) all military for-mi-ro-va-nia Re-chi Po-spo-li-toy. In the ideo-logical plan, this is a track-and-wa-elk as a re-stand-new-le-nie su-ve-re-ni-te-ta royal power and not-for-vi -si-mo-sti of the Russian state, as the preservation of the official status of the Russian right-of-glorious church. About-su-zh-de-niye in-pro-owls about no-si-te-le of the supreme power, deadlines, possible can-di-da-tah and us- lo-vi-yah from-bra-niya but-in-go mo-nar-ha from-kla-dy-va-moose.

Rising in Moscow and the arrival of the first militia to the hundred of sti-mu-li-ro-va-li you-stu-p-le-niya and in other regions nah. So, in ap-re-le, there was a riot of Russian noblemen from the western counties (Smo-len-sko-go, Do-ro-go-buzh-sko-go, Bel -sko-go, To-ro-pets-ko-go, Vya-zem-sko-go, etc.) led by I.N. Sal-you-ko-vym (earlier active side-ron-no-one-ko-ro-la), on-right-len-ny Si-giz-mun-dome III with not-pain- shim from-near-the-house of the Lithuanian ways-ti-chey on the way for the uk-re-p-le-niya of the ko-ro-lev-sky gar-ni-zo-nov along the road to Mo -sk-ve. Already in na-cha-le, in-ho-yes, but-whose way-ti-chi would you kill, and Sal-you-kov letters-men-but in-tre-bo-val from ko-ro- for you-in-yes his troops from the Russian state. This step-le-nie was in many ways connected with mas-so-you-mi con-fi-ska-tion-mi in-place and ra-zo-rit. re-press-si-mi against the Smolensk nobles, un-ver-nuv-shi-mi-sya by the spring of 1611. Soon, Sal-you-kov, together with other persons, undertook to torture the formation of an army in Bryansk for military operations against ko-ro-left troops near Smolensk. As a result, most of the nobles of the western counties appeared to be in the first militia near Moscow by the end of June.

Prak-ti-che-ski one-but-time-men-but with the movement of the first militia to Mo-sk-ve, no later than cha-la March 1611; Sal-you-ko-va, fak-ti-che-ski is-full-nyav-she-th function of the 1st military-vo-da (arrived in the city in early October 1610; For example, in se-re-di-not March, the 1st war-in-yes New-go-ro-yes, Prince I.N. Odo-ev-sky Bol-shoi and new-go-rod-tsy in-both-scha-li on behalf of the “New-go-rod-go-su-dar-st-va” military help the first militia. Rat-ni-ki from-pra-vi-lied from Nov-go-ro-da to Mo-sk-ve on April 21 (May 1), 1611, but it is unlikely to the camps of the first militia, the New-go-rod-sky authorities are not the first-you-mi in the country to recognize in se-re-di-not ap-re-la not-for-con-us-mi all ze-mel-nye-s-lo-va-niya on behalf of Vla-di-slav-va, and pre-zh-de all-time-yes-chi in the estate of the palace lands. At the beginning of May, in Novy-go-rod, there would have been half-a-wee before-hundreds of the first militia - so-nickname V.I. Bu-tur-lin (from ok-ru-zhe-niya La-pu-no-va), Prince S.G. Zve-ni-go-rod-sky and others.

In May 1611, the formation of the military and state administration in the first militia continued.

Sooner than all, according to the order of “Co-ve-ta of the whole earth,” P.P. La-pu-nov (played the leading role), as well as Tu-shin-sky battles-re Prince D.T. Tru-bets-koy and I.M. Za-ruts-cue; no later than May 22 (June 1), 1611, all the ra-ditious letters began to be issued on behalf of these persons. There was a deadline for arrival [no later than May 25 (June 4)] to serve in the first militia of the nobles and children of the boyar-skys from under-con- troll-nyh county-dov. For example, but then, when was there a decision about the restoration of the state-administrative activity in the first militia of the state-administrative activity of the pri-ka-call (already in se-re-di-not May - ju-not action-st-in-shaft Po-me-st-order and one of the orders-call-four-vert-tey). This is the way of the fact that in the course and after the resurrection in Moscow, the ranks of the first militia were more than in the lo-vi-noy of the Moscow deacons and the pain-shin-st-vom in the dea-sneezes. In the capacity of the official seal of the first militia from March to the end of July-la 1611, the personal seal of La-pu-no-was used va. In the first militia, along with half-ka-mi (by the end of June there were at least five of them), with a hundred-yav-shi-mi from the nobles, archers, servants, ka-za-kov, pro-du-whether su-shche-st-vo-vat separate from-rows of county children of bo-yar-skys, “ serving ta-tars, ”as well as one hundred ka-za-kov led by ata-ma-na-mi. By June-nu-July-lu 1611, the first militia on-count-you-va-lo, for example, 12-14 thousand warriors with strong, but different, niv-shim-xia in terms of quality -woo-ru-the same-no-em, not-one-on-your-military experience and so-s-st-ven-but different-whether-chav-shi-mi-sya or- ha-ni-rational and dis-qi-p-li-nar-ny-mi ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ka-mi. The artillery park of the first militia was og-ra-ni-chen and practically did not have siege weapons of large ka-lib-ditches.

From June 1611, the strategic situation began to change not in favor of the first militia. On June 3 (13), 1611, the army of Si-giz-mun-da III took Smolensk. New-re-re-go-in-ry 15-16 (25-26) June before-hundred-vi-te-lei sk-ve 7(17) June Ya.P. Sa-pe-goy (on-lu-chil fi-nan-so-vye gar-ran-tii from the commander of the ko-ro-lev-gar-ni-zo-nom in Mo-sk-ve A.K . Gon-sev-sko-go) about-va-li-lis. Sa-pe-ga window-cha-tel-but re-went one hundred-ro-well ko-ro-la (in his day-st-vie “ko-lo” of his cor-pu-sa at -nya-lo decision about this back in May 1611) and on June 23 (July 3) began active actions against the first militia. In battles with a foreign-earth gar-ni-zo-nom in Mo-sk-ve and sa-pe-zhin-tsa-mi from the ranks of the first militia, ut-ra-ti-li part of nya-tyh ra-her in-zi-tsy.

At the same time, from the beginning of June, there were in-ten-siv-nye-re-go-in-ry of new-go-rod-vo-vo-vods and pre-sta- vi-te-ley co-words with the active participation of V.I. Bu-tour-li-na with the commander of the Swedish corps Ya.P. De la garde; Bu-tur-lin mentioned-my-null about the possibility of marrying by the Russian tsar one of the two Swedish princes, sons of Carl IX - Gus-ta -va Adol-fa or Kar-la Phi-lip-pa. The Swedes pre-lo-ji-whether to take Gus-ta-va Adol-fa, to conclude the Russian-Swedish military alliance against Re-chi Po-spo-li-toy and to provide military assistance in the fight against ko-ro-lev-ski-mi howl-ska-mi, etc. After a few days about-su-zh-de-ny in “Co-ve-those of the whole earth” of the Swedish pre-lo-s-s-stand-elk from the marriage of Gus-ta-va Adol-fa by the Russian tsar. The official text of the pri-go-vo-ra “So-ve-ta ...”, for-ve-ren-ny under-pi-s-mi and pe-cha-cha-mi teaching-st-ni-kov for-se -da-nia, was accepted on June 22 (July 2) or June 23 (July 3) (on this day in Nov-go-rod, it was-la on-right-le-on-gra-mo-ta from the first militia and co-pia with-go-in-ra).

Ost-paradise not-grab-ka ma-te-ri-al-no-go obes-pe-che-niya rat-nik-kov of the first militia, not-ure-gu-li-ro-vanity full -my and functions of the military pre-di-te-lei and at-task-of-the-no-th level pri-ve-whether to the yes-che-dv-rya-on -mi, as well as part of the ka-za-kov of collectives of people-lo-bits with the need to resolve these problems . The result of their consideration of the “Co-ve-th of the whole earth” was the adoption of the “Pri-go-in-ra-of the whole earth” of June 30 (July 10) 1611, someone confirmed that P.P. La-pu-no-va, Prince D.T. Tru-bets-ko-go and I.M. For-ruts-ko-go "in all zem-sky and military de-lehs." However, “Pri-go-thief ...” og-ra-ni-chil their half-but-mo-chia with the right of “Co-ve-ta of the whole earth” to recall these persons if not over-le-zha-shchem is-full-of-not-nii-their-their-duties-no-stay and from-to-take new ru-ko-vo-di-te-lei, as well as not- about-ho-di-mo-stu co-gla-co-you-vat with “Co-ve-that ...” death warrants and decisions on land -lams of general sovereignty. The same “Pri-go-in-rum ...” must-ta-nav-li-va-moose, that fi-nan-with-you-mi, pro-do-vols. and others-mi in-stu-p-le-niya-mi in the general kaz-well of the first militia should-we center-tra-li-zo-van-but ve-give orders, and not howl -water and half-ki. At-ka-zy, we should also issue new ones or return the former places-of-places (and from-hour -ty and that's the rank) to the court-rya-to us and the children of the bo-yar-skim, who arrived at the service in the first militia. Were you-ra-bo-ta-ny clear principles-qi-py of con-fi-ska-tion of land vla-de-niy parties-ron-ni-kov ko-ro-la in Mo-sk-ve, pre-zh-de of all-go-beam-ny from him or “Se-mi-bo-yar-schi-ny” (named Vla-di-sla-va ); ut-ver-zhde-on the norm-ma about the return of all the palace-ts-vyh and black-but-solid lands as os-but-you de-tender-nyh and on-tu-ral th fees. Recognized-wa-lis-for-con-us-mi lands in-zh-lo-va-niya tsar Va-si-liya Iva-no-vi-cha Shui-sko-go and False -dmitry II, but "in the measure" of pro-is-ho-zh-de-niya, service-services-pe-hov and in-lo-zhe-niya in the county cor-po -ra-tion. Confirmed-waiting-moose action of the April-th decree-for 1610 of the tsar Vasi-liya Shui-sko-go about re-re-vo-de 1/5 on- me-st-no-go ok-la-yes de-tey bo-yar-sky for military service for the status of "you-served-wife here-ranks." “Pri-go-thief ...” for-kre-drank in-higher-so-qi-al-no-go sta-tu-sa ka-za-kov: hour-ka-za-kov would- la ga-ran-ti-ro-va-on-the-opportunity with the same-la-ni and you-full-not-ni not-many-conditions-lo-viy enter-ti among the living people “according to the father-of-st-vu” (that is, the city-ro-to-y children of the bo-yar-skys) with the use of the lu-che-no-eat de-nezh-no-go zha-lo-va-nya. The rest of the ka-za-kov so-storage-nya-la general status of service people “according to pri-bo-ru” (in my-mo- ro-do-vy ka-za-kov, their composition-la-whether archers, push-ka-ri, etc.) with ga-ran-ti-her de-nezh-no-go and pro- do-vols. providing-pe-che-niya, moreover, in both cases, it’s not pre-la-ha-elk the restoration of their former hundred-tu-sa on-dat-no-go or for-vi-si-mo-go che-lo-ve-ka. Price-tra-li-for-tion on-logs, other payments and on-tu-ral-ny-stu-p-le-ni-ties with the same-st- kim for-pre-that and su-ro-vym on-ka-for-ni-eat sa-mo-free-ditch otd. from-rya-da-mi ka-za-kov (such a practice-ti-ka would have been ordinary in Tu-shin-sky la-ge-re).

During the on-ho-yes forces Ya.P. Sa-pe-gi for pro-free-st-we-em from-a-row-ladies of the first militia managed to regain control over uk-re-p-le-niya-mi Be- lo-go-ro-yes and again beat No-vo-de-vi-chiy monastery. On-chi-naya from 5 (15) July, from the ranks of the first militia, continue to put up ost-rozh-ki and other for-ti-fi-kats. co-equipment in Za-mo-sk-in-the-river, on-against-the-Kremlin (the first air-ve-de-us back in May). One-on-a-chav-shie-sya in accordance with the norms of “Pri-go-in-ra ...” on-ka-za-niya ka-za-kov you- did they call for a sharp increase in their not-to-vol-st-va (on-right-len-no-go per-so-nal-but against P.P. La-pu-no-va as before -sta-vi-te-la serving the nobility and ini-tsia-to-ra acceptance “Pri-go-vo-ra ...”) and different -gla-this ka-za-kov with the servant of the nobility. One-but-time-men-but both-st-ri-lied from-no-she-niya me-zh-du before-in-di-te-la-mi of the first militia, as it became from the West secret plans of I.M. For-ruts-ko-go about re-re-da-che tro-na sy-nu False Dmitry II and M. Mni-shek “tsa-re-vi-chu” Iva-nu Dmitri-rie-vi -chu Wo-ryong-ku. On-ras-tav-neck pro-ti-in-standing serving-zh-lo-go nobility-st-va and ka-za-kov, mustache-lip-len-noe practice-ti-koy at - me-not-niya of the article “Pri-go-vo-ra ...” about on-ka-for-nii for self-free collection of fodder ka-for-ka-mi and pro-vo -ka-qi-ey A.K. Gon-sev-sko-go (in ka-for-whose ta-bo-ry under-bro-si-li under-del-ku - gra-mo-tu "in all cities-ro-yes" supposedly from the name of La-pu-no-va with the call “to-be-vat ka-za-kov”), led to a political explosion. On ka-zach-em circle July 22 (August 1) -sti gra-mo-you "to all cities-ro-yes", was for-rub-len. Not-for-horse-ra-pra-va over him in-lo-zhi-la na-cha-lo so-qi-al-no-mu, and in the end, and in a lytic race-ko -lu in the ranks of the first militia. Fact-ti-che-ski, the leadership of the first militia went to Za-ruts-ko-mu. Departure for a met hour of the county of the nobility (mostly self-free, and also under the pre-log of servicemen on -significantly and from the official permission to go to the estate) and change of order in more-shin-st-ve at-ka- call (now their voz-glav-vi-li dia-ki Tu-shin-sko-go-la-ge-rya) brought to the effort-le-niyu ro-li ka-za-kov in the first militias, which became the first step in the for-mi-ro-va-nii of serving as a leading military officer -slovia in the country. Since 1611, from the West, the facts have been captured by them in the places of the county of the children of the Bo-Yar-skys and foreign zem-tsev in the Russian service, is-me -shche-ny ot. ka-za-kov with the change of so-qi-al-no-go sta-tu-sa, the composition of the official ros-pi-this de-tender and food. collections from draft-lykh hair and mo-on-styr-sky here-ranks in the central region in favor of one or another Cossack-their villages.

Not-bla-go-pleasant for the first militia from-me-not-niya pro-isosh-whether and in the se-ve-ro-for-pa-de-country, where with a grip cor-pu-som Ya.P. De-la-gar-di New-go-ro-da 16-17 (26-27) July continued the active phase of the Swedish Intervention na-cha-la of the 17th century. Soon, De-la-gar-di us-ta-no-vil control practically-ti-che-ski over the entire Nov-go-rod-sky land. After this, on July 25 (August 4), 1611, the Russian New City authorities (the 1st Military Command, Prince I.N. Odo-evsky Bolshoi and others ), Metropolitan Isi-dor, local church council and local co-words, opi-ra-yas on the co-ot-vet-st-vuyu-shchy when -go-thief of the first militia, under-pi-sa-li from the name of “all-of-the-go-go-rod-go-su-dar-st-va” to-go-thief from De-la -gar-di about from-bringing one of the two sons of the Swedish co-ro-la Kar-la IX go-su-da-rem New-go-ro-da with per-spec -ti-howl ras-pro-stra-thread dey-st-vie do-go-vo-ra for everything “Mo-s-kov-go-su-dar-st-vo”. One-on-ko before-in-di-te-li of the first militia in August 1611 of the year fak-ti-che-ski de-non-si-ro-va-li the former pri-go-thief “So-ve -that of the whole earth" about the selection of Gus-ta-va Adol-fa to the Russian throne.

At the end of the summer - in the autumn of 1611, the possibilities of the first militia of the weight of the active and effective military actions of the for-lying for-met-but og-ra-ni-chen-ny-mi. Three-day battles in Moscow on 4-5 (14-15) and 7 (17) August did not bring -one of the sides, one-to-one part of the uk-re-p-le-ny in the southern part of the Be-lo-go-ro-yes again came under the control of ko-ro -left-wing troops, and most importantly - foreign-earth-no-mu gar-ni-zo-well in the Kremlin was-lo-becoming-le-but pro-free-st-vie. From av-gu-hundred began-la-to-beautify-sya ter-ri-to-riya, con-tro-li-rue-may before-in-di-te-la-mi and at-ka-za -mi of the first militia. So, for example, the cities of the Volga region (Nizhny Novy-go-rod, Kazan, etc.) did not let them into their territory to-ryu under-mos-kov-nyh ka-za-kov and on-sign-chen-nyh "Co-ve-th of the whole earth" vo-vod. Oka-hall-sya ma-lo-ef-fektiv-nym collection of fur coats in all counties-ladies in the winter for the militias, big pro-ble-we-would-whether with pack-la- that on-log-gov, with the delivery of pro-to-vol-st-via, bo-e-at-pa-owls, additional forces. At the end of August-gu-hundred and September 15 (25) after art-ob-st-re-la for-zhi-ga-tel-ny-mi yad-ra-mi from-row-dy of the first militia before-pri-nya-whether two not-successful-shie-to-torture navigators-ma Ki-tai-go-ro-da. Ko-ro-left-sky troops in August-September on-count-you-va-li from 5-6 to 8-9 thousand people, professional-sio-nal-but under-go-to-flax -nyh to a long military campaign -lem and his pre-hundred-vi-te-la-mi because of not-you-payments sting-lo-va-nya). On September 24 (October 4), the cor-pus of the great het-ma-on the Lithuanian Ya.K. Hod-ke-vi-cha, what are you-well-di-lo militia-chen-tsev to-ki-nut But-in-de-vi-chiy monastery and burn it, os-ta-vit not-someone -rye other uk-re-p-le-niya. In the battle on September 25 (October 5), 1611, from-ry-ladies Hod-ke-vi-cha and sa-pe-zhin-tsam failed to win a re-shi-tel-noy troubles, at the same time, pro-to-vol-st-vie to-ro-left-to-mu gar-ni-zo-well in the Kremlin again was-lo-dos-tav-le-no, and he himself intensified from-rya-yes-mi died-she-go Ya.P. Sa-pe-gi. Ko-ro-left-sky troops outside the Kremlin-la zi-mo-va-li and co-bi-ra-li pro-do-vol-st-vie on Tver, Suz-Dal and Rus -tov-sky lands, not being afraid of the military actions from the side of the militia.

In September 1611, in the Lower New-go-ro-de on-cha-lo for-mi-ro-vat-sya Second militia of 1611-1612 with the same in-li- tic purposes, but on more wi-ro-kih so-qi-al-nyh wasps-no-va-ni-yah and with greater fi-nan-so-vyh possible -tyah. Despite the gradual strengthening of the crisis in the first militia, his power in the autumn of 1611 recognized about 50 cities, and in Russia, half of Prince D.T. Tru-bets-ko-go (but-November) would you represent-le-we-practice-ti-che-ski all the chi-ns go-su-da-re-va dvor-ra and serve- lye court-rya-not 13 county cor-po-ra-tions.

In December 1611 - January 1612, the military actions of the first militia were involved in attempts to stop the delivery of pro-freedom and fur-ra- Ms. Polish-Lithuanian gar-ni-zo-well in the Kremlin, some-rye-eyes-were-dos-that-precise-but good luck-mi in the 1st de-ka- de de cab-ra. Disintegration of the first militia with a pro-tsi-ro-va-lo recognition of his in-sla-mi - K.D. Be-gi-che-vym and N.V. Lo-pu-hi-nym in January 1612 in Psko-ve False Dmitry III saved-shim-sya tsar-rem "Di-mit-ri-em Iva-no-vi-chem", what are you calling -lo sharp re-action of the ru-ko-vo-di-te-lei of the Second militia. They are because of a me-ne-i-strategy of action and instead of a not-for-slow-go-yes to Mo-sk-ve along a direct route that p-stu-pi-whether to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu pain-sho-go-how-ska and plan-no-mer-no-mu you-tes-non-niyu ka-zach-them from- ranks of the first militia from the cities of the Upper and Middle Volga regions, central and border districts with Novy-go-ro-dom, to co-zy-vu in Yaro-slav-le “Co-ve-ta of the whole earth-whether” with shi-ro-kim pre-sta-vi-tel-st-vom ter-ri-to-riy and co-words groups, the creation of the sys-te-we of the most important pri-ka-call. Pri-not-se-nie pri-sya-gi in the camps of the first militia to False Dmitry III in March 1612 (according to some data, I.M. Za-rutsky according to others, he and D.T. Tru-bets-koy “do-lo-va-whether the cross is not-in-lei”, about which they pi- sa-whether in June-not in gra-mo-te to ru-ko-vo-di-te-lyam of the Second militia) with-ve-lo to new-in-mu mass-so -to-mu-de-ez-du from under Mo-sk-you voo-waters, noble-ryan-s-ranks and more-shin-st-va pri-kaz-nyh (mainly in Yaro- slavl) and to the open-thing-th-time-ry-vu with the Second-eye army-che-no-eat. In the April neighborhoods of the Second militia of the pre-vo-di-te-li of the first militia, pre-zh-de of all Za-ruts- cue, about-vi-nya-lis "in many wrongs": kill-st-ve P.P. La-pu-no-va, ka-zach-their gra-be-zhah and kill-st-wah "on the roads", unauthorized times-yes-che-great vla-de- ny "his-so-vet-no-kam", in the confession of False Dmitry III. From-me-not-nie-zi-tion before-vo-di-te-lei of the first militia in relation to self-title (at the end of May, his are-sto- va-li in Gdo-ve, then dos-ta-vi-li in Mo-sk-va and in-sa-di-li in prison), public-personal recognition by them was mistaken -koy kre-sto-tse-lo-va-niya to him, their June-salt-st-in in Yaroslavl (attempt to save your influence and find com -pro-miss with whether-de-ra-mi of the Second militia) didn’t come to how-to-be-be-significant re-zul-ta-tam. On the whole, the un-successful-we-we-eyes-were-were the military actions of the first militia in na-cha-le - se-re-di-not June 1612. Ho-cha militias managed to keep the pain-shin-st-in their own positions, Ya. K. Hod-ke-vich again delivered dos-ta-vil to the Polish-Lithuanian gar-ni-zo-well, food and fodder, led the change of the troops of the gar-ni- zone, provided-ne-chil leaving for Speech Po-whether-to-change-niv-she-go-sya half-ka.

The final disintegration of the first militia took place after that, as on July 28 (August 7), 1612, I.M. For-ruts-ki, at the head of ka-zach-them-ranks (2.5-3 thousand people), left the camps of the first militia near Moscow when approaching -nii avant-gard-yes Second militia. Regiment of Prince D.T. Tru-bets-koy remained on their own in-zi-qi-yah (mainly in Za-mo-sk-in-re-whose) and active-but learning-st-in-val in decisive battles with the detachment of Ya.K. Hod-ke-wi-cha August 22-24 (September 1-3). At the end of September 1612, there was a merger of the administrative structures of both their militias.

The first militia became the first torturing sa-mo-or-ga-ni-za-tion of co-words and co-word groups (mainly different layers of "cases" living people in the-in-sko-go-chi-on "headed by the county nobility) for the solution of general-na-tsio-nal-nyh tasks of the state-po-lytic ha-rak-te-ra, for-mi-ro-va-niya war-ska on the good-ro-free-base-no-va-nii, re-sta- new-le-niya in-sti-tu-tov management with shi-ro-kim with-me-no-no-em choice-bor-no-go on-cha-la.

IV. Third militia

The origin of this movement is still little known.

In Moscow, on a large square in front of the Kremlin, a bronze group is now striking, amazing the eyes of foreign travelers. She depicts two Roman soldiers in theatrical poses. The inscription on the granite plinth brings together in a common apotheosis the names of Minin and Pozharsky, the heroes of the 1612 War of Liberation, which saved Moscow and paved the way for the restoration of national unity under the rule of a new dynasty. Truly, there was no monument more deserved; only the style of this monument is sheer absurdity. Here two such figures are absurdly dressed up, which the history of the people can and should be proud of; but in appearance they did not bear the slightest sign of either classical antiquity, or romance, or a cothurn, or a helmet with feathers. They were - and this is their peculiar personal attraction and special greatness - simply honest people who timidly and as if not even quite willingly stepped out of the ranks to do the work that was required of them by a combination of circumstances; they quite simply, never letting themselves in the slightest importance, bore the whole burden of enormous responsibility and, having done their work to the end, after they held the fate of a great people in their hands, without the slightest effort, imperceptibly disappeared, without noticeable regrets returned to their former position: one - to his petty trade, the other - to the ranks of the service nobility.

At the beginning of October 1611, in the zemstvo hut of Nizhny Novgorod, they gathered to talk about the troubled times. The message of Hermogenes, which arrived the day before, struck the minds with despondency. It warned of a new danger threatening the Orthodox faith: Zarutsky and the Cossacks planned to put on the throne a "Vorenok", the son of a damned wicked one. Already from the beginning of the year, in several receptions, by written messages and verbal instructions, the patriarch called the people of Nizhny Novgorod to arms. But then he called for help to the Cossacks against the Poles and Moscow traitors. Now betrayal was in another place, under a different banner - it had to be sought not in the besieged capital, but under its walls! Wholesaler of livestock and fish, headman Kozma Minin Sukhoruk stood up and spoke. He was known for an active and dexterous person, not very discriminating in the conduct of his own and public affairs, who, as was suspected, did not refuse handouts, but without extremes and temptation; conscientious person in the spirit of that time and country. And now he showed disinterested concern for the common cause. Like others, he had visions. The Rev. appeared to him three times. Sergius, calling to serve the motherland, surrounded by dangers. At first, Minin was distrustful of these heavenly suggestions, but for this he was punished with illness. Then he did not know how to begin to carry out the orders he had received in a vision, but the saint appeared again and taught him what to do. While Minin was talking about this, one lawyer, Ivan Birkin, interrupted the visionary:

You lie! You haven't seen anything!

One look from Minin made the insolent man disappear unnoticed.

In the annals from which we borrow this naive scene, the picture is probably not very far from the truth, as one might think at first glance. Minin's active and rude nature was hardly disposed to fits of religious frenzy; nevertheless, together with some like-minded people, he considered it necessary to give his story this form, because it served, as it were, as a guarantee for the plans arising from a correct assessment of common dangers and duties. The ease with which they silenced Birkin, a man, however, with a bad reputation, also indicates a preliminary agreement; and since, on the other hand, Rev. Sergius and the patriarch spoke in agreement, then the assembly immediately at the meeting outlined a plan for the defense of the Orthodox faith and the national heritage against all enemies, external and internal.

Minin and his comrades had no military experience, so they decided to turn to service people; but all agreed that all citizens should share in the expenses; the first collection was made among the members of the community.

Defenders of the glory of the Trinity Lavra insist on her participation in this remarkable meeting, the outcome of which was determined as if thanks to her message. But this letter, marked on October 6, 1611, could not reach Nizhny Novgorod before the end of the month, and there at that time the organizational work was already in full swing. Moreover, like all the then political messages of the monks of St. Sergius, this appeal went against what was part of the task of Minin and his comrades: Dionysius and Palitsyn were still praising the exploits of Zarutsky and Trubetskoy! In this country of endemic illiteracy, writing was highly respected, and this message of October 6, coming from a source highly respected in all respects, must have made an impression. However, it did not prompt Nizhny Novgorod residents to change their minds and back down from their decisions. Thanks to the activities of Minin, the movement initiated at his initiative was already spreading in breadth. This butcher carried on quite extensive relations; one document ascribes to him even acquaintance with the citizens of Moscow. It could happen, however, that the dissenting opinions of the representatives of the Lavra, having provoked heated debate in a wide circle of patriots hostile to the turmoil, only helped them clarify their own views and establish themselves in their plans. The chronicler says that the message was read in the voivodship house at a meeting of eminent persons of the city, all secular and spiritual authorities. The next day they gathered again, according to custom, in the Transfiguration Cathedral, and the enterprise was finally arranged.

Decided how to collect warriors and taxes on military affairs; in the chiefs Minin pointed to Prince. Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, who, after an unsuccessful skirmish with the Poles on the streets of Moscow, healed his wounds in his fiefdom of the Suzdal district.

Now let's get acquainted with these heroes among their activities.

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Chapter 6 The second militia Servants flocked under the banner of Pozharsky. They needed funds to keep them. Previously raised money quickly dispersed. Finding new ones in a devastated country turned out to be difficult, almost impossible. The financial system has long been in

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11. The huge professional army of the aggressor and the people's militia of the defenders, who were inferior in number to it. Nevertheless, the people's militia brilliantly defeated the professionals.

From the book In the Abyss of Russian Troubles. Unlearned lessons of history author Zarezin Maxim Igorevich

The Stolen Militia Concluding an agreement with Hetman Zholkevsky in August 1610, the Moscow government sought thereby to disavow the February agreement between the Poles and the Tushinians, to seize the initiative from the latter. But the thieves' boyars have long settled down in

From the book The Battle of Crecy. History of the Hundred Years War from 1337 to 1360 author Burn Alfred

Militia The national militia was formed as follows. The king needs to mobilize the population; he signs instructions for the county sheriffs: such and such a quota for the recruitment of the militia is needed. After that, the distribution of quotas - the graphs divide them between their

From the book 1812 - the tragedy of Belarus author Taras Anatoly Efimovich

Militia Minister of Foreign Affairs Yu. G. Mare (Duke Bassano) "in the name of the emperor" announced on November 18 (December 1) the "common collapse" of the Lithuanian gentry aged 18 to 45 years. They expected to collect at least 15 thousand soldiers. Each member of the militia had to have his own

From the book of Minin and Pozharsky author Shishov Alexey Vasilievich

The first zemstvo militia On March 21, the forward detachments of the zemstvo militia, who approached the capital, opened up a terrible picture. On the site of Moscow, a conflagration was still smoking, only chimneys remained from the houses, The Kremlin, Kitaigorod walls and the walls of the Bely

author Belyaev Leonid Andreevich

The first militia The people had only one way out: to respond by force to the oppression of the Poles, impostors and traitors - after all, the question arose about the very existence of the Muscovite state. The civil war entered a decisive and tragic phase. At the beginning of 1611, those who did not want

From the book Moscow Russia: from the Middle Ages to the New Age author Belyaev Leonid Andreevich

Second militia The second militia was created by residents of commercial urban settlements (the very “two percent” of the population on which the tsar relied in governing the country), the peasantry of the north-east of the country who did not know the landlord landownership, remained loyal to the boyars and

author Eskin Yuri Moiseevich

The first militia The beginning of the Zemstvo movement to organize the First Militia, also called Lyapunov (after its main organizer Prokofy Petrovich Lyapunov), coincided with the events in Kaluga, where on December 11, 1610, False Dmitry II died. long held back

From the book National Unity Day: a biography of the holiday author Eskin Yuri Moiseevich

The second militia The Nizhny Novgorod region has always remained a territory free from the Tushino authorities, its inhabitants successfully fought off gangs of thieves and even large enemy detachments, for example, in the summer of 1609 they did not allow A. Lisovsky to cross the Volga and invade their borders

From the book Three False Dmitry author Skrynnikov Ruslan Grigorievich

Zemstvo militia The few boyars who remained in Kaluga intended, without a moment's delay, to go to Moscow with confession. Ataman Zarutsky tried to escape from the prison in order to hide in the steppes. But the people of Kaluga did not let him out of the city. Hetman Sapega, who returned to the royal camp,

From the book Russian explorers - the glory and pride of Russia author Glazyrin Maxim Yurievich

St. George's Militia 1937, April. By order of General B.F. Franko, the creation of a separate Russian volunteer unit with a Russian charter and Russian command, the “St. George Militia” (“Gverilla San Jorge”), began. Created Russian

From the book The Great Russian Troubles. Causes of emergence and exit from the state crisis in the XVI-XVII centuries. author Strizhova Irina Mikhailovna

The second militia At the end of 1611, the Muscovite state presented a spectacle of complete visible destruction. The Poles took Smolensk; the Polish detachment burned Moscow and fortified behind the surviving walls of the Kremlin and Kitai-gorod; the Swedes occupied Novgorod and put one of their