A person's understanding of the structure, composition, lifestyle and types of interaction of all living beings on the planet helps him use this knowledge for his own purposes, for the benefit of the development of human civilization. Moreover, people have always been interested in the world around them. Since ancient times, man has been trying to find out how organisms are arranged, what they are, what they are and what they mean.

That is why, over time, such a discipline as biology was born and received the most colossal popularity among the sciences. At first, it concerned only plants, then animals, humans, microorganisms, and finally reached the stage in its development when it became possible to look inside the tiniest creatures. On the path of formation, many subsidiary sciences spun off from biology, which are now all complex and constitute its essence.

Biological Sciences

There are a number of different sciences that biology includes. Let's consider their classification.

I. General Sciences

1. Systematics.
2. Morphology (anatomy, histology, cytology).
3. Physiology.
4. evolutionary doctrine.
5. Biogeography.
6. Ecology.
7. Genetics.

II. Complex

III. Private sciences

1. Botany.
2. Zoology.
3. Anthropology.

This method of subdivision of biological disciplines was proposed by the scientist B. G. Johansen in 1969, and it has not lost its relevance to this day. This classification covers almost all major disciplines, except for the most modern - biotechnology, biochemistry, genetic and cell engineering and some medical sciences.

Anatomy and related disciplines

One of the earliest and most important biological disciplines is anatomy. Here we will consider it in more detail.

First, the question arises: anatomy - what is it? What is she studying? Several answers can be formulated. But the point is the following.

Anatomy is the science of the shape of organs and organ systems, their structure and functioning. This discipline is a branch of morphology and itself includes two varieties:

• plant anatomy - the structure, shape and location of organs and tissues in plant creatures;
• anatomy of animals and humans - everything is the same, only for representatives of the fauna.

Anatomy with other sciences is in close interaction, and this is not surprising. It is difficult to study the molecular structure of a liver cell if you do not know what the liver is, where it is located and what functions it performs. Therefore, this discipline occupies a very important place in the general system of biological sciences.

Anatomy itself is divided into the following varieties:

• comparative;
• systematic;
• age;
• topographic;
• plastic;
• functional;
• experimental morphology.

Each section has its own goals and objectives of study, its own object and subject of study, and makes a very large contribution to the accumulation of a theoretical knowledge base in biology.

Goals and objectives of science

Anatomy - what exactly does this discipline study? To answer, let us turn to the goals and objectives of this science.

Purpose: to form accurate theoretical knowledge, supported by experimental practical research, about the structure of the human body, the shape and position of its organs and systems, their formation in the process of evolution and transformation over time under the influence of environmental factors.

In connection with the goal, anatomy is a science that solves the following problems:

1. To study the stages of the formation of a person and his body in the process of evolutionary development.
2. Consider the structure of organs, their systems and study the patterns of change as a result of age-related transformations.
3. To study the influence of environmental conditions and factors on the development and formation of organs and systems of the human body.

Thus, we received a specific and complete answer to the question "Anatomy - what is it?" and we can proceed to consider the history of the development of this science.

History of anatomy as a science

As a science, this discipline was formed only in the XVIII century. However, theoretical knowledge began to accumulate in ancient times, thanks to the works of such great people as Hippocrates, Aristotle, Herophilus, Erazistrat and others.

We will more fully and clearly consider how anatomy (the science of man) was formed by epochs in the form of a table.

Ancient Greece, Egypt, Persia and China (460 BC - XIII century AD)	Middle Ages and Renaissance (XIII - XVIII centuries)	New and Modern Time (XVIII - XXI centuries)
1. "Ayurveda" (Indian book). It contained descriptions of some human organs, muscles and nerves.	The beginning of the Middle Ages is characterized by stagnation in the development of anatomical knowledge. Nothing is studied or investigated, as it is forbidden by the church. But already the end of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII century - this is the period of the Renaissance. At this time, a number of events are unfolding that have become an important milestone in the history of science.	This period is characterized by the creation of which allow the discovery of small structures and microorganisms. Medical anatomy emerges. New methods of studying living organisms, including humans, are being formed. A clear concept is defined that anatomy is a science that studies not just organs, but entire systems, their work and formation throughout life.
2. Neijing (Chinese book). Includes descriptions of the heart, kidneys, liver and other human organs.	1. The Italian Mondino in 1316 creates the first textbook, which says that anatomy is the science of human organs, their life.	1. Karl Baer (1792-1876) - discovered the human egg, studied the mechanisms of formation and the beginning of the formation of organs from them. He became the founder (repetition) in the embryogenesis of the human embryo of some external signs of animals.
3. The Egyptian doctor Imhotep studied the constituent parts of the human body based on corpses for mummification. He described all the observations and thus created his work.	2. 1473 - the works of Avicenna and Celsus are published, the first medical anatomical dictionary of terms is produced.	2. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Charles Darwin made a huge contribution to the development of evolutionary doctrine. Darwin is the author of the most widespread theory of the origin of human species and their historical development.
4. Roman Herophilus and his main work "Anatomy". He purposefully studied the internal structure of human corpses, made a great contribution to the development of human anatomy, he is called the father of this discipline.	3. A special contribution to the development of the discipline was made by the painter Leonardo da Vinci, who skillfully used his talents as an artist to accurately sketch the muscles, organs, and parts of the skeleton of the human body. He owns more than 600 excellent, accurate and clear drawings, reflecting the work of muscles and their structure, various organs and bones.	3. Louis Pasteur - a brilliant scientist, chemist, microbiologist. He managed to prove the impossibility of spontaneous generation of life without the participation of microorganisms. Conducted many experiments proving this fact, is the father of microbiology. He also developed the first attempts to inoculate people against diseases.
5. Erazistrat (Greece) also studied anatomy on the corpses of those condemned by law. He refuted the doctrine put forward by Hippocrates about the fluids that control the human body and its diseases. Described some organs and muscles.	4. - doctor, researcher, creator of a seven-volume anatomy book. One of the greatest anatomy researchers of his time. He recognized only observations and experiments, all the results were obtained by collecting bones in cemeteries.	4. Kaspar Wolf - the founder of embryogenesis, its main trends and directions.
6. Claudius Galen - 400 sources belong to his works, in which he described in detail dozens of structural parts of the body, including nerves and muscles. His works were the first methodological material for other people in the study of anatomy.	5. - made an invaluable contribution to the development of ideas about the movement of blood through the vessels. The founder, he expressed the idea of ​​the origin of all living things from one egg.	5. Luigi Galvani is a famous physicist who discovered nerve impulses of an electrical nature in the tissues of living beings of animal origin. Founder of electrophysiology.
7. Celsus is the founder of many medical aspects of anatomy. He was engaged in the study of ligation of blood vessels, the basics of surgery and hygiene.	6. Eustachius - discovered the auditory tube, named after him (Eustachian), which connects the middle ear and the outer atmosphere. He also owns the discovery and description of the adrenal glands. Many of the organs described by him were placed in a common work, which he could not finish.	6. Peter I made a huge contribution to the development of anatomy and medicine in Russia. It was he who set the pace, thanks to which the scientists of our country were able to make a number of important and significant discoveries and give the sciences the opportunity to develop intensively. The tsar himself adopted this experience from foreign figures. The creation of the Russian Academy of Sciences was of decisive importance in the development of many disciplines.
8. Persian doctor Abu-Ibn-Sina (Avicenna) - developed his theory, according to which there are 4 main organs in the human body that are responsible for all its work: heart, testicle, liver, brain.	7. Gabriele Fallopius - student of Vesalius. He owns descriptions and discoveries of a number of small structural parts of the body: the eardrum, eye and palatine muscles, elements of the organ of hearing. He described the fundamentals of the structure of the female genital organs.	7. Pirogov N. I. - an outstanding surgeon, the founder of comparative anatomy, the inventor of the "ice anatomy" method (cutting parts of frozen corpses for study and comparison). His work became the basis for the development of surgery.
9. Greeks Empedocles and Alcmaeon. They contributed to the development of knowledge about the ear and the organs of vision, and the nerves adjacent to them.	8. Thomas Willis - a physician who is known for the discovery of a number of human diseases, as well as for a thorough study of the nervous system of people.	8. P. A. Zagorsky and I. V. Buyalsky were the first to develop and publish anatomical atlases and teaching aids for students.
10. Greeks Anaxagoras and Aristophanes. They studied the brain and its membranes independently of each other, and described what they saw.	9. Gleason. He described organs and more carefully studied children's human diseases.	9. P. F. Lesgaft - the founder of functional anatomy. He studied and described muscles, bones, their work and structure, joints.
11. Euripides and Diogenes were able to examine the portal vein, described some parts of the circulatory system, many other organs and their work.	10. Casparo Azelli. He made a fairly accurate description of the lymphatic vessels of the intestine. He invested a lot of work in the development of ideas about the action of the circulatory and lymphatic systems.	10. V. N. Tonkov. He suggested using x-rays to study the skeleton. Founder of experimental anatomy as a discipline.
12. Aristotle. Studied plants, animals and humans. Created over 400 works from different areas of biology. He considered the soul to be the basis of all living things, pointed out the similarities in the structure of the animal and man.	11. A very important step forward in the development of anatomy was the autopsy of corpses in public. Those who wished to study medicine were admitted to such events. During the autopsy, there was a joint discussion of what they saw. The relaxation on the part of the Church also had a positive effect on the study of the basics of anatomy.	11. D.A. Zhdanov, B.I. Lavrentiev, N.M. Yakubovich made a great contribution to the development of knowledge about the structure and mechanisms of the brain, about the conduction of impulses.
13. Hippocrates - the author of the idea of ​​four fluids moving the body: blood, mucus, black and yellow bile. He denied theological views on the anatomy of people and animals.		12. II Mechnikov - author of the theory of immunity, discoverer of the process of phagocytosis. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in this field.

Of course, this is not a complete list of names whose works are of great theoretical and practical value in the development of such a science as anatomy.

What is anatomy today? Modern scientists also do not stop there. All new discoveries of various structures and their functions periodically occur. This means that some processes are still incomprehensible to a person, and he has something to strive for.

Relationship of anatomy and physiology

Anatomy and physiology are closely related to each other. As sciences, they can provide complete information about the structure, form, structure and functioning of a particular organ or system only in combination. That is why, along with the corresponding anatomical sciences, there is the physiology of plants and animals, including humans.

This is a very important interaction that allows a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of the human body. This means that they should be properly managed. In turn, such data are extremely important for medicine. So it turns out that almost all biological sciences are a tightly intertwined ball, pulling the thread of which, you can get unique and complete information about any living being.

Anatomy for schoolchildren

In the course of the school curriculum, one of the important subjects for high school students is anatomy. What grade does it start in? As a science, it is taught starting from the eighth. But the first knowledge about the structure of the human body and the functioning of organs is given already in elementary school.

Learning a subject in elementary school

Naturally, they do not begin to study this discipline from the first grade, although some anatomical concepts are explained to children abstractly and in an accessible form. For example, improper sitting at a desk can lead to a curvature of the spine. As a rule, at this age, all children already know where the spine is located. And only in the fourth grade does the "real" anatomy begin. Grade 4 is the final stage of primary education. Children are well prepared to learn to understand the most basic anatomical processes. Training is provided by the program in the course of the discipline "The World Around". Children are given the general topography of organs in the human body, their name and the name of the systems they form. There is also an emphasis on the functions performed.

Anatomy for grade 8

At the middle level of education, human anatomy is studied in the most detailed and complete way. Grade 8 involves a whole year of careful and voluminous consideration of the issues of this discipline. During this period, everything is studied, from the history of the development of anatomy to issues of higher nervous activity and childbirth.

Children are told about all the features of the structure and functioning of organ systems, their individual parts, detailed information is provided on the influence of external factors on the development of people. The issues of evolution and formation of the human race are touched upon. That is, human anatomy is studied in a complex with other sciences.

The textbook "Grade 8. Anatomy" contains brightly illustrated, high-quality and accessible information on all issues of the discipline. In addition, it is accompanied by electronic manuals that involve the study of science issues virtually. Workbooks for students, as well as a number of teaching aids for teachers, have been created for the textbook.

This makes it possible to consolidate the knowledge that biology gives (human anatomy). Grade 8 is not the only one in which anatomical issues are raised, but the main one.

The study of discipline in the 9th grade of the school

In some schools, this science is relevant at a later time - in the course of the 9th grade. Many believe that due to the complexity of the subject, the best assimilation will take place precisely in this teenage, more adult period of the formation of children's consciousness.

However, there is no doubt that the earlier study of the discipline is no less effective. After all, there are many sections that biology offers students. Grade 9 "Human Anatomy" shifts to earlier stages of study such complex issues as the molecular structure of the cell and organisms in general, evolutionary doctrine. Therefore, it is difficult to say at what age it is better to study an anatomy course. Anatomy is a science that studies primarily the structure and functions of the human body. Therefore, it hardly makes sense to postpone the study "on the back burner".

10th grade and anatomy

Previously (until the 1980s), this discipline generally took place only in high school. It was at the last stage of education that anatomy appeared. 10th grade was considered the most suitable time for this.

Today's children are growing up in an era of intense transformation in science and technology. Their consciousness is more filled, they have become much more developed and more capable. The volume of material for study has also increased significantly, the methods and ways of teaching have changed (improved). Therefore, the transfer of the study of anatomy to the 8th grade has its own logical explanations and is not something negative.

Anatomy and physiology as sciences talk about the theoretical and practical parts and are used to train health workers. At first glance, they may seem the same concepts, but their essence is significantly different. Let us dwell in more detail on these terms, and on anatomy in particular.

What is anatomy?

Anatomy is the science of the structure, shape and development of the body. The main method of studying this science was the dissection of the corpse. Translated anatemne means "dissection", so it is not surprising where such a name came from. The science of human anatomy examines the shape and construction of the human body, as well as all organs.

What is physiology?

Physiology is a science that studies the processes and functional features of the body, their interaction. Physiology is as important in biology as anatomy. These two sciences cannot coexist without each other, because if one of them cannot explain something, the second one comes to the rescue.

Mutually beneficial union

Physiology and anatomy play an important role in the system of sciences, and they are classified as biomedical sciences. It is the theoretical foundation of many clinical disciplines. The basis of medicine is the study of the human body. Once even Hippocrates claimed that anatomy, in alliance with physiology, is the queen of medicine. As you know, the human body is an integral system in which all parts are interconnected not only with each other, but also with the outside world.

A bit of history

The development of the science of anatomy was slow. At first, only descriptions of the organs that are in the human body were carried out. This was possible during the autopsy of corpses. This is how descriptive anatomy was formed. For a long time it was like that, but at the beginning of the twentieth century everything changed, and systematic anatomy arose, the body began to be studied by organ systems. All due to the fact that during surgical intervention it was necessary to accurately determine the location of organs, therefore the so-called topographic anatomy began to develop. Then plastic anatomy appeared, which began to describe external forms, after which a new round was formed called functional anatomy, because organ systems and organs separately began to be considered together with their functionality. Soon a new section of the science of human anatomy arose, which was called dynamic anatomy. Further, age-related anatomy appeared, which studied changes in organs and tissues, taking into account their age. Well, in the end, comparative anatomy appeared, which studies the similarities and differences between the human and animal organisms.

Types of anatomy now

What the science of anatomy means is already clear, but since the advent of the microscope, a lot of new turns have appeared in this scientific section with their own characteristics. Now anatomy happens:

• systematic;
• dynamic;
• descriptive;
• age;
• pathological;
• topographic;
• plastic;
• microscopic;
• functional;
• comparative.

What are the methods?

The methods of the science of anatomy are as follows:

• Opening, dissection, dissection on a corpse with a scalpel.

• Studying with a microscope.
• Observation and inspection of the body with the naked eye.
• Learning through technical aids such as endoscopy and x-rays.
• The study of the method of injection of dyes that are introduced into the organs.
• Corrosion research. This is the dissolution of vessels and tissues, cavities that were filled with various insoluble masses.

What is worth mentioning about physiology and its relation to anatomy?

Anatomy is the science of building the human body, while physiology is an experimental science. Usually, organ transplant techniques, irritation and removal of organs, fistulas are used for research. Sechenov is considered the father of the founders of physiology. It was he who introduced such concepts as the transfer of gases through the bloodstream, developed the theory of fatigue and active rest, spoke about central inhibition and reflex activity of the brain.

What are the divisions in physiology?

To date, there are the following branches of physiology:

• nutritional physiology;
• physiology of labor;
• medical;
• age;
• pathophysiology;
• physiology of experimental conditions.

The main methods of physiology are observation and experiment. The experiment can be acute, non-surgical, or chronic. It is worth stopping at each type.

1. Acute experiment (or vivexia). Introduced the concept of Harvey in 1628. According to rough estimates, about two hundred million experimental animals died at the hands of experimenters.
2. chronic experiment. The concept was introduced by Basov in 1842. The functions of the body have been studied for a long time. First produced on a dog.
3. Without surgical intervention. This method appeared in the twentieth century, and at the same time it was possible to register the electrical potentials of working organs. Now it was possible to receive information from simultaneously working bodies.

Normal anatomy and physiology examine a healthy person. What can be said about a person?

Man and his connection with anatomy

Man is a biosocial creature. An organism is a biologically living system endowed with a mind. Each person has different patterns of life - this is self-renewal, self-regulation and self-reproduction. All of these regularities are realized through the processes of energy and substance exchange, heredity, irritability and homeostasis. What is homeostasis? This is the relative dynamic stability of the internal environment of the body.

Each human organism is a multilevel unit. There are the following levels:

• molecular;
• cellular;
• fabric;
• organ;
• systemic.

The systems in the human body are all interconnected through humoral and nervous regulation. A person is prone to finding and satisfying new needs. Ways of satisfaction can be very different: self-satisfaction or with the help of outside help.

What are the mechanisms of self-satisfaction? This is:

• congenital (changes in metabolism, performance of internal organs);
• acquired (mental reactions, conscious behavior).

Structures to meet all human needs:

1. Executive. These are the excretory, digestive and respiratory systems.
2. Regulatory. These are the nervous and endocrine systems.

The structure of the human body

It is known that anatomy is the science of the structure of the human body, therefore it is worth dwelling on this issue in more detail. The body of each person consists of the following parts:

• head;
• limbs;
• torso.

Speaking of the biological science of anatomy, it is impossible not to mention organ systems as well. This is a group of organs that are similar in origin, structure and functionality. Human organs are located in cavities, which are also additionally filled with fluids. Organ systems directly interact with the external environment. The set of anatomical concepts that establish the position of organs in the human body and their direction is called anatomical nomenclature.

The division of the human body into planes

You already approximately know what science anatomy is, but that's not all. Speaking of anatomy, it is impossible not to mention also the conditional division of the human body along lines and planes. The following lines and planes exist:

1. Frontal. This line conditionally runs parallel to the forehead line.
2. medial. The presented plane passes through the middle of the human body.
3. Sagittal. This plane is perpendicular to the line of the forehead.

Organs are also characterized in relation to planes and axes. The following groups are distinguished:

• proximal (or upper);
• medial (or closer to the middle);
• distal (or lower);
• dorsal (or dorsal);
• ventral (or back);
• lateral (or slightly further from the midline).

Since anatomy is the science of the structure of a person, it is impossible not to say about body types.

Body types are as follows:

1. Brachymorphic. These are usually short and broad people who have a large heart, wide lungs and a high diaphragm.
2. Dolichomorphic. They are distinguished by long bones, the heart is placed vertically, the lungs are long, and the diaphragm is placed low.

The science of anatomy has brought great benefits to healing.

Healing details

Healing appeared much earlier than the first information about the structure of the human or animal body was formulated. In ancient times, the autopsy of animals was carried out for the rituals of sacrifice, it was also done during cooking, but the autopsy of a person was carried out only during embalming. Medicine in ancient times reached unprecedented heights, if we take into account that time. The first accurate data on the structure of the human body appeared thanks to the physician and philosopher Hippocrates. Further, Aristotle made a significant contribution, saying that the heart is the main organ that sets the blood in motion. The Alexandria school also made a significant contribution to the medicine of that time, because doctors there were allowed to dissect corpses for scientific research. As you can see, by the beginning of our era there was fertile ground for the development of medicine, but what science played the main role? Anatomy, that's right!

Claudius Galen was able to formulate the first theory about blood circulation. He said that the liver is the central organ of hematopoiesis, but the heart muscle is already a circulator in the body. Religious prohibitions then dominated in Western and Eastern countries, therefore the development of medicine was hampered in every possible way. Avicenna managed to collect at that time all the known information on medicine and published a book called "Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology." Then there were special schools in France and Italy for medicine.

The father of modern anatomy is recognized as a Belgian scientist named Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). It was this man, risking his health, who obtained corpses in cemeteries for research, and on the basis of these preparations he created the work "Seven Books on the Structure of the Human Body." The well-known Hippocrates is considered the grandfather of modern science. Servetus and Harvey managed, by the way, to refute Galen's theory of blood circulation. It was Servetus who managed to describe the pulmonary circulation, and Harvey - the large one. To confirm the theory, the discovery of Malpighi's capillaries played an important role, this happened in 1661.

Anatomy is a science that did not stand still, but constantly developed and improved. Azelio three hundred years ago correctly described the lymphatic vessels that are located in the dog's mash. An important role in the development of physiology and anatomy was played by the discovery in the first half of the eighteenth century. Rene Descartes was able to discover the reflex. Later, Darwin's theory appeared that all organisms develop in the process of evolution, and all because of the struggle for existence, heredity and natural selection.

In 1839, the cellular theory of organisms was built by Schwann. He was able to prove that new cells in the body are formed by dividing maternal ones, and animal cells are strikingly different from plant cells. Anatomy is a science that studies the human structure, and it has been constantly improved.

After a number of theories were put forward in the seventeenth century, the first medical school was opened in Moscow under the apothecary order. It was founded by Zagorsky. His student Buyalsky, professor of anatomy, proposed an updated method for embalming corpses. The founder of topographic anatomy is N. I. Pirogov. He developed a method for step-by-step cutting of frozen corpses so that the topography of organs could be studied in detail.

Anatomy is the science of human structure, and Mechnikov, Timiryazev, Vorobyov, Zernov, Severtsov, Bekhterev, Stefanis contributed to its development in their time. Vorobyov created a unique technique for studying the nervous system using a binocular loupe, but with preliminary processing of the material with a special solution of weak acids. Zbarsky and Zernov together described in detail the method of embalming that was used on Lenin. Tonkov and his students conducted experiments on the study of the vascular system. Studied the circulatory system and peripheral nerves of Shevkunenko. Zhdanov, Iosifov, Stefanis achieved success in the lymphatic system.

Many results were summed up thanks to the discovery of the latest methods of electrical recording of the performance of organs. The study of nervous regulation was considered the greatest achievement, this happened in the nineteenth century by Sechenov, he spoke about the process of inhibition. Pavlov at the beginning of the twentieth century created the doctrine of a pair of signaling systems, and Posnikov at that time revealed the causes of mortality at the organ level. At this time, the works of Claude Bernard appeared on the internal environment of the body, Sechenov on the transfer of gas by the bloodstream, fatigue and active rest. In 1889, Lunin discovered vitamins, and Anokhin discovered functional systems.

Do not forget about the merits of Pavlov. He played a huge role in the study of the physiology of blood flow, digestion. He and his followers created a unique method of physiological surgery. Now a lot of success has also been achieved - this is the study of physiological processes in individual cells, and so on.

As you can see, anatomy is a science that gave impetus to the development of medicine.

What sciences are related to anatomy?

There is a close connection between anatomy and other sciences. This is:

• cytology;
• embryology (a science that studies the processes of formation of germ cells, fertilization and embryonic development);
• histology (science of tissues).

What can be said about human anatomy?

We have already figured out what science studies anatomy. But what disciplines does this concept include? This is:

1. normal anatomy. This section studies the structure of a healthy person, as well as his organs.
2. Pathological anatomy. A science that studies the morphology of a sick person.
3. Topographic anatomy. Science tells about the location of an organ in the body.
4. Dynamic anatomy. This is a science that studies the motor apparatus from different functional positions. It plays an important role in the proper physical development of a person.

What about systematic anatomy?

Systematic anatomy includes the following sections:

• osteology - the study of the bones that form the skeleton;
• myology - the study of muscle structure;
• angiology - the science of blood vessels;
• cardiology - all about the heart;
• neurology - everything related to the nervous system;
• arthro-syndesmology - the science of connecting bones and joints;
• esthesiology - all about the senses;
• splanchnology - the science of the insides;
• endocrinology - about the organs of internal secretion.

Details about human anatomy

As you know, human anatomy is the science of the development and origin, forms and construction of the body. It studies the proportions of the body, external forms, the proportions of body parts, individual organs and entire systems. The main task of anatomy is the study of the main stages of human development during evolution, the study of the characteristics of the body, organs at different ages.

The modern science of anatomy considers the structure of the human body from the standpoint of dialectical materialism; anatomy should be investigated taking into account all the important functions of organs and their systems. Without an analysis of functions, it is unrealistic to understand the features of the form and construction of the human body; it is also impossible to imagine separately any functions of an organ without understanding its construction. The human body, as you know, is built from a huge number of organs, cells, but this is far from the summation of its individual copies, but a single and uniquely harmonious organism. It is forbidden to consider organs without any relationship.

What can be said about macroscopic anatomy?

This branch of science studies the structure of the body, organs and their parts at levels that are accessible to the naked eye or through the use of devices for a slight increase. Microscopic anatomy studies the structure of the organs in the body, and this is often done using a microscope. As soon as the microscope appeared, two more separate sciences emerged from anatomy: cytology (the science of cells) and histology (the science of tissues).

What does anatomy use today?

This branch of science widely uses in practice various technical means for research. For example, x-rays. Endoscopy or anthropometric methods are also very popular. Of course, all the methods used today are constantly being improved, supplemented, and all because of the relentless information and technical progress. Today, the main methods and methods for studying the anatomy of the human body are macroscopic, electron microscopic, histochemical, spectrofluorimetric, and so on. Also in practice, conventional research methods are used, such as endoscopic, thermographic, magnetic resonance, ultrasound, and so on.

Now the most common and frequently used for studying the presented section of science is the macroscopic method, which includes:

1. Somatoscopy. This is a visual inspection of the body, establishing all its dimensions, determining the shape of body parts, its biometric signs of maturity.
2. Preparation. Sections and the necessary methods of organ removal are used in practice.
3. Anthropometry. It includes the measurement according to the established norms of individual parts of the body, the study of their proportions.
4. Sequential autopsy of a frozen corpse.
5. Maceration. This technique involves the separation of cells in certain tissues, that is, the separation of soft tissues from bones.

Anatomy has influenced all branches of biology in general and has played a significant role in the development of medicine. That is why the importance of the science of anatomy is difficult to overestimate.

/. The concept and method of anatomy

2. Relationship of anatomy with other sciences

3. Disciplines that make up anatomy

4. Structure of systematic anatomy

5. Basic terms

1. human anatomy - science that studies the structure and shape of the human body and its organs in connection with their function and development.

It explores the formation of man in his historical development in the process of evolution of animals, using comparative anatomical method.

2. Closely related to anatomyother morphological spiders:

cytology;

histology - tissue science;

embryology, which studies the processes of formation of germ cells, fertilization, embryonic development of organisms.

3. Human anatomy includesthe following private disciplines:

normal anatomy, studying the structure of a healthy person and his organs;

pathological anatomy - morphology of a sick person;

topographic anatomy- the science of the location of any organ in the human body;

dynamic anatomy, studying the motor apparatus from functional positions, which is important for the correct physical development of a person.

4. As part of systematic anatomy are included:

osteology - the doctrine of the bones that make up the skeleton;

arthro-syndesmology - about the connection of bones and joints;

myology - about the muscles of the skeleton;

splanchnology - about the insides;

angiology - about the vascular system;

cardiology - about the heart;

neurology - about the nervous system;

endocrinology - about the organs of internal secretion;

aesthesiology - about the sense organs.

5. Human (Homo sapiens) belongs to the type chordates (Chordata), subtype vertebrates (Vertebrata), class mammals (Mammalia), and, together with the higher apes, makes up a detachment primates (Primates),

The human body is built according to the type bilateral symmetry - shares median plane into two symmetrical halves. Basic terms used when considering various organs of the human body.

plane dividing the body in vertical direction into two symmetrical halves, called median;

Planes parallel middle- sagittal;

The plane perpendicular to the median frontal;

transverse (horizontal) planes perpendicular to the median and frontal planes;

term "medially"denotes a part of the body closer to the median plane;

"lateral" further away from her.

human anatomy is the science of the origin and development, forms and structure of the human body. Anatomy studies the external forms and proportions of the human body and its parts, individual organs, their design, microscopic structure. The tasks of anatomy include the study of the main stages of human development in the process of evolution, the structural features of the body and individual organs in different age periods, the formation of the human body in the external environment.

The structure of the human body modern science considers from the standpoint of dialectical materialism. Human anatomy should be studied taking into account the functions of each organ and organ system. “... Form and function mutually determine each other.” The features of the form and structure of the human body cannot be understood without an analysis of functions, just as it is impossible to imagine the features of the function of any organ without understanding its structure. The human body consists of a large number of organs, a huge number cells, but this is not the sum of individual parts, but a single harmonious living organism.Therefore, it is impossible to consider organs without interconnection with each other, without the unifying role of the nervous and vascular systems.

Knowledge of anatomy in the medical education system is undeniable. Professor of Moscow University E. O. Mukhin (1766-1850) wrote that "a doctor who is not an anatomist is not only not useful, but also harmful." Poorly knowing the structure of the human body, the doctor, instead of benefit, can harm the patient. That is why, before you begin to comprehend clinical disciplines, it is necessary to study anatomy. Anatomy and physiology form the foundation of medical education, medical science. “Without anatomy, there is no therapy, no surgery, but only signs and prejudice. ki,” wrote the famous obstetrician-gynecologist A.P. Gubarev (1855-1931).

The main methods anatomical studies are observation, examination of the body, autopsy (from the Greek anatome - dissection, dismemberment), as well as observation, the study of a single organ or group of organs (macroscopic anatomy), their internal structure (microscopic anatomy).

Macroscopic anatomy(from the Greek makros - large) studies the structure of the body, individual organs and their parts at levels accessible to the naked eye, or with the help of devices that give a small increase (magnifying glass). Microscopic anatomy(from Greek mikros - small) studies the structure of organs using a microscope. With the advent of microscopes, histology (from the Greek histos - tissue) stood out from anatomy - the study of tissues and cytology (from the Greek kytos - cell) - the science of the structure and functions of the cell.

Anatomy widely uses modern technical means of research. The structure of the skeleton, internal organs, the location and type of blood and lymphatic vessels are known using x-rays. The internal integument of many hollow organs is examined (in the clinic) by endoscopy. Anthropometric methods are used to study the external forms and proportions of the human body.

To indicate the position of the human body in space, the location of its parts relative to each other, the concepts of planes and axes are used. It is customary to consider the initial position of the body when a person is standing, legs together, palms facing forward. Man, like other vertebrates, is built on the principle of bilateral (bilateral) symmetry, his body is divided into two halves - right and left. The boundary between them is middle (median) plane, located vertically and oriented from front to back in the sagittal direction (from lat. sagitta - arrow). This plane is also called the sagittal plane.

Sagittal plane separates the right half of the body (right - dexter) from the left (left - sinister). A vertical plane oriented perpendicular to the sagittal and separating the anterior part of the body (anterior - ante-, rior) from the back (rear - posterior), called frontal(from lat. frons - forehead). This plane in its direction corresponds to the plane of the forehead. As synonyms for the terms "anterior" and "posterior", when determining the position of organs, the terms "abdominal" or "ventral" can be used, respectively. (ventralis), dorsal or dorsal (dorsalis).

horizontal plane oriented perpendicular to the two previous ones and separates the lower parts of the body (lower- inferior) from overlying (upper - superior).

These three planes: sagittal, frontal and horizontal - can be drawn through any point of the human body; the number of planes can be arbitrary. According to the planes, directions (axes) can be distinguished that allow the organs to be oriented relative to the position of the body. vertical axis(vertical - verticalis) directed along the body of a standing person. Along this axis are the spinal column and the organs lying along it (spinal cord, thoracic and abdominal parts of the aorta, thoracic duct, esophagus). The vertical axis coincides with longitudinal axis(longitudinal - longitudinalis), which is also oriented along the human body, regardless of its position in space, or along a limb (leg, arm), or along an organ, the long dimensions of which prevail over others. Frontal (transverse) axis(transverse - transversus, transversalis) coincides in direction with the frontal plane. This axis is oriented right to left or left to right. Sagittal axis(sagittal - sagittalis) located in the anteroposterior direction, as well as the sagittal plane.

To determine the projection of the boundaries of organs (heart, lungs, pleura, etc.), vertical lines are conventionally drawn on the surface of the body, oriented along the human body. anterior median line, linea mediana anterior, passes along the front surface of the human body, on the border between its right and left halves. posterior midline, linea mediana posterior, runs along the spinal column, above the tops of the spinous processes of the vertebrae. Between these two lines on each side, several more lines can be drawn through the anatomical formations on the surface of the body. chest line, linea sternalis, goes along the edge of the sternum, midclavicular line, linea medioclavicularis, passes through the middle of the clavicle, often coincides with the position of the nipple of the mammary gland, in connection with which it is also called linea mammildris- nipple line. anterior axillary line, linea axillaris anterior, starts from the fold of the same name (plica axillaris anterior) in the axillary region and runs along the body. middle axillary line, linea axillaris media, starts from the deepest point of the axillary fossa, posterior axillary line, linea axillaris posterior,- from the fold of the same name (plica axillaris posterior). scapular line, linea scapuldris, passes through the lower angle of the scapula, paravertebral line, linea paravertebralis,- along the spinal column through the costotransverse joints (transverse processes of the vertebrae).

Knowledge of anatomy in the medical education system is undeniable. Professor of Moscow University E. O. Mukhin (1766-1850) wrote that "a doctor who is not an anatomist is not only not useful, but also harmful." Poorly knowing the structure of the human body, the doctor, instead of benefit, can harm the patient. That is why, before you begin to comprehend clinical disciplines, it is necessary to study anatomy. Anatomy and physiology form the foundation of medical education, medical science. “Without anatomy, there is no therapy, no surgery, but only signs and prejudice. ki,” wrote the famous obstetrician-gynecologist A.P. Gubarev (1855-1931).

The most famous branches of anatomy

• plant anatomy- studies the structures and mutual arrangement of tissue complexes in plants.
• animal anatomy- studies the structures and mutual arrangement of tissue complexes in animals.
• human anatomy- studies the structures and mutual arrangement of tissue complexes in humans. This branch of science has implications for both biology and medicine. In addition, knowledge of anatomy is necessary in applied art for the correct transmission of proportions, postures, gestures and facial expressions of a person.

Scope and subsections of anatomy

Like many other sciences, anatomy has two sides: practical and theoretical. The first sets out the rules for the study of the subject material, the methods, techniques and technical means by which information is acquired about the structure of living beings; the second deals not with the study itself, but with its results, that is, it describes these results, explains them, brings them into a system and makes a comparative assessment of them. In other words, the first is an art, the second is the science of anatomy.

In the old days, anatomical studies were almost exclusively human, and only in the case of extremes, when it was impossible to dispose of human corpses, they resorted to the dissection of mammals. Therefore, under anatomy understood mainly human anatomy (anthropotomy). Later, science also began to deal with the structure of animals. Thus arose animal anatomy, or zootomy. Then research began on the internal structure of plants, which constituted a new branch of science, plant anatomy, or phytotomy.

Since there is much in common between humans and vertebrates, as well as between all animals in general, in terms of their anatomical structure, science inevitably had to come to the study of the similarities and differences of this structure, and thus comparative anatomy appeared, which studies the main stages of the evolution of the human body and animals. It is associated with paleontology and genetics, forming an important pillar of the doctrine of the origin of species.

The invention of magnifying lenses made it possible to see what seems homogeneous to the naked eye, as a result of which a special science separated from anatomy called microscopic anatomy, or histology, which studies organisms at the tissue level. Changes in the structure of organic beings, associated with their gradual development from a simple embryo into a mature individual, are the subject of embryology. The latter together with histology is called general anatomy, and in contrast to this, systematic anatomy is given the name private, or descriptive anatomy.

The anatomy of a healthy person is subdivided according to the method of presentation used by it into systematic and topographic.

Systematic or descriptive anatomy deals with the study of the external properties, appearance, position and interconnection of organs, considering them in the order in which they are composed to form homogeneous systems that serve to achieve one common final goal. With the accumulation of information and the emergence of new research methods, systematic anatomy was differentiated into a number of scientific disciplines: osteology - the study of bones, with the inclusion of articular cartilage (chondrology); syndesmology - the doctrine of the ligaments between the constituent parts of the skeleton, which bind the bones into one moving whole; myology - the study of muscles; splanchnology - the study of the internal organs that make up the respiratory, digestive and genitourinary systems; angiology - the study of blood vessels, the circulatory and lymphatic systems; neurology - the study of the central, peripheral nervous systems and ganglia (nerve nodes); aesthesiology - the science of the sense organs; endocrinology - the science of the structure and functions of the endocrine system.

Plastic anatomy, studied by artists (also sculptors and some multipliers), is essentially the same topographic anatomy, but it pays primary attention to the external outlines of the body, proportions, their dependence on internal parts, especially muscles in their various states of tension, finally , on the overall dimensions of individual parts of the body and their mutual relations.

Functional anatomy sets the task of clarifying the relationships in the structure of organs and systems of the human body with the nature of their functioning, studying the formation of organs at the level of individual development, determining the extreme limits of variability, which is in demand in medical practice.

Most diseases are accompanied by various structural changes in the position or structure of various organs and their tissues - the study of these painful changes is the subject of the so-called pathological anatomy.

see also

Literature

• Prives M. G., Lysenkov N. K. Human anatomy. - 11th revised and supplemented. - Hippocrates. - 704 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-8232-0192-3

Links

	Portal "Anatomy"
	Anatomy in Wiktionary
	Anatomy at Wikimedia Commons
	Project "Anatomy"

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

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Synonyms:

See what "Anatomy" is in other dictionaries:

- (Greek anatome, from ana times, temnein to cut, whip). The science of the forms of structure of organic beings. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ANATOMY Greek. anatome, from ana, through, once, and temnein, cut, whip. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Modern Encyclopedia

ANATOMY, anatomy, pl. no, female (from Greek anatome cutting). The science of the internal structure of organic bodies. Human anatomy. Plant anatomy. Descriptive anatomy. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Anatomy- (from the Greek anatome dissection), the science of the structure (mainly internal) of the body, a section of morphology. There are animal anatomy, plant anatomy, human anatomy (the main sections are normal anatomy and pathological anatomy) and ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

The science of anatomy, what she studies

Anatomy is the science that studies the shape and structure of the human body. It belongs to the biomedical sciences. Along with biology, physiology, biochemistry, biomechanics, sports medicine and other disciplines, it creates the natural science base for physical education and physical education.

Anatomy explores the patterns of development and structure of the human body in connection with its function, the features of the origin of man and his interaction with the environment. Human anatomy cannot be understood without knowing its anthropogenesis - the origin as a species, phylogenesis - the evolutionary development of lower and higher organisms, and ontogenesis - the process of individual human development from fertilization to death.

Domestic anatomy thanks to the outstanding scientist P.F. Lesgaft (1837-1909) developed as a functional anatomy. It was not limited to describing the structure of the human body, but sought to connect all structural features with the peculiarity of functions. In 1884 P.F. Lesgaft published Fundamentals of Theoretical Anatomy, in which he first set out new views and approaches to the study of the human structure.

P.F. Lesgaft clearly showed that the formation of an organism occurs in a certain biological and social environment, and he assigned a particularly significant role to the influence of the external environment. From his theoretical positions, P.F. Lesgaft made an important practical conclusion: a special set of systematic training loads aimed at increasing the function of organs must inevitably lead to a change in their shape and structure, supporting and reinforcing the new function.

P.F. Lesgaft was the first to establish and prove the relationship between the anatomical structure of the body and the impact of physical activity on it, creating a scientifically based system of physical education.

Traditionally, the main research method in anatomy is the study of a corpse by opening body cavities and dissecting organs and tissues with cutting instruments, i.e. by the method of dismembering a whole corpse into parts, which is why the name of anatomy went (anatomio - “I cut”). However, according to the apt remark of P.F. Lesgaft, the main object of study of anatomy should be a living person, and the corpse should serve as an addition to the general process of cognition. Recently, in anatomy, the study of a living person has been widely used using various research methods: anthropometry, or somatoscopy (external examination), anthropometry, or somatometry (measuring the size and proportions of the body). The x-ray method has great potential in the study of "living anatomy". It allows you to study the location and structure of organs on a living person and is used in the form of radiography (with subsequent study of images) and fluoroscopy - transillumination on a special screen. The founders of the X-ray method in anatomy were Russian anatomists P.F. Lesgaft and V.N. Tonkov.

Human studies are often supplemented by animal experiments (experimental anatomy), since in the experiment it is possible to create a wide range of effects on the body, including dosed physical activity.

Another advantage of experimental anatomy is the ability to apply all modern methods for processing and studying the obtained material: histological, cytogenetic, electron microscopic, immunohistochemical, and others.

The study of the external form and internal structure of organs can go on two levels: with the naked eye or with low magnification devices - this is macroscopic anatomy (macros - “big”, scopeo - “look”). In contrast, there is microscopic anatomy (micros - "small"). She studies the details of the subtle structure of the body using a light microscope that magnifies the image by 400-800 times, as well as an electronic microscope that magnifies an object by 100,000 times or more.

In microscopic anatomy, the science of the cell is distinguished - cytology (cytos - "cell", logos - "teaching"), the science of body tissues - histology (gistos - "tissue").

Anatomy, histology, cytology and embryology make up the general science of the form, structure and development of the body, called morphology (morphe - “form”).

Depending on the target and practical orientation of anatomy, there are:
- normal anatomy;
- pathological anatomy;
- topographic anatomy;
- plastic anatomy;
- age anatomy;
- dynamic anatomy;
- sports morphology.

Each of the listed varieties has a certain meaning for specialists in physical culture. The most important is normal anatomy, as it forms the general basis of an athlete's knowledge of a healthy person.

Knowledge of pathological anatomy is essential when it comes to overtraining, chronic and acute injuries in athletes.

In practice, a teacher or trainer has to deal with people of different sex and age, therefore, knowledge about the age and gender characteristics of the human body is necessary, which is the subject of age-related anatomy.

Of great importance is topographic anatomy, which studies the relative position of organs, especially for those who will master sports massage and traumatology.

External forms and proportional features of a person (plastic anatomy) play a big role in selection and sports orientation.

The ability to use knowledge of anatomy in the analysis of the positions and movements of the body, i.e. dynamic anatomy (studying the analysis of the work of muscles and movements in the joints) is necessary for future specialists in physical culture and sports.

Sports morphology has achieved significant development in recent years. This branch of functional anatomy studies the effects of systematic physical activity in sports on the structure of the athlete's body (adaptation); studies the features of the body structure that help to achieve high results in sports (orientation) and teaches methods that allow assessing the physical development of an athlete (training control). This discipline directly intrudes into the sport of high achievements, where the results are so dense that the ability to use the individual characteristics of the structure of the body, all other things being equal, helps to achieve victory.

At the origins of the domestic sports morphology was P.F. Lesgaft, who was the first to reveal the patterns of bone restructuring under the influence of muscle traction: the bone increases in size the more significantly, the greater the activity of the muscles surrounding it.

The further development of sports morphology is associated with the names of such scientists as V.V. Bunak, M.F. Ivanitsky, M.R. Sapin, A.A. Gladysheva, V.I. Kozlov, B.A. Nikityuk, G.E. Martirosov, P.K. Lysov and others. Researchers in the field of sports morphology are also actively engaged in the scientists of the Department of Anatomy of NSU. P.F. Lesgaft.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF A LIVING ORGANISM. In modern morphology, five levels of organization of the human body are distinguished (Fig. 1).

1. Subcellular. At the biochemical level, tissues are made up of molecules that combine into micro- and macromolecules.
2. Cellular. A cell is an elementary particle of a living being capable of transmitting genetic information by self-reproduction, which is a complex system of biopolymers that form intracellular structures - organelles.
3. fabric. Tissue is an evolutionarily formed set of cells and intercellular substance that have a common origin, structure and function.
4. Organ. Organs are complex structures consisting of various tissues and having a certain spatial shape, specialized to perform a specific function.
5. Systemic. Organs of different structure, associated with the performance of the function of the same name, are combined into systems or apparatuses of organs. The body is characterized by a combination of all the above levels of structural organization. Its integrity is ensured by close functional and intertissue relationships, as well as nervous and humoral regulation.