4.1. Violations of orthoepic norms.

Orthoepic (Greek orthos - correct + Greek epos - speech) norms - norms of pronunciation and stress. Their observance facilitates and accelerates mutual understanding in the process of communication. The rules of orthoepy and Russian can be divided into three groups:

a) pronunciation of vowels;

b) pronunciation of consonants;

c) pronunciation of borrowed words.

Common deficiencies in pronunciation:

one). In the pronunciation of consonants, the laws of assimilation and deafening apply. Voiced consonants at the end of a word are stunned, this norm, as a rule, is not violated, with the exception of the voiced consonant [r] at the end of a word. It should sound like an explosive deaf [k] - boot [k].

But in practice, the pronunciation is often found as a deaf fricative [x]. Such a pronunciation is unacceptable as a dialect (a feature of the southern dialects) - (an exception is the word “god” - bo[x].

2). Often there are errors in the pronunciation of “ch”. In accordance with the norms, this combination is pronounced as [h]: eternal, marriage, correspondence, cereal, planting. The pronunciation [shn] is required in female patronymics - Fomini [shn] a, Kuzmini [shn] a - and is preserved in the words bitter [shn] yy, horse [shn] o, empty [shn] yy, square [shn] ik. There is also a double pronunciation - bulo [shn] th and bulo [ch] th, kope [shn] y - kope [ch] th, young [shn] y - young [ch] th, order [shn] th - order [ch] ]th, plum [shn] th - plum [ch] th.

The norms of pronunciation of vowels include the norms of stress. They are studied by accentology (Latin accentus - stress). In russian language free stress, that is, it can be on any syllable in a word, unlike some languages ​​​​of the world, where the stress is assigned to a specific syllable:

a) in Estonian, Latvian, Czech, Finnish - 1 syllable;

b) in Polish and Georgian - penultimate;

c) in Armenian and French - the latter.

Another feature of Russian stress is its morphemic mobility- the stress can move from one significant part of the word to another in its different forms and cognates.

The main function of stress is the phonetic association of a word. But there are words where the stress plays a semantic and distinctive role - flour - flour, drank - drank. In polysyllabic words, in addition to the main stress, a secondary (collateral) one also appears: avalanche-like, four-story.

Most often, accentological errors occur in the formation of the following forms of various parts of speech:

one). in monosyllabic nouns. husband. kind in R.p. singular, the emphasis falls on the ending: umbrella - umbrella, ladle - ladle, fruit - fruit, coat of arms - coat of arms. Exception: goose - goose, coal - coal.

2). noun zh.r. 1st declension in V.p. units numbers have an accent on the end: ash, hut, pick, goat, hole, floor, dew, resin, owl, stanza, grass, based on (beard, harrow, price, cheek), double stress (river - river, board - board ).

3). Some nouns 3rd sk. When used with the prepositions “in” and “on”, they have an accent on the ending - in the chest, in the bones, in the blood, in the night, on the stove, in connection, in the canopy, in the steppe, in the shade, in the chain.

4). noun 3rd sk. In R. p. pl. Numbers have an accent on the basis (localities, honors, profits, ice holes, pranks), double stress (industries and industries, statements and statements), at the end (branches, handfuls, positions, fortresses, planes, degrees, tablecloths, speeds).

5). Prepositions used with nouns and numerals can take on stress, making an independent part of speech unstressed - missing, without a year, to no avail, for the winter, for the hand, for the soul, for the year, out of sight, out of the forest, out of the nose , on the mountain, on the back, on the wall, for two, for six, for a hundred, through the forest, across the sea, across the field, two, one hundred, three, under the feet, in the evening, in the evening, under the nose, under arms.

6). short adjectives have an accent on the first syllable of the stem in the masculine, neuter, and many others. number. In the feminine, it goes to the ending: striker - striker, cheerful - cheerful, stupid - stupid. Double stress occurs in the plural form - pale and pale, close and close, hungry and hungry, thick and thick, friendly and friendly, fat and fat, empty and empty, cramped and cramped, dumb and dumb, cold and cold.

7). stress in verbs past. time can stand on the basis in all forms (beat, shave, put, steal, crush, sew), on the basis in all forms, except for the feminine form in which it passes to the ending: took, was, took, drove, fought, called, on a prefix in all forms, except for the form of wives. kind (pestered, froze, occupied, locked, hired, started, departed, accepted, departed). Double stress in the forms of verbs lived - lived, drank - drank, set - set, amassed - amassed, took away - took away, drank - drank, gave - gave, raised - raised, sold - sold, lived - lived, spilled - spilled, distributed - distributed.

eight). in the verbs na - irovat, two groups are distinguished: with an emphasis on “and” (block, guarantee, debate, conduct, disqualify, inform, copy, summarize) and with an emphasis on “a” (bombard, engrave, make up, group, seal, reward, shape, etc.).

nine). in passive participles of the past tense, the emphasis in the feminine form falls on the ending (taken - taken, twisted - twisted, obsolete - obsolete, started - started, accepted - accepted), in others - on the prefix. In participles on - abusive - tattered - called, the emphasis falls on the prefix (dobrana, taken away, pulled up, called, elected, tidied up, interrupted, called, torn off).

Mistakes in stress There may be other reasons to keep in mind:

one). Ignorance of the rules of stress in the source language. Miserable (Latin miser - poor) from the French "Miser" and is pronounced "Miserable".

2). The absence of the letter "e" in the printed text. Meanwhile, it is known that, in accordance with the norm, it always takes on stress. Not right: beet, bile, bile, newborn, bewitched (correct: beet, bile, bile, newborn, bewitched).

3). Ignorance of spelling rules. The words “armor” and “armor” are nouns of the 1st declension.

The stress performs a semantic function: armor is “a pre-emptive right to receive something” and armor is a “protective coating”.

Often there is an uneven use of the word "booking".

4). Ignorance of the belonging of a word to a particular part of speech.

For example, the adjective “developed” and the participle “developed”.

The first is used in the phrases “developed youth”, “developed industry”, “developed agriculture”, the emphasis falls on the ending. The participle, formed from the verb “develop”, is pronounced with an accent on the first or second syllable - an activity developed by citizen N, a question developed by a teacher, a developed rope, a developed curl.

Mastering the norms of Russian accentology, one must also keep in mind the phenomenon of stress variability. There are words in which the following are recognized as normalized: 1). two accents; 2). one is considered bookish, and the other is colloquial; 3). One version is general literary, and the other is professional.

So, the options “otherwise - otherwise”, “loop and loop”, “rust and rust”, “cottage cheese and cottage cheese” are equal; “spoil and spoil”, “agreement and agreement”, “keta and keta” - the first is bookish, and the second is colloquial; “astronomer and astronomer”, “compass and compass”, “report and report”, “spark and spark”, “mining and mining”, “atomic and atomic” - general literary and professional, respectively.

A cultured person uses orthoepic dictionaries.

4.2. Violations of morphological norms and ways to overcome them.

one). Formation of noun forms.

When using the gender of nouns, errors are grouped as follows:

a) gender change

b) the use of nouns of a general gender that does not correspond to the norm;

c) errors related to the possibility of using masculine nouns in relation to females.

For example: Mom and I baked pies with jam (with jam), Grinev was undersized (undersized). New role (new), sick callus (sick), white tulle (white), pink shampoo (pink).

Cinderella lost her shoe (shoe)

We drove out to the spacious avenue (to the spacious avenue)

Indeclinable nouns for animals and birds usually take the masculine form: funny pony. (Exception: iwasi, tsetse - feminine).

Indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names take the form of gender in accordance with the words “city”, “river”, “lake”, “capital”, “mountain” - full-flowing Ontario, sunny Sochi.

In modern Russian, there are about two hundred nouns of the general gender. They can be used both in the meaning of the feminine (“such a mess”), and in the meaning of the masculine gender (“such a mess”).

For example: Gavrik grew up as an orphan (round).

When Lomonosov came to study at the academy, everyone teased him: “Such a tall girl came to study!” (Such a dumbass came to study!).

Molchalin turned out to be a cunning fox (cunning).

In modern language, masculine nouns can be used to refer to females, so the following options are quite possible: Krylova is an experienced teacher and Krylova is an experienced teacher.

The use of noun does not correspond to the norm. masculine, if there is a correlative noun. feminine: “Alyosha seemed like a kind magician to Alyosha (correctly, a good sorceress).

The category of the number of nouns is based on the opposition of singularity and plurality, which manifests itself in different ways in concrete, real, collective and abstract nouns.

Errors occur in the following cases: a) the formation of plural forms that do not exist in the normative language. and units numbers;

b) the use of a form of number that is inappropriate in this context.

For example: “The older brother had a lot of cattle (cattle), and the younger one only had a donkey.”

“The guys shouted and whistled (whistling) drove the dog away.

“In our yard, the swing (swing) has broken (broke).”

“The windows were painted with white” (white).

Or: "The earth from the cold (cold) became strong."

“The boy was a scout for the partisans (for the partisans).”

“The sisters had many beautiful dresses (dresses).”

“I will make you drink cocoa (cocoa).”

“Mom covered the dough with a coat (coat).”

“What time is it? (of time)”

“You can’t betray your youthful dreams.” (the form of the generic case of the plural is absent from the nouns “dream”, “ottoman”, “prayer”, “bottom”.

2). Formation of forms of the adjective.

The form of an adjective depends on the categories of gender, number and case of the noun to which it belongs. Its assimilation occurs naturally, and errors are not so numerous here.

They are found in the use of full and short forms and in the formation of a comparative degree.

The following speech errors occur:

a) the full form is used instead of the short one:

“The mushroom cap was full of water” (full).

b) the short form is used instead of the full one:

“I am capable, and you should accept me into the institute” (Able to what?)

Errors also appear in the formation of degrees of comparison of the adjective. This happens in two cases: a) when forming the comparative degree of such an adjective, which does not have this form in the language, and b) when forming the comparative degree in a non-normative way.

“At first I argued with my mother, and then I realized that she is always more right than me. (rights)."

“I have never seen a thicker (thicker) book.”

“This problem is easier than the one that was solved yesterday.”

“The most capable student”, “the highest building”.

Only in isolated cases is the combination “most” + the superlative form normative, although it has an outdated character: “the shortest road”, “the closest way”, “the closest way”.

3). Formation of forms of pronouns.

The specificity of pronouns as parts of speech is that they are words - understudies. Their role in the organization of the sentence and the text as a whole is extremely great. Speech errors associated with the use of pronouns occur when using the pronouns “self” and “own”; demonstrative pronouns and the pronoun “he”, colloquial possessive pronouns.

For example: “Maria Semyonovna asked me to bring my briefcase.” The briefcase can belong to both Maria Semyonovna and me. If the first, then you need to use the pronoun "her", if the second - the pronoun "my".

The pronouns “own” and “self” are often used instead of the personal and possessive pronouns required by the norm. For example: “Kostya liked his slippers.” (his slippers)

“I found a book on my desk” (in my room)

The unjustified repetition of demonstrative and personal pronouns is also a mistake: “When he was at the lake, he saw an unusually shaped tree there.” (repeat)

Substitutive pronouns must agree with the person being replaced in gender and number: “The nobility was afraid that it might lose power.” (It might)

In the use of pronouns, errors are very common, the cause of which is the influence on the literary language of vernacular: “theirs”, “theirs”, “einy”.

4). The formation of forms of the numeral.

The numeral is a lexically closed category, numbering only a few dozen words and no longer replenished with new formations. Despite this, the assimilation of the forms of numerals is a rather complicated process, and mistakes are often encountered here.

A large number of them is associated with the use of compound forms of numerals. The rules for declension of this part of speech are simple - when declension composite quantitative numerals, all the words included in it change, with declension composite ordinal numerals - only the last word:

“The flow of the river reaches 120 (one hundred and twenty) - 400 (four hundred) meters per minute”; “On the night of August 26 (twenty-sixth) it was raining.”

When forming phrases “numeral + noun, which has only the plural form (day, sleigh, scissors, trousers, glasses)”, collective (up to 5) or quantitative (from 5) numerals are used: “two (three, four) days” - “five (six, seven) days”.

Often found in speech is the incorrect use of the collective numeral “both” (both). If it determines the number of masculine and neuter nouns, then the form “both” (brother, lake) is used. If feminine - “both” (sisters, girls).

The declension of the numeral “one and a half” depends on the gender of the noun. Husband. and cf. genus. in the nominative and accusative cases they take the form “one and a half”, in other cases - “one and a half”, feminine in the nominative and accusative cases - “one and a half”. In the rest - "one and a half". In this case, nouns change in accordance with the rules.

5). The formation of verb forms.

Errors in the formation of verb forms are varied. The following types can be distinguished:

a) incorrect formation of the verb stem: “I like people who admit their shortcomings” (recognizing). “He's molesting me” (molesting).

“She admits her mistakes” (admits). “If you offend him, he will immediately complain to his mother” (complain).

b) non-observance of alternations in the basis of the present tense: “protects” (protects), “guards” (guards), “burn” (instead of “burn”).

c) unification of the bases of the infinitive and the past tense: “Although I hurt myself a lot, I still didn’t cry” (I hurt myself).

“Wet in the rain” (mok); “dry in the sun” (dry); “disappeared into the distance” (disappeared).

d) deformation of the different conjugated verbs “to want” and “to run”: “Let's run home soon”. " He said. That he doesn't want to come with us." “They want to show their education. “(A.P. Chekhov).

e) non-normative formation of imperative mood forms:

“Finish this work quickly! “(finish).

The forms “ehai (those)” and “go (those)” are of a pronounced colloquial nature and cannot be recommended for use. It is necessary to say: "go (those)".

f) filling in “empty cells” in the paradigm.

A number of verbs have an incomplete paradigm, that is, in the system of their forms, certain formations are missing. So, some verbs do not have the normative form of the 1st person singular of the present or future tense for phonetic reasons: dare, win, find yourself, blow, buzz, feel, nonsense, outshine, convince, kink, mischief. It is necessary to say: “I can win”, “I will not be naughty.”

However, in speech there is also an erroneous formation of such forms:

“I never thought I would be in this situation.”

Participle errors can be divided into two groups:

a) those that arise during the formation of participle forms: “a student who is able to complete the task on time” (who succeeded), “a dog trying to get a stick out of the water” (tried). “Everyone who would like to come to the resort will have such an opportunity” (incorrect). “Torn jacket”, “passed the exam” is incorrect. “Torn jacket”, “exam passed” - right.

“The owners of the plots contribute to the city's treasury a land tax, which is established in accordance with the law” - is incorrect.

It is necessary: ​​“installable” or “installable”.

Or errors:

b) those that are associated with the use of the sacraments: “Why are you giving me a broken glass? “, (burst). Incorrect: “ticket won” (winner), “melted water” (melted).

4.3. Violations of syntactic norms and ways to overcome them.

The appearance of syntactic speech defects is due to ignorance:

a) word order in a sentence. The Russian language has a relatively free word order. However, there is a more or less accepted order of the members of the sentence in declarative, imperative and interrogative sentences - direct order and deviations from it - reverse order(inversion - lat. inversio - permutation). Inversion used in colloquial speech and in works of fiction to give speech a special expressiveness.

In a declarative sentence with direct word order, the subject precedes the predicate, and the topic (initial information) is the rheme (new information). If this provision is not observed, we get an ambiguous sentence and hardly understand its content: “A cloud covered the sun.” “Crashed the bus bike” - the reverse order, it is not clear.

The subject can be placed after the predicate if:

one). Denotes a period of time or a natural phenomenon with a predicate with the meaning of being: “Autumn has come.” "Days passed." “It was early winter.”

2). The text is descriptive: “The sea sings, the city hums, the sun shines brightly…” (M. Gorky).

b) coordination of the subject and the predicate. Coordination (lat. con- with, together, together + ordinatio- ordering, arrangement) of the subject and predicate is a syntactic connection in which there is a complete or partial assimilation of word forms.

The verb can take both the singular form and the plural form in the following cases: 1) if the subject is expressed by a word or phrase with the meaning of quantity - “two came (came), “some of the students did not appear (did not appear)”;

2) if the subject is expressed by a combination with the meaning of compatibility - “a brother and sister came (came)”;

3) if the subject is expressed by the pronoun “who”, “someone”, “someone”, “someone”, “someone”, indicating many: “Everyone who came (came) settled in the stands “.

The norm prescribes to use only the singular form of the verb-predicate when:

1 subject, expressed by the phrase “noun. quantitative-collective meaning + noun in the genitive plural: “A flock of swans flew to warm lands.”

2 With the subject, expressed by the phrase “indefinitely quantitative numeral + noun”: “He brought up several wolf cubs in his yard.”

The appearance of syntactic speech defects is due to ignorance:

c) harmonization of definitions and applications.

In accordance with the norm of the literary language, the gender of the definition of nouns of the general gender depends on the gender of the person in question: “She is a terrible confusion (kopush, sweet, etc.)”. “He is an incorrigible bully (evil, couch potato, etc.).”

Special rules exist in use case. When the definition refers to the phrase "numeral" two "(three, four) + noun" and stands between its elements, the following forms of agreement are used:

1 with noun masculine and the neuter gender is put in the form of the genitive plural: “four deep wells”, “twenty-two small windows”;

2 with noun. female gender in this position, the nominative plural form is more often used: “three magnificent branches”, “twenty-four diligent students”.

How to use the number of definitions when agreeing?

Quite often there are nouns that have two definitions with them, which indicate the type of objects.

In one. The number is defined in the following cases:

1) if noun. does not have a plural form: “scientific and technological progress”, “happy and carefree childhood”;

2) if noun. takes on a different meaning in the plural: “electronic and cosmic communications” (cf.: “close ties”);

3) if the definitions characterizing the noun are connected (contrasted, contrasted) with each other (right - left, male - female, upper - lower) and form a combination of terminological character together with the noun: “on the right and left sides”, “verbs of the singular and plural”, “equations of the first and second order”.

In the plural, noun. is placed when the presence of several items is emphasized: “wooden and plastic frames”, “Japanese and Chinese dictionaries”, “basketball and football teams.”

There are expressions where one definition refers to two or more nouns: “my father and mother”, “brother and sister”. What should be followed to avoid mistakes?

We use the definition in units. including, if it is clear in meaning that it refers not only to the first (nearest) noun, but also to the rest: “road bustle and confusion”, “winter cold and cold”, “night silence and peace”.

In the plural, we use the definition when it may be unclear whether it refers only to the nearest noun or to the entire series of homogeneous members: “A multi-storey building and a school were built on a wasteland.” (house and school are multi-storey)

When matching applications, difficulties arise, as a rule, when you need to choose the case form of a geographical name that acts as an application. The names of cities usually agree in all cases with the word being defined: “in the city of Ufa”, “near the city of Kazan”, “to the city of Rostov”.

Acceptable and inconsistent forms for the names of cities on - O: "in the city of Zverevo" and "in the city of Zverevo".

The compound names of the cities do not agree: “near the city of Velikie Luki”, “to the city of Velikiye Luki”, “with the city of Nizhny Novgorod”, “in the city of Nizhny Novgorod”.

The names of the rivers, as a rule, are consistent with the word being defined, only little-known and compound names do not change: “between the Volga and Don rivers”, “near the Lena river”, but “on the Shilka river”, “Aksay river tributary”, “with the Seversky river Donets.

The names of bays, straits and bays, islands and peninsulas, mountains, mountain ranges, deserts do not agree: “To the Yamal Peninsula”, “along the lakes Elton and Baskunchak”, “near the Bosporus”, “through the Sahara desert”, “to the Golden Bay Horn."

The names of ports, stations, foreign administrative and territorial units, astronomical names do not agree: “at the Kropotkinskaya metro station”, “in the port of Murmans”, “in the department of Bordeaux”, “in the orbit of the planet Jupiter”.

The names of the streets in the form of the feminine form are consistent: “on Ordynka, Ostozhenka” and the rest are not consistent: “not far from Krymsky Val Street”.

The names of foreign countries are consistent, including the word “republic”, if they end in - FL: “agreement with the Republic of Zambia”, “trade relations between Russia and the Republic of Nigeria”, “traveled in the Republic of Cyprus”.

The appearance of syntactic speech defects is due to ignorance:

d) management rules.

It should be said: “pay expenses (bill, travel, food, accommodation, work)”;

“Pay for tickets (for groceries, for studies, for furniture)”;

“missing you”, “missing us”;

“upon receipt (P. p.) of the order”; “at the end (P. p.) of the session”; “after the expiration of the term (P. p.) of the term”; “due to (D. p.) good education” ; “according to the order” (D. p.); “Contrary to the instructions” (D. p.).

In written speech, there is also such a stylistic flaw as a “heap” of genitive cases: “The book of the niece of the husband of the teacher of the son of my neighbor” (Rosenthal D. E.).

“The creative processing of the image of the courtyard goes along the line of enhancing the display of the tragedy of his fate ...” (K. Chukovsky).

In constructions with control, with two control words, there is a common dependent: “run and jump on the site”, “collect and scatter stones”. Such constructions are flawless if the verbs in them require the same control.

Incorrect: “treat and take care of the sick”, “love and be interested in music”: treat (whom?) - take care (of whom?), love (what?), - be interested (what?).

The appearance of syntactic speech defects is due to ignorance:

e) rules for the use of participial and adverbial phrases.

Proper use of participial phrases requires knowledge of the following rules: 1) the word being defined must come before or after the participial phrase: “The facts presented in the report testify to the great successes of modern science” - incorrect.

“The facts given in the report testify to the great successes of modern science,” - that's right.

2) a common mistake is the incorrect placement in the sentence of the participial turnover and the attributive clause: “There was a fireplace in the room, in which the fire had not been lit for a long time and served as a shelf for the residents” - incorrect.

“There was a fireplace in the room, which had not been lit for a long time. He served as a shelf for the tenants “- that's right.

The most common mistake in constructing a sentence with a participial turnover is that the authors do not always clearly understand the main action expressed by the verb, and the additional action expressed by the participle turnover is performed by one person (object). If this circumstance is not taken into account, then we got, for example, the following statement: “Approaching the city, a strong wind began,” “opening the window, it smelled of pines.”

Some verbs do not form gerunds with the suffix -А (-Я) in the present. time: “write”, “run”, “save”, “smear”, “knit”, “be able”, “reap”, “sing”, “scratch”, etc.

Speech is a channel for the development of intellect,
the sooner the language is learned,
the easier and more complete the knowledge will be assimilated.

Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin,
Soviet linguist and psychologist

Speech is conceived by us as an abstract category, inaccessible to direct perception. Meanwhile, this is the most important indicator of a person’s culture, his intellect and, a way of knowing the complex relationships of nature, things, society and transmitting this information through communication.

Obviously, both learning and already using something, we make mistakes due to inability or ignorance. And speech, like other types of human activity (in which language is an important component), is no exception in this respect. All people make mistakes, both in and in oral speech. Moreover, the concept of speech culture, as an idea of ​​"", is inextricably linked with the concept of a speech error. In fact, these are parts of one process, which means that, striving for perfection, we must be able to recognize speech errors and eradicate them.

Types of speech errors

First, let's look at what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from the current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live normally, work and communicate with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success depends on it, this is unacceptable.

The author of the classification of speech errors below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.

Types of speech errors:

Examples and causes of speech errors

S. N. Zeitlin writes: “The complexity of the mechanism for generating speech acts as a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's consider special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.

Pronunciation errors

Pronunciation or pronunciation errors occur as a result of violation of the rules of orthoepy. In other words, the reason lies in the incorrect pronunciation of sounds, sound combinations, individual grammatical structures and borrowed words. They also include accentological errors - violation of the norms of stress. Examples:

Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plot” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktric” (“electric”), “colidor” (“corridor”), “laboratory” (“laboratory”), “thousand” (“thousand”), “right now” (“now”).

stress: “calls”, “dialogue”, “contract”, “catalog”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beetroot”, “phenomenon”, “chauffeur”, “expert”.

Lexical errors

Lexical errors - violation of the rules of vocabulary, first of all - the use of words in unusual meanings, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They are of several types.

The use of a word in an unusual sense. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type, there are three subtypes:

• Mixing words that are close in meaning: "He read the book back."
• Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, ear - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
• Mixing words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diplomat, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignorant. "Cashier for business trips" (necessary - seconded).

word writing. Error examples: Georgian, heroism, underground workers, winder.

Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the line of their real meanings. For example, you cannot say: I raise this toast", since "raise" means "move", which is not consistent with the wish. “Through the door wide open” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (slightly open) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.

This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “May month”, “traffic route”, “address of residence”, “huge metropolis”, “to be on time”. A tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “The task was set”, “One public organization acted as the organizer”, “I wish you long creative longevity”.

Phraseological errors

Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in an unusual meaning. Yu. V. Fomenko distinguishes 7 varieties:

• Changing the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “While the essence and the case” instead of “While the court and the case”;
• Truncation of a phraseological unit: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseologism: “hit his head against the wall”);
• Expansion of the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “You turned to the wrong address” (phraseologism: contact the address);
• Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: "I can't stand to sit with my hands folded." Correct: "difficult";
• Contamination (association) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything idly by” (a combination of phraseological units “sleeveless” and “idly folded”);
• The combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "A random stray bullet";
• The use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: "Today we're going to talk about the film from cover to cover."

Morphological errors

Morphological errors are the incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers”.

Syntax errors

Syntax errors are associated with a violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules for combining words. There are a lot of varieties of them, so we will give only a few examples.

• Wrong match: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
• Mismanagement: "Pay for the fare";
• Syntactic ambiguity: "Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression"(did Mayakovsky read or did you read Mayakovsky's works?);
• Structural offset: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask you is attention”;
• Extra correlative word in the main sentence: "We were looking at those stars that dotted the whole sky."

Spelling mistakes

This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of spelling, hyphenation, abbreviation of words. characteristic of speech. For example: “The dog barked”, “sit on chairs”, “come to the railway station”, “Russian. language", "gram. mistake".

Punctuation errors

Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks with.

Stylistic mistakes

We devoted a separate topic to this topic.

Ways to correct and prevent speech errors

How to prevent speech errors? Your speech work should include:

1. Reading fiction.
2. Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
3. Communication with educated people.
4. Constant work on improving the culture of speech.

Online course "Russian language"

Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course "" to these topics. In the classroom, you will get the opportunity to work out the skill of competent writing using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of the material through simple exercises and special memorization techniques.

Sources

• Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. - St. Petersburg, 1997.
• Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
• Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors ...
• Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. - Novosibirsk: NGPU, 1994.
• Zeitlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Enlightenment, 1982.

Coursework on the topic:

“Language norm. The concept of speech error.

Supervisor:

Doctor of Philology,

Professor ____________

Work is done

_________________

Krasnodar, 2010

I Introduction

II. Chapter I. The concept of "language norm"

and "speech error"

1.1Types of norms

1.2 Speech errors

1.3 Main causes of speech errors

III. Chapter II. Speech errors

in everyday life

2.2 Speech errors in the media

2.3 Speech errors

at different levels (word, text, etc.)

IV. Conclusion

V. References

VI. Appendix

Introduction.

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotional and expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, compatibility with other words. Since a violation of at least one of these criteria, a violation of the language norm can lead to a speech error.

And, it is speech errors and language norms that my term paper is devoted to.

First, a few words about the norm in general, regardless of the language.

The concepts of normal, norms are important for many types of human activity. There are norms for the production of products (for example, at a factory) and normals, i.e., technical requirements that this product must satisfy. No one doubts the fact that in any civilized society there are norms of relationships between people, norms of etiquette; each of us has an idea of ​​what is normal for human communication, and what is abnormal, goes beyond some unwritten norm. Yes, and our everyday speech is full of these words: How are you doing? - Fine!; Well how are you? - Nothing, it's fine. .

Moreover, the norm is also invisibly present in our statements that do not contain the words norm or normal. When we evaluate, for example, the height of a person or animal, we can say: - What a tall guy! - or: - This giraffe is too small for a giraffe, - and thus we compare the growth of a guy and a giraffe with some implied growth rate (naturally, different for a person and for a giraffe). When we talk: comfortable chair, too dark room, inexpressive singing, we mean (although we are not aware of this) some generally accepted "norms" for the comfort of a chair, the illumination of a room, the expressiveness of singing.

The norm is also in the language. And this is quite natural: language is an integral part of not only civilized, but in general any human society. The norm is one of the central linguistic concepts, although it cannot be said that all linguists interpret it in the same way.

Most often, this term is used in combination with "literary norm" and is applied to those varieties of language that are used in the media, in science and education, in diplomacy, lawmaking and legislation, in business and legal proceedings, and other areas of "socially important", predominantly public communication. But you can also talk about the norm in relation to the territorial dialect - that is, for example, to the speech of the indigenous inhabitants of the Krasnodar Territory or the Moscow Region, to professional or social jargon - that is, to the way carpenters or "thieves in law" speak .

The last statement may seem very doubtful, and therefore it requires clarification.

Linguists use the term norm in two senses - broad and narrow.

In a broad sense, the norm means such means and methods of speech that spontaneously formed over many centuries and which usually distinguish one type of language from others. That is why we can talk about the norm in relation to the territorial dialect: for example, okanye is normal for northern Russian dialects, and akanye is normal for southern Russian dialects. In its own way, any of the social or professional jargons is "normal": for example, what is used in commercial slang will be rejected as alien by those who own the jargon of carpenters; well-established ways of using linguistic means exist in the army jargon and in the jargon of "labukh" musicians, and the carriers of each of these jargons can easily distinguish someone else's from their own, familiar and therefore normal for them, etc.

In a narrow sense, a norm is the result of the codification of a language. Of course, codification is based on the tradition of the existence of a language in a given society, on some unwritten, but generally accepted ways of using linguistic means. But it is important at the same time that codification is a purposeful ordering of everything related to the language and its application. The results of codifying activity - and this is mainly done by linguists - are reflected in normative dictionaries and grammars. The norm as a result of codification is inextricably linked with the concept of a literary language, which is otherwise called normalized or codified.

The literary norm, as a result of not only tradition, but also codification, is a set of rather rigid prescriptions and prohibitions that contribute to the unity and stability of the literary language. The norm is conservative and is aimed at preserving the language means and the rules for their use, accumulated in a given society by previous generations. The unity and universal validity of the norm is manifested in the fact that representatives of different social strata and groups that make up a given society are obliged to adhere to traditional ways of linguistic expression, as well as those rules and regulations that are contained in grammars and dictionaries and are the result of codification. Deviation from the linguistic tradition, from vocabulary and grammatical rules and recommendations is considered a violation of the norm and is usually assessed negatively by native speakers of this literary language.

However, it is no secret that at all stages of the development of the literary language, when using it in different communicative conditions, variants of language means are allowed: one can say cottage cheese- and cottage cheese , searchlights- and searchlights , you are right- and you're right" etc. What is the rigidity and conservatism of the norm?

The fact that variants exist within the limits of the norm only at first glance seems to contradict the rigor and unambiguity of normative guidelines. In fact, the norm, by its very essence, is associated with the concept of selection, selection. In its development, the literary language draws funds from other varieties of the national language - from dialects, vernacular, jargons, but does this with extreme caution. This selective and, at the same time, protective function of the norm, its conservatism is an undoubted benefit for the literary language, since it serves as a link between the cultures of different generations and different social strata of society.

The norm is based on traditional ways of using the language and is wary of linguistic innovations. "The norm is what was, and in part what is, but by no means what will be," wrote the famous linguist A. M. Peshkovsky.

However, the conservatism of the norm does not mean its complete immobility in time. In Pushkin's time they said: houses, buildings, now - houses, buildings. A. I. Herzen considered quite normal turnover make an impact, G. I. Uspensky in "Letters from the Road" mentions pack of keys, Leo Tolstoy admitted to one of his correspondents that he remembers very well(we would now say: make an impact, a bunch of keys, breadth of understanding, remembers well). Chekhov said on the phone(he reports this in one of his letters), and we - by phone .

The normative status can change not only of individual words, forms and constructions, but also of interrelated speech samples in a certain way. This happened, for example, with the so-called Old Moscow pronunciation norm, which by the second half of the 20th century was almost completely replaced by a new pronunciation, closer to the written form of the word: instead of boyus, laughing, shygi, zhyra, top, Thursday, quiet, strict, assent, brown,) the vast majority of native speakers of the Russian literary language began to speak afraid, laughing, steps, heat, top, thursday, quiet, strict, agreeing, brown,) etc.

Speech practice often runs counter to normative prescriptions, and the contradiction between how one should speak and how one actually speaks turns out to be the driving stimulus for the evolution of the language norm.

Thus, the literary norm combines tradition and purposeful codification. Although the speech practice of literary-speaking people is generally oriented towards the norm, there is always a kind of "gap" between normative guidelines and prescriptions, on the one hand, and how the language is actually used, on the other: practice does not always follow normative recommendations. The linguistic activity of a native speaker of a literary language proceeds in a constant - but usually unconscious - coordination of one's own speech actions with the traditional ways of using language means, with what the dictionaries and grammars of a given language prescribe, and with how the language is actually used in everyday communication. contemporaries.

Undoubtedly, this topic is relevant. Every day, being with friends, relatives, or just walking down the street, I hear a lot of speech errors, although I didn’t notice them before, because I didn’t think about them. And therefore, the purpose of my term paper is to identify and eliminate those errors that have already tightly merged into our speech.

Chapter I. The concepts of "language norm" and "speech error"

Language norms (norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The language norm is the rules for the use of the language, which are “legitimized by literature, preferred and recognized by society as mandatory, and therefore supported and protected by literature, society, and the state. (Skvortsov)

Language norm - a set of rules for choosing and using language means, how it is customary to speak and write in a given society in a given era (our Morozova)

Speech is recognized as correct if it is consistent with the norms of the literary language (LA)

Each level of the language has its own norms: phonetic, syntactic, lexical, word-forming, phraseological, grammatical, etc. Language norms cover not only individual linguistic units, but also the patterns of choice and organization of these units within the text; norms are also manifested at the language level (style norms are the norm for the choice and organization of language units in a text of a certain style and the norm for choosing a style that corresponds to the conditions of linguistic communication.)

The norm is inextricably linked with the concept of Russian literary language (it is a hallmark of LA, guards the integrity and comprehensibility of LA, recommends some language means and methods as legal and rejects others as illegal)

Signs of a language norm:

v Possesses relative stability and stability (after all, the norm is a historical category)

v At the same time, the norm is characterized by historical variability, dynamism (at the time of Pushkin, the ghost a k, suff and ks, and now we put the emphasis on the first syllable) In connection with the dynamism of the norm, it is customary to distinguish between the old (older) and new (younger) norms.

v They play a very important role: they ensure the continuity of linguistic traditions, the connection between the older and younger generations.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (official business communication). The norm indicates their communicative expediency.

What are the functions of norms?

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This is an important function of the rules - language protection function.

In addition, the norms reflect what has developed in the language historically - this is language history reflection function.

Speaking about the essence of the norm, it should be remembered that the norm is not a law (although the similarity of these two concepts is obvious). The law is a necessity that does not allow any deviations, the norm is only prescribes, it should be. Let's compare the following examples: 1. A stone thrown up must then fall down (this is the law of nature); 2. A person living in society must comply with the rules of the hostel, for example, do not knock on the wall with a hammer after 23:00 (these are social norms); 3. A person in the process of verbal communication must put stress correctly (these are language norms). So, the norm only indicates how it should be - it is prescription function.

Correlative with the concept of norm are the concepts of usage (Latin usus - custom, custom) and codification (from Lat codex - book and facere - to do).

Usus is the tradition of using a language.

Codification is the bringing together of the mandatory rules for the use of a language.

Usus and codification (i.e., tradition and the work of specialists) determine the norm.

Variant of the norm (not an error !!!) - at the same time e exactly - at the same time e nno (equal)

Deviation from the norm arises from the strong influence of dialects and vernacular on speech.

Examples of violations of the rules:

Orthoepic (determine the pronunciation of sounds and separate grammatical forms) - hello - hello, An Vanna - Anna Ivanovna

Accentological (stress rules) - say m and grain - but it is necessary e rny, mark e ting - right m a Rketing

Morphological (establish the correct use of parts of speech and their forms): Lay notebook on the table put, Not above laugh at him theirs the house is guarded by a dog.

Syntactic (regulates the order and connection of words in a sentence, agreement of the predicate with the subject, etc.) - They brought peasant cows from the field, who urgently needed to be milked. (whom to milk - then?) I love game on the piano and sing in the choir.

The ideal norm is difficult to achieve because:

First, there is professional use any linguistic means: in the speech of many specialists, including people with a high general linguistic culture, forms that are different from the generally accepted ones are common, - comp á with(for sailors) syringe s´ (for doctors), price contract á I(for economists) comb fund- neatly arrange books in the library (at the librarians), comp(for computer scientists) and many others.

Secondly, there is territorial (dialect) usage. In everyday colloquial speech of native speakers of the Russian language living in different territories, local words and forms of dialect origin are often used, for example * drink tea (drink tea), * byvat (it happens), * kartovina (potatoes) in the speech of the inhabitants of the Russian North. Dialectisms can be inherent in residents not only of villages, but also of central cities. So, it was found that along with the generally accepted name of rectangular bread loaf residents of Moscow and St. Petersburg actively use the word brick(this is already a local dialect), and in the speech of Perm and Chelyabinsk residents, all forms of bread, including rectangular ones, are referred to as the word bun(from the point of view of the norm, this word refers only to a special type of round-shaped white bread).

Question #5 single and multiple words. Homonyms, types of homonyms.

Literary language and literary norm. Violations of the literary norm and their causes

Literary language- a supra-dialect subsystem (form of existence) of the national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, polyfunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among native speakers of this national language. The property of all who owns its norms. It functions in both written and spoken forms.

The language of fiction (the language of writers), although it usually focuses on the same norms, contains a lot of individual, not generally accepted. In different historical epochs and among different peoples, the degree of closeness of the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

Literary language- the common language of writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school education, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, more often written, but sometimes in oral. That is why the written and bookish and oral and colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.

Literary language- this is a historically established, socially conscious, language system, which is distinguished by strict codification, however, it is mobile and not static, which covers all spheres of human activity: the sphere of science and education - the scientific style; socio-political sphere - journalistic style; sphere of business relations - official business style.

The idea of ​​the “fixedness” of the norms of the literary language has a certain relativity (for all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of the people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the very problem of literary language.

There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of the literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either the written literary language, or the colloquial literary language, or the language of fiction, etc.

Literary language cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, though related concepts.

Language norm- these are the rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means adopted in the social and speech practice of educated people.

The language norm acquires a universally binding character for a number of reasons, including by virtue of its legalization.

A language norm is a legalized rule for the use of language means.

The initial form of legalization is the custom of using linguistic means.

The highest form of legalization at the level of the literary language is codification(translated from Latin "code of laws").

Codification is a form of systematization of language means, which consists in fixing spontaneously formed language norms, eliminating inconsistencies and contradictions, filling in gaps, preferring options, and canceling obsolete norms. Codification is carried out by philologists through description in grammars, dictionaries, reference books. Codification ensures greater stability of the norm, prevents its semi-spontaneous and uncontrolled changes. Based on the foregoing, a more precise definition of the language norm can be given.

A language norm is a historically established rule for a uniform, commonly used, legalized use of language means.

What should be normative speech? It is defined as follows: it must be correct and precise, concise and accessible, emotional and convincing, actually harmonious, stylistically consistent.

Of all these positive qualities of literary speech, the main one is the correctness of speech, that is, the ability of speaking and writing students to express their thoughts correctly, in accordance with the norms that exist in the language.

These are spelling norms related to the spelling of words, orthoepic or pronunciation norms, grammatical, lexical, stylistic, punctuation norms, etc.

What are the reasons for breaking the rules?

1) Insufficient knowledge of the language culture (ignorance of grammatical material, rules, inability to apply them in the right situation, etc.).

2) Abuse of dialect words, vernacular.

3) Clogging the language with jargon and phraseology.

The vagueness of thought, the thoughtlessness of the statement, a small vocabulary, the inability to choose the right, appropriate word, to accurately determine its meaning, the inability to give the sentence a stylistic coloring - all this entails numerous errors.

The development of linguistic culture begins with the development of linguistic material.

External language culture is manifested in the correct pronunciation of words (for example: contract? R, quarter? L, marketing, etc.). There is a so-called internal language culture. This is knowledge of the semantics of words, knowledge of terminology, constant work with dictionaries of various types, etc.

Language norms are distinguished by their dynamism. This means that the language norm is a historical category, a phenomenon that changes, develops, goes into the passive stock of the language, if a particular word is outdated.

Let's look at an example:

Outdated forms - a large hall, a southern sanatorium, an interesting film, a new piano.

Modern forms - a large hall, a southern sanatorium, an interesting film, a new piano.

It is known that in the Russian language there was a struggle between two generic forms of nouns: the masculine form and the feminine form. In martial arts, the masculine form most often won, as we saw in the examples.

Logical (semantic) errors occur when the laws of logic are violated, the speaker or writer contradicts himself, does not logically connect parts of the message, allows the text to be ambiguous or completely meaningless.

Consider an example from student work:

Oily hair causes a lot of trouble. Get rid of them will help the drug "London".

Man in black hair, come to us.

From this we can conclude: do not violate the laws of thinking, learn the logical norms. This is the first requirement for those who speak or write in a particular language.

Lexical errors- this is the result of a violation of the accuracy of the word usage of words, to be able to select accurate, socially characteristic, stylistically significant words for expressing thoughts - this is the skill of the speaker.

“The word is the clothes of all facts,” wrote M. Gorky. And therefore, it is quite natural to demand that these clothes be chosen with taste and by measure. This means that the words in the sentence must be selected with the underlying semantic and stylistic compatibility. The choice of a word is determined by its stylistic features: the environment in which the word falls (within a phrase or a wider context) is taken into account.

So, the correct choice of words, their semantic and stylistic compatibility are necessary. If this compatibility is violated, a lexical error occurs, the essence of which is an incorrectly chosen word in the text. This can be seen on the example of the work of our students:

I want to lead a humanoid life.

The character is closed, not transparent.

After inflicting physical abuse, everyone calmed down.

Grammatical errors often violate the meaning of the statement. These are errors associated with inversion, tautology, pleonasms, the words “weeds”. Unjustified inversion can lead to ambiguity. For example:

The public is widely preparing to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the writer's literary activity.

The word widely should be associated with the word note “Any reverse word order in the text must be aesthetically justified” (A. Peshkovsky).

Pleonasms are verbosity.

Examples: Tell your autobiography, step back, meet for the first time, March, price list.

Exception: "free vacancy", it is fixed in the literary language as the norm.