It is not a grammatical category. Grammar category

1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, aspect), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equipotent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question What to do7, and imperfective verbs, in addition to the question What to do7, in some speech situations also answer the question What to do7: - What did this boy do wrong7 What did he do7- He tore apples in someone else's garden.

Equivalent opposition is formed by some personal masculine and feminine nouns: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone , to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives are inflectional, the category of case of nouns, the category of person,

declension, tense of the verb, etc. It is customary to classify the category of gender in nouns, aspect in the verb Some kate! Orias turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such is, for example, the category of number in nouns.

AV Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories 8.

Note. E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out as a special type interpretative morphological categories “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is distinguished by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense as an additional, accompanying , comitative information part9. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E.V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, the opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative forms is organized. nogo cases oblique cases

More on the topic § 10. Types of grammatical categories:

1. § 19. Hybrid grammatical types that are introduced into the category of adverbs
2. § 19. Hybrid grammatical types that are introduced into the category of adverbs
3. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GK), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).
4. MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR. GRAMMATIC MEANINGS, GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES, GRAMMATIC FORMS
5. 13. Grammatical form, grammatical meaning of the word, gramme, morphological category. Principles of classification of morphological categories

Grammatical categories are usually classified on two grounds: by the number of members that form the category, and by the nature of the relationship between them. A grammatical category cannot have less than two members. If there were only one form with any meaning, then this meaning could not be grammatical, since it would be deprived, firstly, of the relationship between the concrete and the general, and secondly, of regularity. Those categories that consist of two members are called binary. However, there are grammatical categories with a large number of members. Trinomial, for example, is the category of time. An even greater number of members contains the category of case.
The oppositions that form a grammatical category can (as in the case of phonetic oppositions) constitute an equipotent opposition, i.e., be in such relations when the members are equal. It is in such relations that word forms are found that form, for example, the category of number in nouns. There are also categories whose members constitute a privative opposition, that is, they are in such relations when one of the members can convey not only “his” attribute, but also the attribute expressed by another member. So, according to some scientists, the category of tense is “arranged” for imperfective verbs, where the past tense word forms indicate the action before the moment of speech, the future tense word forms indicate the action after this moment, and the present tense word forms can indicate the action regardless of the moment of speech . (Compare with the opposition of the secretary-secretary type, where the second member denotes only a female person, and the first one denotes both sexes.)
A feature of grammatical categories is also their ability or inability to oppose word forms of one lexeme. Let's look at some examples.
The category of number in nouns is able to oppose word forms that do not differ from each other in anything other than the meaning of the number: table - tables, road - roads, gun - guns. The category of time in verbs is able to contrast word forms that differ from each other not only in the meaning of time, but also in other grammatical meanings. I wrote and I will write differ from each other in the meaning of time, as well as in the meanings of gender and person. The meanings of gender and person are grammatical. Consequently, the grammatical categories of number for nouns and tense for verbs are able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme.
The nouns godfather and godfather, head and head, student and student differ in their combinational possibilities, which, being obligatory, form the gender category of nouns. However, the nouns under consideration differ not only in combinational properties, but also in content: godfather, manager, student indicate a male person; godfather, manager, student - on a female person. Characterization by gender is not mandatory for nouns. Nor is it regular: a noun with the meaning of a person or an animal does not always have a correlate with the meaning of the opposite sex. (How to form in Russian names of females from insolent or fighter?) Consequently, the gender category of nouns is not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme. This category is always combined with such characteristics that are not grammatical and form the opposition of lexemes.
Grammatical categories capable of opposing word forms of one lexeme are usually called inflectional. Grammatical categories that are not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme are usually called classifying or lexico-grammatical.

So, the tasks of morphology are as follows. First, morphology must determine the principles for combining word forms into a lexeme. Secondly, it must establish which part of the meaning of the word form is grammatical. Thirdly, morphology must compile a list and establish the nature of grammatical categories, correlate them with the characteristics of the reality reflected in the language, and determine the set of formal means involved in the formation of grammatical categories.
Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and grammatical categories, it is part of grammar. The word "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the actual morphology and word formation. However, more often, morphology is understood only as inflection. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology" in the narrow sense of the word (without word formation). Like many other linguistic terms, morphology denotes both the rules of inflection and the science of this side of the language.
It has already been noted more than once that morphology deals with both the content and the "binding" properties of word forms. Thus, morphology on one side is adjacent to word formation, to the part that contains the doctrine of the semantic properties of Russian morphemes, on the other side to syntax, to the part that contains the doctrine of the formal structure of phrases and sentences.
The boundary between morphology and word formation runs as a boundary between endings and other types of morphemes, as a boundary between meanings whose appearance in word forms is obligatory and regular, and meanings that do not possess these properties. So, magnification ~ diminutiveness is not the subject of morphology, but is studied by word formation. This meaning does not necessarily characterize all forms of nouns. Among them there are those that are either not characterized in any way on this basis (city, table, wall), or are generally alien to this attribute (sour cream, electricity). At the same time, the value of magnification ~ diminutiveness is not regular. The existence of a word form with a diminutive value does not necessarily predetermine the presence of a word form with a magnifying value, and vice versa; cf .: house - house - house and box - box -?; hand - pen - hands and longing -? - skinny.
Studying the obligatory combinational properties of word forms, morphology shows a self-sufficient interest in this phenomenon. This is the difference between the morphological approach and the syntactic approach, in which the word form is considered not in itself, but as an element of higher-level units - phrases and sentences.
There are also such characteristics of word forms that are included in morphology with only one of their sides. For example, the meaning of animate ~ inanimate, while being obligatory for nouns, is not regular for them. Therefore, from the point of view of content, this characteristic is not the subject of morphology. However, the animateness or inanimateness of a noun affects the choice of agreed word forms. This "binding" characteristic of nouns, having not an individual, but a generalized character, is the subject of study in morphology.

Lecture 9

Claim for the recovery of a tax sanction.

After a decision is made to hold an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur liable for committing a tax offense or in other cases when an out-of-court procedure for collecting tax sanctions is not allowed, the relevant tax authority files a claim with the court to recover from this person, a tax sanction, established by the legislation on taxes and fees.

Before applying to the court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held liable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax sanction. If a person held liable for committing a tax offense refused to voluntarily pay the amount of the tax sanction or missed the payment deadline specified in the demand, the tax authority applies to the court with a statement of claim to recover from this person the tax sanction established by the tax code, for committing this tax offence.

A statement of claim for the recovery of a tax sanction from an organization or an individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur, to a court of general jurisdiction.

The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other materials of the case obtained in the course of the tax audit.

In necessary cases, simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send a petition to the court to secure a claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the APC).

1. The concept of a grammatical category. Principles of allocation of grammatical categories in language.

2. The main grammatical categories of the name.

3. The main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.

1. Grammar category - this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing feature is decisive, for example, the generalized value of time, person, pledge, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, pledges, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.

A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case are distinguished. The number of opposing members within such categories may be different: for example, the gender category is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many others. h.

In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant is unification principle grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a union is a generalized value (for example, the value of time), which combines - as a generic concept - the values ​​of the components of this category. The systemic nature of the language does not consist in a simple external organization of linguistic materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of the language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.

Semantic opposition is just such a relation, subordinated to the indicated principle. For grammar, this quality is especially important; thus, one can speak of the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in a given language; if there is no such opposition, and there is only one form (as for the gender in English or in the Turkic languages, or for the case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.

Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity, opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.

2. The Russian noun has inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animation/inanimateness and personality.

Grammar number category is inflectional in nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. The special forms of the dual number inherent in the Old Russian language have not been preserved in the modern Russian language, there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of the names of paired objects: shores, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).

For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural form denotes a quantity of more than one: table- pl. tables, day- pl. days, wood- pl. h. trees, thunderstorm- pl. thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to the singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfumes, canned food.

In those cases where the formation of plural forms is possible for the words singularia tantum, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: cf. "species plural" type wine- pl. guilt, the beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoting a large number of type water- pl. water, snow– snow, etc.

The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by the numeral: A new book- pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading- pl. h. Students read/read. For indeclinable nouns and pluralia tantum nouns denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing a number is the only one: new coat, one coat- pl. h. new coats, three coats; one pair of scissors- pl. h. two scissors, one day- pl. h. four / several / many days.

case in Russian expresses the relation of nouns to other words in a phrase and sentence. The inflectional morphological category of the case is constructed as a contrast between the six main series of forms and five additional ones that differ in inflections, and the inflections of nouns simultaneously express the case meaning and the meaning of the number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence, they are a definition or a nominal predicate).

Six main cases:

nominative,

· parental,

· dative,

accusative,

creative,

prepositional.

In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. It is the original form of the paradigm, appearing in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases express, as a rule, the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional-case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house and head for home; to drive the car and sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always unprepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases, it is also essential what part of speech they syntactically obey; There is a difference between verbal and adjectival use of case forms.

Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or not inflectional (each noun belongs to a certain grammatical gender) and is built as a contrast of three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, feminine nouns as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns as words incapable of denoting gender. At the same time, animate masculine and feminine nouns (names of people and, in part, names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father and mother, teacher and teacher, a lion and lioness), while for inanimate nouns (partially also for animal names) it is indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. Rowan and oak in the folk song "Thin rowan", as well as Father Frost, Princess Frog etc.). The gender differences of nouns are expressed only in the singular, so the nouns pluralia tantum do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place is occupied by the so-called nouns of the general gender, capable of denoting a person of both male and female gender and, accordingly, have grammatical features of masculine and feminine gender ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).

The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by the system of inflections of a noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of the agreed or coordinated word (adjective or other word inflected as an adjective, verb-predicate). Since the system of inflections of the singular does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the II declension can refer to both the feminine and the masculine gender: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For the so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).

The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with nouns of the general gender ( round(m.s.) an orphan and round(female) an orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - the names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which, when indicating the female gender of a person, can be combined (only in the form of the nominative case) with the feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) agreed words: The doctor has come, we have a new doctor(colloquially).

3. The aspect of a verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes imperfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly in).

The transitivity of the verb is characterized by compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; the intransitiveness of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.

A special group is made up of reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -sya: keep laughing.

Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and the object of the action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor: dad eats an apple; passive voice verbs appear in a passive construction when the object becomes the object of action: the door opened with a key.

Indicative - expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: go, look. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.

The conditional or subjunctive mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desired: would have honored. It is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle by.

Imperative mood - expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. It is formed by adding the present end time to the stem -and: bring, give; graduation -those: take, speak; adding particles let, let: let it go, let it go.

Time- a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of aspect: NSV - sell - sold - will sell; SW - sold - selling.

In a sentence, the verb can be a simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; compound verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving did not please me..

In Russian, there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), so they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: Ringing in the ears. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.

4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two rows of forms units. and many others. h. This characteristic is historically variable: compare, for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

In Russian morphology, grammatical categories are distinguished: inflectional, whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, verb person, number, case, adjective gender, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classifying ), whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identifiable (referential, nominative), expressing primarily various semantic abstractions, abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, appearance, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the indicated interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

From the grammatical category in morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; personal and impersonal verbs; so-called ways of verbal action, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category has been developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been studied less; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to highlight the grammatical category of the communicative orientation of the statement, which is built as a contrast between narrative, incentive and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity / passivity of the sentence structure; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-building categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by a grammatical category? What are the principles for highlighting grammatical categories in a language?

2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.

3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY, a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive (see Linguistic category), for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. into the corresponding forms. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of its meaning and the expression of this meaning in the system of grammatical forms.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological grammatical categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and the grammatical category of number is represented by a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural . In languages ​​with developed inflection, grammatical inflectional categories are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender, degrees comparisons of adjectives) and non-inflective (classifying, classifying), that is, those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and animate-inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, in the Russian language - aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable, that is, indicating, first of all, the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identifiable, that is, expressing, first of all, various semantic abstractions, abstract from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, in Russian - type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

The languages ​​of the world are different:

1) by the number and composition of grammatical categories; compare, for example, the category of the verb form, which is specific to some languages ​​- Slavic, etc.; the category of the so-called grammatical class - a person or a thing - in a number of Caucasian languages; the category of certainty-uncertainty, inherent mainly in languages ​​with an article; the category of politeness, or respectability, characteristic of a number of Asian languages ​​(in particular, Japanese and Korean) and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker's attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question;

2) by the number of opposed members within the same category; compare the traditionally distinguished 6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in some Dagestan;

3) according to what parts of speech contain this or that category (for example, in the Nenets language nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics may change in the course of the historical development of one language; compare three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

Lit .: Shcherba L. V. On the parts of speech in the Russian language // Shcherba L. V. Selected works in the Russian language. M., 1957; Gukhman M. M. Grammatical category and structure of paradigms // Studies in the general theory of grammar. M., 1968; Katsnelson SD Typology of language and speech thinking. L., 1972; Lomtev T.P. Proposition and its grammatical categories. M., 1972; Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninov readings. M., 1973; Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976; Panfilov V. 3. Philosophical problems of linguistics. M., 1977; Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. M., 1978; Kholodovich A. A. Problems of grammatical theory. L., 1979; Russian grammar. M., 1980. T. 1. S. 453-459; Typology of grammatical categories. L., 1991; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2; Gak VG Theoretical grammar of the French language. M., 2004.

The central and fundamental concept of grammar is the concept of a grammatical category.

Grammar category- these are the meanings of a generalized nature inherent in words, meanings abstracted from the specific lexical meanings of these words. Categorical meanings can be indicators of, for example, the relationship of a given word to other words in a phrase and sentence (case category), relationship to the speaker (person category), relationship of reported to reality (mood category), relationship of reported to time (tense category) and etc.

Grammar categories have varying degrees of abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. So, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not every one of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: teacher - teacher, actor - actress, but teacher, linguist, director.

b) within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word (as well as grammatical formal means) are studied not in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verb aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect aspect, the category of person is the homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.

When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is absent, then this phenomenon cannot be considered as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find a consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is not a category either, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of I and II conjugations do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.

1. By the number of forms that a morphological category can be represented, they distinguish binary and non-binary categories.

Binary categories are represented by the opposition of two (series) forms. For example, the category of the number of a noun is represented by the singular and plural forms, the category of voice by the active and passive forms. One form is not a system, and due to the absence of a contrast of meanings (opposition) cannot represent categories. Consider an analogy: a street light represents a system of color signals: red - stop, yellow - attention, green - go, which, in fact, constitutes a lexical paradigm (red / yellow / green = stop / attention / go).

Suppose this system is simplified, reduced to one color, then the color value system remains binary (becomes similar to the grammatical one):

Yellow color - blinking - be careful (especially attentive), because the traffic light is installed in especially important places for pedestrian traffic;

Red - stop, especially dangerous, the absence of color allows movement;

Green - go, the absence of color in principle prohibits movement (it is dangerous to go) - the system of pointers, and in the presence of one expresser, as in grammar, it seems to be the opposition of its zero significance, and you can choose the most optimal system of signs.

(In practice, flashing yellow is selected). However, with any number of forms and in non-binary categories (represented, for example, by three forms, as in the category of the mood of the verb, or six forms, as in the category of the case of the noun), binary as a phenomenon of opposition (contrast of meanings) is of fundamental importance for the realization of the semantic potential of the category .

2. By the nature of the opposition of the components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of:

1) privative (unequal), 2) equivalent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition according to gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question What to do, and imperfective verbs, except for the question What to do, in some speech situations they also answer the question What to do? What was wrong with the boy? What did he do? He was picking apples in someone else's garden.

Equivalent opposition is formed by some masculine and feminine personal nouns: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of a case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone, to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found.

3. Depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, they distinguish inflectional and classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories. Inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of the person of the verb is inflectional, since to find it it is enough to compare different forms of the same verb (go, go, go)

Non-inflecting(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the opposition of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-inflective categories, the vocabulary of the language can be divided into grammatical classes (therefore, morphological categories of this type are called classification). Non-inflective are, for example, the categories of gender and animate/inanimate nouns.

A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.

E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out interpretative morphological categories as a special type, " intended to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements» statements. " Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other meaning as an additional, accompanying, comitative informational part.". The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E.V. Klobukov calls comitative On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases to oblique cases is organized

4. By the nature of the content, morphological categories are distinguished with formal dominant and semantic dominant.

In categories with a formal dominant, forms perform to a greater extent the function of constructing a sentence, its structural units - combinations of words, rather than distinguishing grammatical semantics based on conceptual content. These are the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives. Adjective forms agree in gender, number and case with the noun. These three different categories in the adjective denote the same formal feature - dependence on the noun: the material differences between these forms white (shawl) - white (dress) - white (kerchief) - white (shawls, dresses, scarves, trousers) - white (trousers)— etc. - do not introduce any meanings into the semantics of forms, except for the general meaning of the adjective - dependence on the noun.

Another thing is the form of the number of nouns in words denoting counted objects: house - at home, notebook - notebooks. However, in other nouns, the number forms lose this quantitative semantics, their formal side is strengthened: the form of the number is in some cases only an indicator of the formal independence of the noun, independence in number from other words (compare: ate soup - ate cabbage soup; bought perfume, cologne - bought perfume, cologne; put on glasses bruh ki).

The case forms of nouns distinguish the subject/object of the action: The student asks the teacher. — The teacher asks the student. The sentences differ not in form, but in the meaning of the subject/object of the same lexical units. The category of case is a category with semantic significance, but it also has a formal (structural) significance.

The situation is even more complicated with the category of the gender of a noun. Therefore, in different grammars, one can find a different interpretation of the content of this category: either it falls into the lexico-grammatical category, or into the grammatical category. The content of the gender category is genetically based on the distinction between masculine and feminine, everything connected with it in one way or another, but in a synchronous plan, only in some cases, the gender form reveals the semantics of gender. In the Russian language, in accordance with the gender of the noun, the words were distributed according to the types of declension, so that we can already speak of the type of declension as a morphological expression of the gender.

Thus, the category of the gender of a noun in the modern Russian language is a category with a formal dominant that interacts with the lexical component of the word form. Semantically, the form of the gender is not motivated in words denoting realities that do not have gender characteristics: house - wall - window. The gender of these nouns is a purely formal feature of the noun; the immutability of the gender is an indicator of the form of a noun, in contrast to an adjective, and an indicator of the type of declension (as well as the number forms of nouns that are invariable in number; in particular, nouns like glasses, gates, scissors are sometimes called nouns of a natural pair gender for this feature). Many nouns denoting persons and living beings also have an unmotivated gender form (not directly related to the gender of the signified) ( painter, well done, soldier; pike, dog etc.).

A notable proportion of nouns, however, have a gender-motivated gender form: father - mother, cow - bull, lion - lioness. For some nouns, the morphological expression of the gender - the type of declension - does not coincide with the syntactic expression - the main indicator of the gender: like[oh] men[a](which gives rise to the natural question of the child: "Dad, are you a man?"). The semantic field of male and female is wider, of course, than the semantics of gender itself. The meaning of the masculine, for example, is associated with the semantics of the strong, important, large, etc., the meaning of the feminine is associated with the semantics of the gentle, soft, beautiful, and everything opposite to the masculine.

« In languages ​​weighed down- as I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, genitourinary nightmare”, in historical terms, one can observe how the mentality of the people developed in the field of fundamental human culture problems, analyzing the design of nouns by gender. But this must be done with great care, understanding a certain convention of the form and the inevitability of folk etymologization in this paralinguistic field of research, the creative potential of which can be seen in the artist's work with the word.

As a category with a formal dominant, the category of the gender of a noun has developed to perform a structural function - to connect, on the one hand, adjectives with a noun, on the other hand, a noun with verbs and other nouns. This category is represented by the forms of agreement between the adjective and the noun and the type of declension that has developed in accordance with the gender of the noun.

In the forms of inclination, an assessment of the action is expressed from the point of view of the reality of the action ( read - would read - read), in the forms of time - the ratio of the action to the moment of speech ( read - read - reads - will read, will read), in the form of a face - the attitude to the speaker as to the performer of the action ( reading - reading - reading), in forms of the form - the nature of the course of the action in time ( write down - write down), in forms of voice - the location of the action relative to its subject and object ( lost - was lost: Children lost a telegram in the snow. — The telegram was lost by the children in the snow).

The term "grammatical category" is also used in another, broader sense - in the sense of a class of words united by common grammatical features. In this sense, we are talking about the category of a noun, and so on. However, at the same time, the qualifying adjective lexical is added, i.e. we are talking about lexico-grammatical categories of words, or parts of speech.