The uneven distribution of the world's population. World population

An equally important indicator is population density. This value represents the number of inhabitants per 1 sq. km. km. The calculation of the population density of each country in the world is made with the exception of uninhabited territories, as well as minus vast expanses of water. In addition to the general population density, its individual indicators can be used, both for rural and urban residents.

Given the above facts, it should be borne in mind that the population on the globe is unevenly distributed. The average density of each country differs quite significantly from each other. In addition, within the states themselves there are many deserted territories, or densely populated cities, in which one square. km may account for several hundred people.

The most densely populated territories of South and East Asia, as well as the countries of Western Europe, while in the Arctic, in deserts, tropics and highlands, it is not at all dense. absolutely independent of their population density. Exploring the uneven distribution of the population, it is advisable to highlight the following statistics: 7% of the globe occupies 70% of the total number of people on the planet.

At the same time, the eastern part of the globe is occupied by 80% of the world's population.

The main criterion that acts as an indicator of the distribution of people is population density. The average value of this indicator is currently 40 million people per square meter. km. This indicator can vary and is directly dependent on the location of the area. In some areas, its value may be 2 thousand people per square meter. km, and on others - 1 person per sq. km.

It is advisable to single out countries with the lowest population density:

• Australia;
• Namibia;
• Libya;
• Mongolia;

Greenland is one of the countries with the lowest population density

As well as countries with low density:

• Belgium;
• United Kingdom;
• Korea;
• Lebanon;
• Netherlands;
• El Salvador and a number of other countries.

There are countries with an average population density, among them are:

• Iraq;
• Malaysia;
• Tunisia;
• Mexico;
• Morocco;
• Ireland.

In addition, there are areas on the globe that are classified as territories unsuitable for life.

As a rule, they represent an area with extreme conditions. These lands account for approximately 15% of all land.

As for Russia, it belongs to the category of low-populated states, despite the fact that its territory is quite large. The average population density in Russia is 1 person per 1 sq. km. km.

It is worth noting that the world is constantly undergoing changes, in which there is a decrease in either the birth rate or the death rate. This state of affairs indicates that the density and size of the population will soon be kept at about the same level.

The largest and smallest countries by area and population

China is the largest country in the world by population.

The number of people currently in the state is 1.349 billion people.

Next comes India with a population of 1.22 billion, followed by the United States of America with 316.6 million people. The next place in terms of number belongs to Indonesia: today 251.1 million citizens live in the country.

Next comes Brazil with a population of 201 million, then Pakistan with 193.2 million citizens, Nigeria with 174.5 million, and Bangladesh with 163.6 million citizens. Then Russia, with a population of 146 million people, and finally Japan, whose population is 127.2 million.

For a more detailed understanding of the issue, it is advisable to study the statistics regarding the smallest countries in the world in terms of population. In this scenario, it will suffice to consider the gradation of several independent states, which also include associated countries. The number of people in countries, in descending order, is as follows:

• Saint Kitts and Nevis with a population of 49,898 people;
• Liechtenstein, with a population of 35 thousand 870 people;
• San Marino, the number of citizens of the country is 35 thousand 75 people;
• Palau, a state belonging to the association of the United States of America, with a population of 20,842;
• with a population of 19 thousand 569 people;
• Order of Malta, which consists of 19 thousand 569 people;
• Tuvalu with a population of 10,544 people;
• Nauru - the population of the country is 9 thousand 322 people;
• Niue is an island with a population of 1,398 people.

The smallest country in terms of population is considered to be the Vatican.

At the moment, only 836 people live in the country.

Table of population of all countries of the world

The world population table looks like this.

No. p / p	Countries	Population
1.		1 343 238 909
2.	India	1 205 073 400
3.	USA	313 847 420
4.	Indonesia	248 700 000
5.	Brazil	199 322 300
6.	Pakistan	189 300 000
7.	Nigeria	170 124 640
8.	Bangladesh	161 079 600
9.	Russia	142 500 770
10.	Japan	127 122 000
11.		115 075 406
12.	Philippines	102 999 802
13.	Vietnam	91 189 778
14.	Ethiopia	91 400 558
15.	Egypt	83 700 000
16.	Germany	81 299 001
17.	Turkey	79 698 090
18.	Iran	78 980 090
19.	Congo	74 000 000
18.	Thailand	66 987 101
19.	France	65 805 000
20.	United Kingdom	63 097 789
21.	Italy	61 250 001
22.	Myanmar	61 215 988
23.	Korea	48 859 895
24.	South Africa	48 859 877
25.	Spain	47 037 898
26.	Tanzania	46 911 998
27.	Colombia	45 240 000
28.	Ukraine	44 849 987
29.	Kenya	43 009 875
30.	Argentina	42 149 898
31.	Poland	38 414 897
32.	Algeria	37 369 189
33.	Canada	34 298 188
34.	Sudan	34 198 987
35.	Uganda	33 639 974
36.	Morocco	32 299 279
37.	Iraq	31 130 115
38.	Afghanistan	30 420 899
39.	Nepal	29 889 898
40.	Peru	29 548 849
41.	Malaysia	29 178 878
42.	Uzbekistan	28 393 997
43.	Venezuela	28 048 000
44.	Saudi Arabia	26 529 957
45.	Yemen	24 771 797
46.	Ghana	24 651 978
47.	North Korea	24 590 000
48.	Mozambique	23 509 989
49.	Taiwan	23 234 897
50.	Syria	22 530 578
51.	Australia	22 015 497
52.	Madagascar	22 004 989
53.	Ivory Coast	21 952 188
54.	Romania	21 850 000
55.	Sri Lanka	21 479 987
56.	Cameroon	20 128 987
57.	Angola	18 056 069
58.	Kazakhstan	17 519 897
59.	Burkina Faso	17 274 987
60.	Chile	17 068 100
61.	Netherlands	16 729 987
62.	Niger	16 339 898
63.	Malawi	16 319 887
64.	Mali	15 495 021
65.	Ecuador	15 219 899
66.	Cambodia	14 961 000
67.	Guatemala	14 100 000
68.	Zambia	13 815 898
69.	Senegal	12 970 100
70.	Zimbabwe	12 618 979
71.	Rwanda	11 688 988
72.	Cuba	11 075 199
73.	Chad	10 974 850
74.	Guinea	10 884 898
75.	Portugal	10 782 399
76.	Greece	10 759 978
77.	Tunisia	10 732 890
78.	South Sudan	10 630 100
79.	Burundi	10 548 879
80.	Belgium	10 438 400
81.	Bolivia	10 289 007
82.	Czech Republic	10 178 100
83.	Dominican Republic	10 087 997
84.	Somalia	10 084 949
85.	Hungary	9 949 879
86.	Haiti	9 801 597
87.	Belarus	9 642 987
88.	Benin	9 597 998
87.	Azerbaijan	9 494 100
88.	Sweden	9 101 988
89.	Honduras	8 295 689
90.	Austria	8 220 011
91.	Switzerland	7 920 998
92.	Tajikistan	7 768 378
93.	Israel	7 590 749
94.	Serbia	7 275 985
95.	Hong Kong	7 152 819
96.	Bulgaria	7 036 899
97.	Togo	6 961 050
98.	Laos	6 585 987
99.	Paraguay	6 541 589
100.	Jordan	6 508 890
101.	Papua New Guinea	6 310 090
102.		6 090 599
103.	Eritrea	6 085 999
104.	Nicaragua	5 730 000
105.	Libya	5 613 379
106.	Denmark	5 543 399
107.	Kyrgyzstan	5 496 699
108.	Sierra Leone	5 485 988
109.	Slovakia	5 480 998
110.	Singapore	5 354 397
111.	UAE	5 314 400
112.	Finland	5 259 998
113.	Central African Republic	5 056 998
114.	Turkmenistan	5 054 819
115.	Ireland	4 722 019
116.	Norway	4 707 300
117.	Costa Rica	4 634 899
118.	Georgia	456999
119.	Croatia	4 480 039
120.	Congo	4 365 987
121.	New Zealand	4 328 000
122.	Lebanon	4 140 279
123.	Liberia	3 887 890
124.	Bosnia and Herzegovina	3 879 289
125.	Puerto Rico	3 690 919
126.	Moldova	3 656 900
127.	Lithuania	3 525 699
128.	Panama	3 510 100
129.	Mauritania	3 359 099
130.	Uruguay	3 316 330
131.	Mongolia	3 179 917
132.	Oman	3 090 050
133.	Albania	3 002 497
134.	Armenia	2 957 500
135.	Jamaica	2 888 997
136.	Kuwait	2 650 002
137.	West Bank	2 619 987
138.	Latvia	2 200 580
139.	Namibia	2 159 928
140.	Botswana	2 100 020
141.	Macedonia	2 079 898
142.	Slovenia	1 997 000
143.	Qatar	1 950 987
144.	Lesotho	1 929 500
145.	Gambia	1 841 000
146.	Kosovo	1 838 320
147.	Gaza Strip	1 700 989
148.	Guinea-Bissau	1 630 001
149.	Gabon	1 607 979
150.	Swaziland	1 387 001
151.	Mauritius	1 312 100
152.	Estonia	1 274 020
153.	Bahrain	1 250 010
154.	East Timor	1 226 400
155.	Cyprus	1 130 010
156.	Fiji	889 557
157.	Djibouti	774 400
158.	Guyana	740 998
159.	Comoros	737 300
160.	Butane	716 879
161.	Equatorial Guinea	685 988
162.	Montenegro	657 410
163.	Solomon islands	583 699
164.	Macau	577 997
165.	Suriname	560 129
166.	Cape Verde	523 570
167.	West Sahara	522 989
168.	Luxembourg	509 100
169.	Malta	409 798
170.	Brunei	408 775
171.	Maldives	394 398
172.	Belize	327 720
173.	Bahamas	316 179
174.	Iceland	313 201
175.	Barbados	287 729
176.	French polynesia	274 498
177.	New Caledonia	260 159
178.	Vanuatu	256 166
179.	Samoa	194 319
180.	Sao Tome and Principe	183 169
181.	Saint Lucia	162 200
182.	Guam	159 897
183.	Netherlands Antilles	145 828
184.	Grenada	109 001
185.	Aruba	107 624
186.	micronesia	106 500
187.	Tonga	106 200
188.	US Virgin Islands	105 269
189.	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	103 499
190.	Kiribati	101 988
191.	Jersey	94 950
192.	Seychelles	90 018
193.	Antigua and Barbuda	89 020
194.	Isle Of Man	85 419
195.	Andorra	85 100
196.	Dominica	73 130
197.	Bermuda	69 079
198.	Marshall Islands	68 500
199.	guernsey	65 338
200.		57 700
201.	American Samoa	54 950
202.	Cayman islands	52 558
203.	Northern Mariana Islands	51 400
204.	Saint Kitts and Nevis	50 690
205.	Faroe islands	49 590
206.	Turks and Caicos	46 320
207.	Sint Maarten (Netherlands)	39 100
208.	Liechtenstein	36 690
209.	San Marino	32 200
210.	British Virgin Islands	31 100
211.	France	30 910
212.	Monaco	30 498
213.	Gibraltar	29 048
214.	Palau	21 041
215.	Dhekelia and Akroity	15 699
216.	Wallis and Futuna	15 420
217.	England	15 390
218.	Cook Islands	10 800
219.	Tuvalu	10 598
220.	Nauru	9 400
221.	Saint Helena	7 730
222.	Saint Barthelemy	7 329
223.	Montserrat	5 158
224.	Falkland (Malvinas) Islands	3 139
225.	Norfolk Island	2 200
226.	Svalbard	1 969
227.	Christmas Island	1 487
228.	Tokelau	1 370
229.	Niue	1 271
230.		840
231.	coconut islands	589
232.	Pitcairn Islands	47

What is the difference between natural and economic resources? Which countries have almost all types of natural resources? How can the national wealth of a country be measured?

The role of natural resources in the life of society. The ascent of mankind to the heights of socio-economic progress is closely connected with the use of various gifts of nature - natural (or natural) resources.

Human need for different types of natural resources is not the same. So, without oxygen - a priceless gift of nature - a person cannot live for even a few minutes, while without uranium and plutonium - sources of nuclear fuel - he managed for thousands of years. The costs of developing natural resources are also different: sometimes they are minimal, but much more often the development of natural resources requires large investments, especially when it comes to the use of expensive equipment and technology, the inaccessibility of deposits, etc.

Many natural resources, explored and mined, become raw materials for a wide variety of branches of material production. In turn, the raw materials involved in social production and repeatedly transformed in it are already converted into economic resources. Thus, the elements of nature as a result of labor impact on them appear before us in the form of tools, buildings, material goods.

The modern industry of the world consumes a huge amount of raw materials. Its cost (including the cost of fuel and electricity) in the total cost of industrial production is about 75%. This circumstance poses very acute problems for many countries in providing the main types of raw materials.

Many natural resources (primarily oil, gas, coal) are gradually becoming scarce. This is, of course, a sad fact. But, firstly, they have not only not yet been exhausted, but are far from being fully revealed. Secondly, extracted natural resources are still used inefficiently. Thirdly, it is difficult to predict the discoveries in the resource sphere that will be made in the coming decades. After all, even "the day before yesterday" we knew nothing about electricity, "yesterday" we knew nothing about the huge reserves of energy hidden in the atomic nucleus. There are many things we do not know even today, although, undoubtedly, we are “surrounded” by forces about which we do not yet have a clear idea. It is only necessary that the mental and industrial activity of human society serve the benefit of all the people of the Earth, that it ennobles nature, helps it to reveal its possibilities more fully, and does not leave behind a lifeless desert.

Along with the term "natural resources", the broader concept of "natural conditions" is often used. The line separating one concept from another is sometimes very conditional. For example, the wind can be considered as a component of nature, but at the same time it is also an important resource, primarily for energy production.

Natural conditions reflect all the diversity of the natural environment on our planet and are closely related to the history of mankind, its location. They have always influenced people's lives, and people have influenced the natural environment. Thus, a person cannot exist without the use of the riches of nature and in this sense we are dependent on it. But at the same time, man is able to actively influence nature. This is the essence of the relationship between man and nature. Allocation of resources and provision of them by different countries. From previous geography courses, you know that natural resources are mineral, land, water, vegetable, etc. This is one of the varieties of their classification on the basis of belonging to one or another circle of natural phenomena. Natural resources are also divided into renewable and non-renewable, on the basis of their intended use for a particular sector of the economy, by quality (i.e., the content of useful components in them), by the nature of education (mineral, organic), etc. Placement of natural resources according to the planet is uneven. This is due to differences in climatic and tectonic processes on Earth and different conditions for the formation of minerals in past geological epochs, etc. The reserves of individual types of natural resources are far from being the same. As a result, not only between countries, but also between large regions of the modern world, there are noticeable differences in the level and nature of their endowment with natural resources. Thus, the Middle East is distinguished by large resources of oil and gas, the Andean countries - copper and polymetallic ores, the states of Tropical Africa, which have large tracts of tropical forests - valuable timber, etc. There are several states in the world that have almost all known types of natural resources . These are Russia, the USA and China. India, Brazil, Australia and some other countries, although they are inferior to them in terms of the “range” of natural resources, are highly prosperous compared to other states. Many countries have large reserves of global importance of one or more resources. So, Gabon stands out for its manganese reserves, Kuwait for oil, Morocco for phosphorites. important for every country completeness available natural resources. For example, for organizing the production of ferrous metallurgy in a single country, it is very important to have resources not only of iron ore, but also of manganese, chromites, and coking coal. And if they are also located relatively close to each other, then this is a great success for the country.

There is not a single country in the world that does not possess certain natural resources. If there are few of them, and some do not exist at all, the state is not doomed to poverty. After all, the national wealth of any country can be measured not only by the totality of its material values ​​and reserves of natural resources, but also by people, their experience and diligence, the degree of use of their energy, knowledge and skill.

For example, Japan, which has achieved outstanding success in the economy, has very limited mineral resources, both in assortment and in quantitative terms. It has only large reserves of sulfur and pyrites, while there is a sharp shortage of oil, natural gas, iron ore, ores of rare metals, phosphorites, potash salts, etc. In contrast to Japan, examples of many states with the richest mineral resources can be cited. raw materials, but did not achieve great success in socio-economic development.

The uneven distribution of natural resources around the planet, on the one hand, contributes to the development of the process of international division of labor and international economic relations, on the other hand, it gives rise to certain economic difficulties in countries that are deprived of some natural resources.

Science-based economic assessment of natural resources is of great importance in the process of nature management. Its constituent elements are exploration, identification, inventory, as well as quantitative and qualitative assessment of natural resources. Unlike the highly developed countries of the world, where a comprehensive assessment of such resources has already been carried out, such an assessment has not yet been made in the underdeveloped countries. Meanwhile, without a careful accounting of natural resources, without a well-established system of control over their consumption in all spheres of our life, without their every possible saving, one cannot hope for the "eternal" prosperity of mankind.

So, at all stages of the development of human society, natural resources were an important prerequisite for its socio-economic progress. However, their transformation into various economic resources ultimately depends on the person, on his diligence and talent.

Questions and tasks. one. Can it be argued that the economic activity of mankind is to a large extent the process of the development of natural resources by society? Justify your answer. 2. What factors influence the distribution of natural resources on the planet? 3. Give examples of states that have rich natural potential, but, in your opinion, have not achieved great success in socio-economic development. 4. Using the maps of the atlas, indicate the countries that have all the natural resources necessary for the development of ferrous metallurgy. 5. Based on the analysis of the atlas maps and application tables, complete the text of this paragraph with examples.

Mineral resources

Will mineral resources remain for future generations? What is the recycling of resources?

Placement of minerals. From time immemorial, man has widely used a variety of mineral raw materials.

Despite the implementation of resource-saving policies by many countries, the demand for mineral raw materials in the world is growing rapidly (by about 5% per year). This trend is explained, firstly, by a noticeable increase in demand for mineral raw materials in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and secondly, by the rapid development of construction, where it is more difficult to implement a material saving regime than in industry.

The scale of the use of mineral resources has grown tremendously in recent decades. The volume of mining operations since 1950 g. increased by 3 times, and of the entire mass mined in the XX century. 3/4 of the mineral resources were mined after 1960. Today, the growth in the consumption of mineral raw materials noticeably exceeds the growth in its proven reserves. At the same time, the provision of most countries with them is declining.

Every year more than 100 billion tons of various mineral raw materials and fuels. These are ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, coal, oil, gas, building materials, mining and chemical raw materials - more than 200 different types in total.

As you already know, the current distribution of the world's minerals is the result of the Earth's long geological history. In various places of the lithosphere formed

large, geologically isolated territories with certain groups of deposits confined to them. At the same time, fuel resources 1 of organic origin are confined to the margins and troughs of ancient platforms, while ore resources are most often found within platform faults and mobile folded areas of the earth's crust. Large accumulations of ore deposits formed as a result of tectonic processes are usually called ore belts. These include the Alpine-Himalayan, Pacific and other ore belts. Ore minerals are of great importance in the modern world, since metals (primarily iron) remain unsurpassed structural materials. In addition to various branches of material production, they are widely used in everyday life, in medicine, etc. The presence of ore minerals is a good prerequisite for economic development for any country. Iron is especially closely connected with the past, present and future destinies of mankind. Large reserves of iron ore raw materials that have been developed for a long time are concentrated in the USA, China, India, and Russia. The geological prospecting work carried out in recent decades has led to the discovery of many deposits

in Asia, Africa, Latin America. These include the iron ores of the Amazon basin in Brazil, deposits in Liberia, Guinea, Algeria, and others.

Of the non-ferrous metals, aluminum is the most common. Its content in the earth's crust by weight is slightly less than 10%. Large reserves of aluminum raw materials (bauxites, etc.) are found in France, Italy, India, Suriname, the USA, the states of West Africa, and the countries of the Caribbean. Our country is also rich in aluminum raw materials.

The main resources of copper ores are concentrated in Zambia, Congo (Kinshasa), Chile, the USA, Canada, lead-zinc - in the USA, Canada, Australia.

Not all industrial countries of the modern world have enough metal ores and are forced to import them (Fig. 4). Thus, Japan does not have industrial reserves of the vast majority of ore minerals, Germany is experiencing an acute shortage in iron ore, Italy in copper, France in polymetallic ores, etc.

At the same time, a careful study of the maps of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy (see atlas) shows that the leading positions in terms of reserves and production of a number of ore minerals are occupied either by developing countries or those that have recently left this “status”: Brazil and India - iron ore; Chile, Zambia, Congo (Kinshasa), Peru, Mexico - copper; Guinea, Jamaica, Suriname - bauxites; Gabon - manganese; Malaysia, Indonesia, Bolivia, Brazil, Thailand - tin, etc.

Among minerals, an important role in the modern world is also played by mineral chemical raw materials - sulfur, phosphates, potassium salts, building materials, refractory raw materials, graphite, etc. It is obvious that the degree of distribution of these resources in the earth's crust is different. Thus, building materials are found almost everywhere, while deposits of sulfur, phosphorites, and graphite are relatively rare. This circumstance, on the one hand, makes it possible to create a construction industry in almost every state, on the other hand, it significantly affects the economic specialization of countries.

The problem of depletion of mineral resources and ways to solve it. The most accessible mineral deposits in our time are rapidly depleted. Thus, the intensive development of iron ore deposits led to the depletion of many deposits not only of the Old, but also of the New World. The reserves of this ore in Lorraine (France), in the Urals, near the Great American Lakes have become scanty. The copper ore resources of Zambia and Zaire also became poorer. And the Pacific state of Nauru, once famous for its colossal reserves of phosphorites, has practically lost them.

Meanwhile, from the huge volume of rock mass annually extracted from the bowels of the planet, no more than 20% is used for the production of finished products. As a result of such irrational nature management, hundreds of billions of tons of various rocks have accumulated in dumps over the years. These technological "graveyards" also contain billions of tons of ash from power plants and slag - waste from metallurgical plants. Many overburden and fossil wastes are suitable for the production of a wide range of metals, chemicals, building materials - bricks, cement, lime, etc.

The rational use of mineral resources (the overwhelming majority of which are non-renewable) presupposes the integrated development of fossil raw materials, i.e., such that every gram of matter taken from nature must be put into action.

Many authoritative scientists of the world predict the onset of an era of recycling (i.e., reuse) of resources, when waste will become the main raw materials in the economy, and natural reserves will play the role of reserve sources of supply.

The countries of Western Europe, the USA and especially Japan show examples of deep utilization of industrial and household waste. At the same time, their production of a huge amount of steel, aluminium, copper and other non-ferrous metals from secondary raw materials helps to save not only metal (and, consequently, mineral resources), but also energy. Automatic lines being created in these countries are capable, for example, of "grinding" a car in a matter of seconds, sorting ferrous and non-ferrous metals, synthetic materials, and glass.

Significantly wider use of complex processing of mineral raw materials, resource-saving equipment, low-waste and waste-free technology is also necessary in our country. This will create conditions for a more complete involvement in the circulation of local types of raw materials, for the deep utilization of secondary raw materials.

Waste-free is such a technology that provides the most rational and integrated use of raw materials and energy in the cycle "raw materials - production - consumption - secondary raw materials". In this case, the normal functioning of the natural environment should not be disturbed (Fig. 5).

Of course, zero-waste technology is the ideal model that modern production is focused on. Achieving 100% zero waste today is almost impossible. Therefore, the value of 90–98% is considered to correspond to waste-free production, and 75–90% to low-waste production.

The creation of waste-free and low-waste production is a complex process that requires the solution of a number of interrelated technological, economic, organizational, psychological and other tasks. However, he is the future.

So, mineral resources are the most important source of diverse

raw materials for the global economy. They are placed on the Earth in accordance with its geological evolution. Many types of mineral resources as a result of irrational use today are either almost exhausted or severely depleted. Mankind is on the verge of an era of recycling of many mineral resources.

Questions and tasks. one. Fill in the table "Classification of mineral resources". 2. Select on the map the most significant ore belts of the Earth. 3. Study the main mineral flows on the globe using the atlas maps. Make a conclusion (or conclusions) about their patterns. By comparing the maps of the atlas, indicate which countries use their own ore and mining chemical raw materials for the development of the manufacturing industry. 4. What, in your opinion, are the most typical features of the mismanagement of the use of mineral resources in the modern world? 5. Calculate how many years the world's reserves of these minerals will last at the current level of their production, taking into account growth by 2% per year.

§ 5. Land resources

Is it worth it to plow all the soils of the planet? Is there a way to food abundance with a relative and absolute reduction in the land fund?

The structure of the land fund of the world. Land resources are among those natural resources without which human life is unthinkable. There are as many of them on the planet as there is land, which, as you know, makes up 29% of the earth's surface. However, only 30% of the world's land fund is agricultural land, that is, land used by mankind for food production. And the rest is mountains, territories bound by permafrost, deserts, glaciers, swamps, impenetrable jungles, taiga forests. For example, the vast polar expanses in Greenland, in the north of Russia, Canada and the USA (Alaska), the Sahara desert, the desert regions of Central Australia, the highlands of Central Asia, etc., are unsuitable for processing.

In addition, millions of hectares of land are occupied by urban and rural settlements, highways, power lines, various warehouses, bases and other facilities. As you remember, agricultural land is arable land, as well as land occupied by meadows and pastures. The share of arable land, meadows and pastures varies markedly across countries and continents, depending on natural conditions, the degree of agricultural development of the territory, and some other indicators (Table 1). The most valuable and fertile lands of the planet are about 1,5 billion hectares The largest arrays of agricultural landscapes are concentrated in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the temperate zone and humid zones of the warm and hot zones of the continents (Fig. 6). About half of all cultivated land in the world is concentrated in six countries - Russia, the USA, India, China, Canada and Brazil. At the same time, each inhabitant of the planet accounts for an average of 0.28 hectares (including only 0.15 hectares in densely populated foreign Asia). In other words, in Asia 1 hectare feeds 7 people, Europe - 4, South America - 2, North America - 1.5 people. The true wealth of humanity is the soil. Their formation lasted for millennia, while the destruction of soils due to the negligent attitude of man to them occurs in just a few years. Most often it is irreversible or difficult to fix. Reducing and expanding the area of ​​cultivated land. One of the most worrying indicators of soil resource loss is the growth of deserts. The sands of the Sahara are advancing, the deserts of Southwest Asia, North and South America are growing. At the same time, deserts advance on steppes, steppes - on savannas, savannas - on forests. The main reasons for the growth of deserts are the "overload" of fields with agricultural crops and their improper cultivation, deforestation and overgrazing of livestock (Fig. 7).

Of course, the degradation of cultivated lands, their withdrawal from agricultural circulation occur not only as a result of desertification. They are also "threatened" by human settlements and industry (Fig. 8). Cities and villages, industries, power lines and pipelines are quietly crowding croplands, which in turn are encroaching on forests and pastures. Every year, in many countries of the world, the number of territories destroyed by quarries, covered with dumps formed in the process of mining is increasing. Many arable lands are flooded by the created reservoirs. The lands withdrawn from agricultural circulation make up about 6% of the land, and by 2000, according to experts, their area had reached 15%.

At the same time, there are still many territories on Earth that are not used in agricultural production. We are not talking about virgin and fallow lands “forgotten” by man, but mainly about areas with an inconvenient terrain for agriculture (beams, ravines, mountain slopes) or unfavorable conditions (wetlands, etc.). The development of such territories requires great caution, as it is associated with an invasion of easily vulnerable natural systems.

One of the ways to slow down the process of reduction of cultivated land (especially in small countries) is to increase the number of storeys of residential and industrial buildings and expand underground structures. As the experience of the reconstruction of Vienna, Paris, Tokyo and some other cities shows, it is advisable to place shopping centers, museums, lecture and exhibition halls, railway stations, refrigerators, and transport routes underground. Scientific laboratories, power plants, and institutes can also be located on the underground floors. The departure of urban buildings underground can already now reduce the need for land areas for construction by 10–12%.

Let us especially note the expansion of cultivated lands by man at the expense of the sea. In the Netherlands, with the help of canal systems and dams, about 40% of their modern territory was reclaimed from the North Sea. Similar processes of “sliding” of settlements into the sea also take place in Belgium, France, Portugal, Japan, Canada, Singapore, etc.

Of course, the possibilities of expanding the sown areas due to the “advance” of land on the sea are not so great. Nevertheless, for some states this is an important reserve for increasing the size of the land fund. The future will show whether the existing grandiose projects to increase the area of ​​cultivated land at the expense of the sea will be viable.

A more reliable path to food abundance is to increase soil fertility and increase agricultural productivity in general. It requires both

mechanization of production processes, land reclamation and reasonable use of mineral fertilizers, as well as the widespread introduction of the achievements of selection and breeding work. Much will also depend on success in the field of chemical synthesis of food products (primarily proteins), as well as the industrial cultivation of lower forms - microorganisms created by both selection and genetic engineering.

The struggle for the preservation of the planet's land fund is one of the most important tasks of mankind. It is necessary to stop the irreplaceable loss of soil resources, carefully select the forms of agricultural production, and improve the culture of agriculture. Of particular importance in the modern world is the reclamation of land, i.e., the restoration of the soil cover after the completion of mining and construction work.

Questions and tasks. one. Explain the difference between the terms "land resources", "soil resources", "agricultural land". 2. The share of arable land varies by country. Thus, in Brazil it is about 4% of the country's area, Australia and Canada - 5%, Argentina, China - 12%, USA - 18%, India - 51%, Hungary - 56%, Denmark - more than 70%. Explain the reasons for the differences. What cards should be used to substantiate the answer? 3. What environmental consequences arise from the irrational use of land resources? Where, in your opinion, is the “front line” of the struggle for the soils of the planet? 4. Group the countries named below according to the following criteria: a) countries, in the structure of agricultural lands of which arable land occupies a leading place; b) countries, in the structure of agricultural lands of which meadows and pastures occupy a leading place. Explain your choice: Commonwealth of Australia, Algeria, Hungary, Netherlands, Denmark, Libya, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia.

Fresh water resources

How much water is on earth? Is there a lot of fresh water? Is it possible to overcome water hunger on our planet?

The ratio of salt and fresh water. Water is the basis of life. She plays an important role in the geological history of the Earth and the emergence of life, in shaping the climate on the planet. Living organisms cannot exist without water. It is an essential component of almost all technological processes. We can say that the main function of water is life-supporting.

The vast majority of water on Earth is concentrated in the oceans. It should not be forgotten that this is highly mineralized water, which is unsuitable not only for drinking, but also for technological needs. The population, industry and agriculture are in need of fresh water, the resources of which are not so great and make up less than 3% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. However, if we exclude from this amount the ice of polar and mountain glaciers, which are still practically inaccessible for use, then the share of fresh water will become much less.

The reserves of easily accessible fresh water are distributed over the planet

not uneven. Thus, in Africa, only about 10% of the population is provided with regular water supply, while in Europe this figure exceeds 95%. This does not take into account the huge regional contrasts in water availability at the level of individual states, the differences between dry and wet territories. These contrasts are explained primarily by the climatic peculiarities of the various regions of the continents, the nature of their surface, and other factors.

World water consumption. At the beginning of the XXI century. more than 4 million m 3 of water is used annually for various economic needs. Let us pay attention to the sharp, almost unrestrained growth in water consumption: only in the 20th century. industrial use of water has increased by about 20 times, agricultural by 6 times, municipal by 7 times and general by 10 times. An acute shortage of fresh water in some regions was also formed due to the increasing pollution of the hydrosphere.

The largest water consumer in the world is agriculture (almost 2/3 of the total volume). The vast majority of water here is used for irrigation of irrigated lands, and only a small proportion of it is absorbed by plants, the rest of the water evaporates from the surface of irrigated lands, is transpired by vegetation, and drains into underground horizons.

Water consumption and its structure develop differently on individual continents. The largest

The situation with water in large cities of the world, such as Paris, Tokyo, New York, Mexico City and some others, is becoming increasingly tense due to the growth of their population and the construction of new

Ways to overcome the shortage of fresh water. AT There is a growing shortage of fresh water in the world. At the same time, water hunger now threatens not only arid, but also countries and regions sufficiently provided with water resources. This is due not only to an increase in the consumption of fresh water reserves, but also to the ever-increasing pollution of the hydrosphere. Unfortunately, in some countries (primarily developing countries), water pollution

volumes of water (almost 50%) are absorbed by the economy of Asian countries, but more than 4/5 of it is spent on agriculture. A similar picture (with much lower volumes of water consumption) is observed in South America and Africa. And only in Europe and North America industrial and agricultural water consumption are approximately equal.

industrial enterprises. In many large cities of the world, city water supply works periodically, for several hours a day (and in Singapore, for example, even cards were introduced for water).

still regarded as a cost of economic growth. Wastewater treatment in the vast majority of countries in the world is characterized by extreme imperfection. Especially a lot of "skips" through the treatment facilities of inorganic compounds: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, mineral salts, including salts of highly toxic heavy metals.

One of the ways to overcome the growing shortage of fresh water

In ancient times, a person consumed 12–18 liters of water per day, in the 19th century. - 40-60 liters, currently in developed countries - 200-300 liters, in large cities - 400-500 liters or more. A resident of New York consumes 1045 liters of water per day, Paris - 500 liters, Moscow and St. Petersburg - 600 liters, including the costs of industry and municipal services.

However, for physical survival, a person needs only 2 liters of water per day is to save it for industrial and domestic needs, as well as to stop the discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic wastewater into inland waters and seas.

Another way is connected with the replenishment of the missing water resources through the use of other sources. Such sources can be desalinated sea water, redistributed river flows, icebergs towed to areas of fresh water deficiency. A significant amount of water can be obtained by collecting rain and melt water in underground storage facilities.

Groundwater is still poorly used in the world. Meanwhile, in many regions of the planet they are located quite close to the surface, as a rule, of good quality. Even in the Sahara desert, huge reserves of groundwater have been discovered that can make life easier for local residents.

Fresh water resources can be increased by using a recirculating water supply. At the same time, it is possible not only to save a huge amount of water, but also to utilize the heat that can be used to heat residential premises, industrial buildings.

All water resources of the planet are interconnected by a grandiose natural process - the water cycle, covering the atmosphere, hydrosphere and earth's crust. Therefore, ill-conceived human intervention in this complex process can lead to unpredictable results.

So, fresh water resources are extremely important for sustaining life on Earth. Their limitedness, extremely uneven distribution over the earth's surface and growing pollution are one of the most pressing problems of our time.

Questions and tasks. one. On the globe there are many areas experiencing excess moisture. These are the most humid and richest areas in water resources. Use the physical-geographical map to indicate where they are located. What role do they play in the life of the planet? 2. The volume of fresh waters of the world (with mineralization less than 1 g/l) is more than 28 million km 3 , while mankind consumes only about 5 thousand km 3 per year. What are the reasons for his deep concern for fresh water? 3. In the process of use, part of the withdrawn water is irretrievably lost to evaporation, seepage, technological binding, etc. In which sector of the world economy, in which countries and regions are such losses the most significant? Why? 4. Which sector of the world economy is the leader in terms of the scale of circulating water supply and in which sector is it practically not carried out? Why? 5. Until recently, the following amount of fresh water was spent on the production of 1 ton of products, paper - 900-1000 tons, steel - 15-20 tons, nitric acid - 80-180 tons, cellulose - 400-500 tons, synthetic fiber - 500 tons , cotton fabric - 300–1100 tons, etc. What do you know about water consumption rates in other sectors of the economy? 6. Indicate possible ways to overcome the global water crisis.

forest resources

What is the unique role of the planet's forests? How are they placed? What threatens humanity with the ongoing destruction of the Earth's forests?

Stocks and placement. How are you

You already know that forest resources play a huge role in sustaining life on Earth. They restore oxygen, conserve groundwater, prevent soil destruction. The deforestation is accompanied by an immediate decrease in groundwater, which causes shallowing of rivers and drying up of soils. In addition, forest resources provide a variety of building materials, and wood is still used as fuel in many parts of the world.

Forests cover less than 30% of the land. At the same time, the largest area of ​​forests has been preserved in Asia, the smallest - in Australia. However, since the sizes of the continents are not the same, it is important to take into account their forest cover, i.e. the ratio of the forested area to the total area. According to this indicator, South America ranks first in the world (Table 2). In the economic assessment of forest resources, such an indicator as timber reserves is of paramount importance. It is followed by Asia, South and North America. Of the individual states, four countries occupy the leading positions in the world in terms of timber reserves: Russia, Canada, Brazil and the United States.

At the same time, a large group of countries does not have forests, but woodlands. There are countries that are practically treeless, characterized by extremely arid conditions (Bahrain, Qatar, Libya, etc.).

The map of the world's forest resources (Fig. 9) clearly shows two vast and approximately equal in size forest areas and timber reserves: the northern forest belt and the southern forest belt. A feature of the species composition of trees in the northern zone is the sharp predominance here (especially in Russia) of conifers, while in the southern zone they are practically absent.

				table 2
Forest Resources of the World (2002)	)
Regions	Forest area	In % of the area	Forest cover (%)	Timber reserves
	(mln ha)	forests of the world	(%)
Europe
Asia

The world population has already exceeded 6.6 billion people. All these people live in 15-20 million different settlements - cities, towns, villages, villages, farms, etc. But these settlements are located extremely unevenly across the earth's land. So, according to available estimates, half of all mankind lives on 1/20 of the inhabited land area.

The uneven distribution of the population on the globe is explained by four main reasons.

The first reason is the influence of the natural factor. It is clear that vast areas with extreme natural conditions (deserts, ice expanses, tundra, highlands, tropical forests) do not create favorable conditions for human life.

The second reason is the effect historical features settlement of the earth's land. After all, the distribution of the population on the territory of the Earth has evolved throughout the history of mankind. The process of formation of modern humans, which began 40–30 thousand years ago, took place in Southwest Asia, Northeast Africa and Southern Europe. From here, people then spread throughout the Old World. Between the thirtieth and tenth millennia BC, they settled North and South America, and at the end of this period, Australia. Naturally, the time of settlement to some extent could not but affect the population.

The third reason is the differences in modern demographic situation. It is clear that the number and density of the population increase most rapidly in those countries and regions where its natural increase is the highest.

The fourth reason is the impact socio-economic conditions people's lives, their economic activity, the level of development of production. One of its manifestations can be the “attraction” of the population to the coasts of the seas and oceans, more precisely, to the “land-ocean” contact zone.

The area located at a distance of up to 50 km from the sea can be called zone of direct coastal settlement.

22. International and internal migration: causes, forms, scales and directions).

Population migrations(from Latin migratio - resettlement) is the movement of people across the borders of certain territories associated with a permanent or temporary change of residence. Sometimes the term “mechanical movements of the population” is also used to designate them (as opposed to its natural movement).

Depending on which borders migrants cross - internal or external - migrations are usually divided into two large types: internal migrations and external (or international) migration. At the same time, the term is used to refer to migration flows that are sent from a particular country. emigration, and for flows into the country - immigration.

International migrations of the population, in turn, are classified according to several different criteria (criteria, directions) that determine the nature of migrations.

First, based on the criterion of time, they are divided into

· permanent

· temporary.

Permanent (irrevocable) migration is aimed at obtaining a new permanent place of residence in another country, usually accompanied by a change of citizenship. Among temporary migrations, the most common seasonal, associated with more or less short-term (within a year) departure to another country - for work, study, treatment, etc. Seasonal migration also includes nomadism, pilgrimage to holy places. As for international tourism, there are two points of view on this matter: according to one of them, such movements of people do not belong to the category of migrations, and according to the other, they represent a special type of episodic migrations. Sometimes they also talk about transitional, temporarily-permanent, migration - for a period of one to six years. It can be added that if earlier the world was completely dominated by permanent migrations, then recently the resettlement of people on a temporary basis has also become very widespread.

Secondly, according to the method of implementation, international migrations are divided into

· voluntary

· forced.

Voluntary migrations predominate among them, but the role of forced migrations cannot be underestimated either. Their most striking historical examples are the "transfer" from Africa to America in the 16th-19th centuries. tens of millions of Negro slaves, as well as the forced deportation to Germany of 9-10 million people from the countries it occupied during the Second World War.

Among a kind of voluntary-compulsory migration, one can, apparently, include those that have become so characteristic of our time forced migrations. While forced migration is based on the orders of the civil or military administration, people mostly resort to forced migration themselves, but under the pressure of external circumstances - natural disasters, man-made accidents and catastrophes, military operations, changes in the political system, violations of human rights, etc.

Thirdly, in legal terms, international migrations of the population are divided into

· legal

· illegal.

Illegal (underground) migrants are people who enter another country illegally, without proper permission and registration. From the second half of the 1970s. The world is witnessing a rapid increase in the number of illegal migrants. Back in the mid 1990s. illegal immigration was estimated at least 30 million people. The interest of the host country in this case lies in the fact that it receives an additional source of the cheapest labor resources. And the sending country is counting on the employment of at least some of its unemployed and, moreover, on receiving additional income (from remittances) to the state treasury. In its most general form, the growth of illegal migration reflects the division of the modern world into rich and poor countries.

What are the reasons for external migrations? According to experts in this field of knowledge, the main was and remains economic reason, that is, the natural desire of people either to find a job at all, or to get a higher paying job.

Along with economic, external migrations are often caused and political reasons(hence the word "political immigrant"). Examples of this kind are the emigration of almost half a million citizens, mostly intellectuals (Albert Einstein, Lion Feuchtwanger, Enrico Fermi and others) from fascist Germany and Italy, from Francoist Spain. After General Pinochet came to power in Chile, more than 1 million people left this country. Political emigration on a large scale also took place in pre-revolutionary Russia and the USSR, in Cuba, Vietnam, Cambodia and many other countries.

Other reasons for external migration include social, family, national, racial, and religious reasons. For example, the formation of independent India and Pakistan on the territory of the former British India, followed by the transformation of East Pakistan into the state of Bangladesh, led to the resettlement of a total of 18 million people. It was carried out mainly on a religious basis: Hindus went to India, and Muslims to Pakistan and Bangladesh.

In the modern world, labor migration undoubtedly plays a leading role, ultimately due to the search for a new place of application of labor outside the country. The scale of labor migration is increasing all the time, contributing to the involvement in the global migration cycle of labor from an increasing number of countries. The main incentive for labor migration is the very large differences in the availability of labor resources to countries and, to an even greater extent, the differences between them in wages. The labor force migrates mainly from labour-abundant countries with high unemployment and low wages to countries with labor shortages and high wages. At least 2/3 of labor migrants come from developing countries who are looking for work in the developed countries of the West. These are usually workers applying for low-paid, unskilled, low-prestige, hard, and often unhealthy jobs.

Of course, the demographic factor also has a great influence on labor migration. As a rule, migration flows are directed from countries that are at one stage or another of a population explosion to countries that are experiencing a demographic crisis and depopulation or are approaching them. Examples of countries with the largest negative balance of external migrations are Pakistan (-2.2 million), Bangladesh (-1.3 million), Philippines, Thailand, Iran, Mexico (-500 thousand - 1 million), and examples of countries with the largest the positive balance of such migrations is the USA (+4.5 million), Germany (+3 million), Canada and Australia (+600 thousand).

Recently, in the literature, including geographical, more and more attention is paid to the study of the consequences of international migrations of the population (primarily labor), which, in turn, can be divided into positive and negative. At the same time, these and other consequences for countries supplying and receiving labor resources can be different.

In countries that supply labor, labor migration helps to reduce unemployment, provides additional sources of foreign exchange income in the form of remittances from migrant workers to their families. After returning home, such migrants usually join the ranks of the middle class, using the money they earn to start their own business in their homeland, and this, among other things, leads to the creation of new jobs. On the other hand, experience shows that not all labor migrants, even temporary and permanent ones, return to their country. Many of them seek to hide their income. In addition, in a foreign land, they, as a rule, hardly improve their skills.

Countries that receive labor migrants face even more problems of various kinds. Of course, in this way they to some extent compensate for the lack of labor resources (especially in industries with low qualifications of employees) and receive some other economic benefits. However, labor migration, as a rule, only exacerbates social problems.

Only a part of the newcomers manage to obtain the citizenship of the host country and become its full-fledged citizens. The rest have to be content with the so-called residence permit, which does not make them full members of society.

As for the concept of "migration policy" then it has existed for a long time, but usually referred mainly to internal migrations. Recently, migration policy is increasingly trying to extend to international migration. Many developed countries have already introduced anti-immigration cordons, trying to repatriate at least some of the migrants who arrived earlier. However, the migration policy also provides for a number of measures for better adaptation of migrants in host countries.

The main features of the geography of migrations

International migrations of the population were typical for most stages of human development and had a significant impact on this development itself, contributing to the adaptation of people to different conditions of existence. The main features of the geography of international migration have changed over time.

In the 19th century The main center of emigration was Europe, from which about 30 million people left for the USA, Canada, Australia, South America, and South Africa. There were also significant migrations from China mainly to Southeast Asia and from India to some parts of Africa and South America. In the first half of the XX century. (before the Second World War), the former trends and directions of migrations have largely been preserved. Europe again gave about 30 million migrants who left for approximately the same overseas regions. During the Second World War, forced and involuntary migration prevailed. And after it, the geography of international migration began to gradually change. Along with intercontinental migrations, intracontinental migrations also began to increase. Completely new centers of attraction and outflow of migrants have appeared, mainly due to economic factors.

First of all, attention should be paid to the fact that geographical shifts in international migrations occur against the background of their rapid quantitative growth. The first place in terms of the total number of migrants is occupied by foreign Asia - the most populous region of the Earth. In terms of the share of migrants in the total population, Australia and Oceania stand out - the most sparsely populated region. Foreign Asia, Latin America and Africa act as the main suppliers of migrants in the modern world, and North America, foreign Europe, Australia and Oceania act as the main receiving regions.

The main directions of international (mainly labor) migration:

1) migration from developing to economically developed countries;

2) migration within economically developed countries;

3) migration within developing countries;

4) migration from countries with economies in transition to economically developed countries.

Migration from developing to economically developed countries has been and remains predominant. These include primarily labor migration from Afro-Asian countries to Western Europe, from Latin America and Southeast Asia to the United States. A more frequent example of this kind is the attraction of labor to South Africa from neighboring countries. An example of migration between economically developed countries is the movement of labor resources from the countries of Southern Europe to the countries of Western Europe proper. Labor migration within developing countries includes flows of migrants from North and East Africa, from South, Southeast and East Asia to the Gulf countries

As a result, it can be argued that the main areas of attraction for migrants in the modern world are Western Europe, North America, the countries of the Persian Gulf, Australia, South Africa, the newly industrialized countries of Asia, some Latin American countries, and Israel. Some countries of South (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), Southeast (Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand) and Southwest (Iran) Asia, North and Tropical Africa, Southern Europe, as well as Mexico and some other Latin American countries.

Russia became a country of mass international migration only on the eve and after the collapse of the USSR. Emigration from Russia peaked in 1990, when more than 700,000 people left the country.

The influx of immigrants to Russia, which in the early 1990s amounted to 20th century approximately 1 million people a year, then decreased to 500 and further to 200 thousand. Almost all immigrants come to Russia from other CIS countries and the Baltic countries, i.e., according to B. S. Khorev, they are “secondary” migrants, for economic, social, psychological, national reasons, those who did not adapt in the regions of the former Union and were forced to return to Russia. There is also an influx of temporary foreign labor into Russia in the amount of approximately 300 thousand people a year. Its main suppliers to the Russian labor market are five countries: Ukraine, Belarus, Turkey, China and North Korea. But in general, the migration influx of the population only partially makes up for its natural decline.

23. Socio-economic and political consequences of migrations.

See the first part of the previous ticket, where the classification of migrations. It describes in detail what is what, what influences what, what is positive, what is negative and why.

24. Brain drain against remittances back home.

In the second half of the XX century. when characterizing international migrations of the population, another term began to be used - "brain drain" or "brain drain". It means the migration of people of intellectual professions - scientists, engineers, medical and other specialists, creative intelligentsia, as well as potential workers in these professions (students, graduate students, trainees). All of them can migrate for a long time, under contracts, or they can leave for permanent work with a change of citizenship.

Intellectual migration began at the turn of the 1940s and 1950s. 20th century Then it went through several stages in its development, reflecting the stages of the scientific and technological revolution itself and changes in the international situation.

First stage The “brain drain” covered the second half of the 1940s, when several thousand specialists in the field of physics, rocket science and other similar specialties were taken from defeated Germany to the United States on a semi-compulsory basis.

Second phase- this is the 1950s, when a massive voluntary departure of talented scientists and university graduates from Germany, Great Britain, Italy, to a lesser extent from France, to the USA, as well as to Canada and Australia began. As a result, only the United States in the 1950s. received at least 100,000 additional highly qualified specialists. At the same time, many scientific schools in Western Europe became noticeably poorer. But in any case, the "brain drain" at this stage occurred from one economically developed country to another.

third stage, covering the period from the beginning of the 1960s to the end of the 1980s, made very big changes in the geography of international intellectual migrations. At this stage, developing countries, especially Asian ones, but also Latin American and African ones, became the main breeding ground for such migrations. According to some estimates, only in the 60-70s. 20th century 700-800 thousand specialists from the developing world - scientists, engineers, doctors, medical personnel, programmers, etc. - moved from these regions to the USA, Great Britain, Canada and Australia. India (engineers and doctors) was most affected by the brain drain , Philippines (nurses), as well as China, the Republic of Korea, Egypt, Algeria, Nigeria, the countries of the West Indies. To this we must add tens of thousands of students-"refugees" from developing countries, who, after graduating from the USA, Canada, Great Britain, remained there without returning to their homeland. Needless to say, such intellectual emigration inflicted great economic, and not only economic, damage on the underdeveloped donor countries. According to UN estimates, the financial losses of developing countries over the past 30 years amounted to more than $60 billion.

fourth stage, started in the late 1980s and continues to this day. The "brain drain" at that time covered primarily the countries of Central-Eastern Europe and the CIS, from where began the mass emigration of scientists, technical specialists, freelancers to the USA, Canada, Germany, Israel and some other countries.

In total, according to UN experts, during the post-war period (until the mid-1990s), the “brain drain” led to the displacement of about 2 million people around the world.

In the geographical and economic literature, attempts have already been made more than once to study and explain the causes (factors, conditions) of the "brain drain". Scientists came to the conclusion that the main reason for intellectual migration - as one of the varieties of labor migration in conditions of special attention to the quality of labor resources - is economic benefits, acquired by intellectual migrants in the new host country compared to the donor country.

A. Stoker in the book "The Work of Foreigners" gives the following example-comparison: Filipino nurses in their country can count on a monthly salary of $ 150, while in the USA their salary can be $ 2.5 thousand per month. However, not all highly qualified specialists leave with the sole purpose of making good money. Many are simply forced to leave their country, because in it they cannot find work in their specialty at all, to realize their scientific, technical and general intellectual potential. However, to this must be added a number of non-economic reasons"brain drain" - social, racial, ethnic, political, etc.

As for the geography of this process, the decisive influence on it was and continues to be exerted by the United States, which has been and remains the main center of attraction for intellectual migrants, attracting approximately 2/3 of their total number. Back in the mid 1960s. In the United States, a new immigration law was passed that stimulated the influx of specialists from developing countries. In the 1990s A special amendment to the immigration law was adopted, which increased the quota for highly qualified specialists from the former USSR to 50,000 people per year.

As a result, the proportion of immigrants among all qualified specialists in the United States is about 1/5, and among engineers - even 2/5. Since the cost of training one specialist is usually much higher in the United States than in other countries, this influx of intellectuals saves them many billions of dollars. It has been noted more than once that over the 100 years of the existence of the Nobel Prize, approximately 400 people have become its laureates, of which half are in the United States. But very many of the American laureates are emigrants, including those in the first generation (for example, the world-famous economists - immigrants from Russia - S. Kuznets and V. Leontiev).

Russia in the 1990s became one of the world's leading suppliers of intellectual personnel for foreign countries. As a result of a protracted socio-economic and political crisis, mass lack of demand, the inability to realize knowledge and experience in one’s own country, a constant financial deficit, infrastructural insecurity of science and education, on the one hand, and the emergence of unprecedented openness, on the other, in the 1990s . hundreds of thousands of scientists of various ranks, including promising young scientists, left the country. Most of them left for good, many on long business trips on all kinds of grants. The result of all these processes was that over the years of reforms, the number of people employed in Russian science has halved. Such an outflow of scientists and specialists from the country not only causes enormous material damage to it, but also impoverishes its intellectual potential, thereby creating a real threat to national security.

25. Rural and urban population.

Population geography studies the geographical features of the formation and development of the population and settlements in various social, economic and natural conditions. It establishes patterns, primarily spatial ones, that determine the development of the structure, distribution and territorial organization of the population.

Although the characteristics of the population occupied a prominent place in the geographical works of ancient authors, population geography developed into an independent scientific branch only in the 19th century, primarily in the form anthropogeography(Germany) and human geography(France).

Population geography is primarily an integral part of socio-economic geography. Hence its closest ties with social geography, the geography of the economy, natural resources, political geography, regional studies, economic and social cartography, etc.

The scientific core of population geography should be considered the theory of settlement, which considers the settlement of people under the influence of socio-economic (the level of development and location of production and non-production areas), natural (relief conditions, climate, water supply, etc.) and demographic (type of population reproduction) factors. The geography of the population undertakes the study of the two main forms of human settlement - urban and rural, as well as networks and systems of settlement, and in their interaction with all three factors mentioned above. In the West, population geography, more commonly referred to as ekistika, also proceeds from the need for a broad approach to the subject of research, considering the entire hierarchy of possible habitats as a “home” of a person - from an apartment and a house to the entire Oikoumene

The theory of settlement, as it should be, includes a number of separate scientific concepts.

The first example of this kind is the concept of a unified settlement system(ESR). In the domestic geography of the population, the ESR is understood as a system of interconnected urban and rural settlements, united by transport and production links, a single infrastructure, a common network of social and cultural service centers and recreation areas. It is generally accepted that the concept of a unified system of resettlement was widely used in Soviet times to draw up the General Schemes for the resettlement of the country.

Another example - the concept of the supporting frame of settlement, which forms the most significant and long-term part of the settlement, ensuring its integrity and stability. As a rule, large cities and urban agglomerations act as the main nodal elements of such a framework, and if we are talking about a global framework, then super-cities and megalopolises. But when considering individual areas, medium-sized and even small cities can act as central places.

In economically developed countries, which for two centuries have been implementing, one might say, the classical model of urbanization, its process has stabilized to a certain extent. The outflow of the population from the countryside to the cities is no longer massive, so that the urban population is growing mainly due to its own natural increase. Moreover, as many authors note, in these countries there is a process deurbanization, i.e., the outflow of the population - primarily the representatives of the middle class - to the countryside. As a result, the growth rate of the urban population in developed countries decreased in 2005 to 0.5%. Recently, urbanization in them has been predominantly "deep" manifesting itself in new forms of urban settlement - agglomerations, urbanized areas and zones, megalopolises, in the development of processes of suburbanization, urbanization.

Developing countries, having embarked on the path of urbanization actually only in the middle of the 20th century, are guided in many respects by a different model of this global process. We can say that they seem to be making up for lost time, combining a population explosion with a phenomenal scale "urban explosion". The latter is expressed here primarily in the high and very high growth rates of the urban population: on average, they amount to about 2.8% per year, which is much higher than in developed countries. Another important difference of this type of urbanization is that it spreads mainly "in breadth", covering new territories. And its main driving force is still the influx of migrants from rural areas, which the host cities cannot fully provide with either housing or work.

As a result of such differences in the unified urbanization process, many quantitative proportions that determine the ratio between developed and developing countries began to change in favor of the latter. Thus, the total number of urban residents in developed countries increased from 442 million people in 1950 to 925 million people in 2005, or more than doubled.

26. Zonality of rural settlement.

I don't know what should be here. Possibly the second part of the previous question.

27. Criteria of the city.

Difficulties in formulating the definition were reflected in the selection of cities among others settlements. One of the most common approaches to this problem is formal, in which the main criterion is the population. This approach is used, for example, in Denmark, where a locality with more than 250 inhabitants is considered a city.

However, most often combined with formal functional approach, in which, in addition to the number of inhabitants, the nature of their labor activity is taken into account. So, in Russia, to give the status of a city, it is necessary that 75% of the inhabitants of the settlement be employed in the non-agricultural sector, as well as Population should be at least 12 thousand people.

There is no single methodology for identifying cities for all countries of the world, although the UN proposes to consider settlements with 20 thousand inhabitants or more as cities. Meanwhile, settlements with a smaller number of inhabitants than the threshold value are often called cities. As a rule, this is due to the preservation of the historical status of the city. For example, Vereya in the past it was a rather large city, but over time it lost its importance and its population was reduced to several thousand people.

Cities are divided by population(small, medium, large, large, largest, millionaire cities) and functions(administrative, industrial, transport, scientific, commercial, cultural, military, recreational). Most of the cities multifunctional. However, there are cities that have a “specialization” - about monofunctional. These include mining centers, resort towns, scientific centers, and some capitals.

According to the nature of city-forming functions, cities are divided into central(serving the population and economy of the surrounding areas) and special(branch centers).

28. Forms of urban settlements.

Term "urbanization" appeared only in the second half of the 19th century, when, in fact, urbanization began in a more rigorous, scientific sense of the term. As early as the beginning of the 19th century. rates of global urbanization were very low, one might say rudimentary, but then they began to increase - slowly at first, and then faster and faster

There are three stages in the process of global urbanization.

Its first (initial) stage covered mainly the 19th century, and in the territorial aspect - Europe and North America. The second stage took place in the first half of the 20th century. This stage is characterized by an acceleration in the growth of the urban population (according to the table, it is easy to calculate that over the entire 19th century it increased by about 170 million people, and in the first half of the 20th century by 518 million people) and the spread of urbanization to almost all regions of the world. Finally, the third stage corresponds in time to the second half of the 20th century. It is typical for it not only to accelerate the growth rate of the urban population (growth by 2188 million people), but also the emergence of such new qualitative parameters as the predominant growth of large cities, the formation of urban agglomerations, megalopolises, the spread of urban lifestyle to the countryside, etc. On this stage, urbanization finally became a global process that covered all regions of the globe.

It is this third stage that rightly received the name "urban explosion". It is easy to see that in time it coincided with the population explosion. The characteristic features of the "urban explosion" can be defined as follows.

First, this accelerating growth urban population. Over the past few decades, it has increased annually in the world by 2.5–2.6%, and only at the beginning of the 21st century. this rate dropped to 2%.

Second, there is a rapid increase in the number big cities and their shares in the general and urban population. Statistics show that in 1900 there were about 360 cities in the world with a population of over 100 thousand people, in which a little more than 5% of the total population lived. By 1950, the number of such cities had increased to 950, and their share in the world population had grown to 16%. The corresponding figures for 2000 are about 4,000 large cities and 1/3 of the world's population.

Thirdly, it is the rapid growth in the number and role of urban agglomerations, which have actually replaced the former "point" city. Only large agglomerations with a population of more than 500 thousand people in each in 1950 were 185, in 1970 - 340, in 1995 - 665. In 1950, 36% lived in them, in 1970 - 41, 5, and in 1995 - 47% of the total urban population of the world.

Fourth, it is even faster growth agglomerations - "millionaires". Information about them, based on international statistics, is given in their latest works by E. N. Pertsik, Yu. L. Pivovarov, N. A. Sluka and some other authors. Regarding the number of such agglomerations, we refer to N. A. Sluka (Table 63), and in relation to their location and share in the urban population of the world - to Yu. L. Pivovarova (Fig. 49 and 50).

The total number of “millionaire” agglomerations in the world has apparently already approached 400, and their share in the urban and general population has increased even more.

Fifth, it is an increasingly clear manifestation of various forms of the process hyperurbanization. Here and the accelerated growth of super-large agglomerations, which are often called supercities, or megacities megalopolises.

29. Urban agglomerations, megalopolises.

B- Accelerated growth of super-large agglomerations, which are often called supercities, or megacities(UN demographers include cities with a population of more than 8 million people, but more often they use the criterion of 10 million people). It is interesting that in 1950 New York was one of the super cities, in 1960 the super city of Tokyo was added to it, in 1970 - Shanghai, in 1980 there were already 5 such cities, in 1990 - 12 ( according to other sources, 10), and in 2000 their number reached 20. Here and the emergence of such forms of urbanized settlement as urbanized areas, urbanized zones, stripes (axes) of urbanization, and in particular megalopolises.

Since the criteria for approaching this important concept have not yet been fully formed, estimates of the total number of megalopolises vary greatly. So, the Athens center of ekistics (ekistika is the theory of the formation and evolution of human settlements) back in the early 1980s. identified 66 megacities in the world (including 43 established and 23 emerging) and predicted their number to increase to 160 by the end of the century. Along with this clearly maximalist approach, there are also minimalist ones. For example, according to one of the UN forecasts, by the year 2000 there should have been 23 megalopolises in the world. And many scientists recognize as well-established only 6 megalopolises - Tokaido (Japan), Northeast, Lakeside and California (USA), English (Great Britain) and Rhine (Germany). Although they also believe that a number of megalopolises in Canada, Brazil, India, China and other countries are in one stage or another of formation.

If we try to classify “millionaire” urban agglomerations by population, it turns out that 90% of all citizens lived in agglomerations with a population of 1 to 5 million people in 2005, and in developing countries there were three times more of them. inhabitants from 5 to 10 million people in the same year were only 22, of which 16 were in developing and 6 in developed countries. The highest level of the agglomeration with a population of over 10 million people each. In total, there are also 22 of them. Of these supercities and developing countries, there are 15, and in developed countries - 7.

As for the distribution of the large urban population by individual countries of the world, in terms of the total number of “millionaire” agglomerations, the top five countries include China (50), the USA (50), India (34), Brazil (16) and Russia (15).

Finally, the question arises about regional differences in the levels of urbanization (urbanization) in the modern world. The ratio between the two main groups of countries on this indicator is largely different, demonstrating the persistence of a noticeable superiority of developed countries.

Agglomeration criteria used

Under the agglomeration, the authors of the study understand the “actual city”, which is an area of ​​​​continuous building. To highlight such urbanized areas of continuous development, the authors used a "light imprint" - an area of ​​artificial lighting in the city and its suburbs, which can be observed from an airplane on a clear night. In Australia, Canada, France and Great Britain, as well as the United States, national statistical offices distinguish similar urbanized areas. Only in Australia, a population density threshold of 400 people per square kilometer is used as a criterion for belonging to an urban area. In a number of cases, the authors of the study divided the actually fused urbanized areas into agglomerations that continue to be considered independent. At the same time, the authors proceeded from the fact that the urbanized area is essentially a central city and a continuously built-up suburban area connected with the central city by daily labor migrations. That is why the authors admit that in a number of cases the definition of the boundaries of agglomerations was conditional, because it became necessary to “cut” the boundaries of actually merged agglomerations, each of which nevertheless forms an independent zone of daily labor migrations. So the authors of the study had to divide the Japanese megalopolis Tokaido, as well as the merged agglomerations of the Pearl River Delta in China, while the merged agglomerations of the cities of Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Dongguan were taken into account separately, and the agglomeration of the cities of Guangzhou and Foshan together.

30. Geography of the largest cities.

The classical geography of cities, as one of the most important scientific areas, originated in our country in the 1930s. 20th century during the formation of the regional school of economic geography. The most prominent domestic geographers also stood at its origins. After a period of stagnation in the 1960s and 1970s, the geography of cities received a new intensive development in the works of urban geographers, whose works in most cases affect both domestic and foreign problems related to cities.

For a long time, ordinary “point” cities were subjected to such research, but as the process of urbanization deepened, agglomerations developed, suburbanization, urbanization, hyperurbanization appeared, complex and branched systems of cities of different ranks became more and more objects of study. At the same time, some scientists believe that the concepts of "urban geography" and "geo-urban studies" remain, if not completely identical, then similar. Others (for example, Yu. L. Pivovarov) see a qualitative difference between them, believing that today the geography of cities in its traditional sense has actually already grown into geo-urbanism, which is fundamentally different from it. One of its offshoots was the already mentioned urban ecology.

Understood nothing.

31. The concept of "central places" by Walter Christaller.

In accordance with this theory, there is an optimal frame-network structure of settlements, which provides access to service facilities, the fastest possible movement between cities and effective territory management. The system of settlements has a certain hierarchy, the number of levels of which is directly proportional to the socio-economic development of the territory. With the growth of the hierarchy level, the settlement provides an increasing range of services to an increasing number of lower settlements.

The system of central places (the so-called "Cristaller grid") has the form of honeycombs (adjacent hexagonal cells). The centers of some cells are nodes of a hexagonal lattice of a higher order, the centers of its cells are nodes of a lattice of an even higher order, and so on up to the highest level with a single center.

This model has been criticized for being unrealistic for several reasons. Firstly, such a geometrically correct one is quite rare, since many historical, political and geographical factors violate the symmetry and strict hierarchy of distribution; secondly, a numerical study of the evolutionary model based on the ideas of Christaller showed that the symmetrical distribution is unstable - small fluctuations are enough to create zones with a high concentration of activity and cause an outflow of population and a decrease in activity in other zones.

32. Zipf's rule.

In 1913, the German scientist Felix Auerbach, analyzing the actual data on the ratio of the number of cities of different sizes, revealed a pattern that the population of a city and its serial number are in the following relationship: the population of any city is equal to the population of the largest city divided by the serial number (rank) of the first . Auerbach's law was not widely known, however, soon such
regularity in the distribution of other types of human activity was again
found by sociologist George Zipf (in another Russian transcription - Zipf), according to
whose name it is now called usually Zipf rank-size.

According to Zipf's rule, if the territory is an integral economic region, the population of the nth largest city is 1/n of the population of the largest city. - population of the city of rank r. Thus, if the population of the largest city (city with rank 1) of a hypothetical country is 1 million people, then the estimated population of the 2nd city is 500 thousand people, the 3rd city is 333 thousand people, the 4th - 250 thousand
people, 5th - 200 thousand people. Deviations in the distribution of cities from the rank-size rule are associated with the history and features of the development of the economy, natural conditions, and violations of the natural course of the formation of the state space. Particularly significant deviations from the ideal distribution exist in developing countries, where during the colonial period the Europeans transformed the territorial and economic structure of the economy that existed before their arrival. Major cities in most
developing countries are located on the coasts and founded by Europeans as
colonial capitals - the gate for the economic development of the territory,
ports of export of mineral raw materials and products of tropical agriculture. All
the rest of the territory for a long time was deprived of large cities, and often
cities in general. The lights of the capitals, where all modern
industry, banking, education and culture of the Western type, and often almost
the entire urban population, attracted rural migrants from all over the country in search of
higher wages and a better life. According to the schedule built
according to Zipf's rule, one can judge the distribution of cities and the formation
urban settlement systems in which large, medium and small
cities, and, if relevant statistical data are available, on the dynamics in
time of the system of urban settlement of the study area. If in the country
there is only one large city, where the main part of the urban
population, the curve will look like the so-called primate
distribution. This type is typical for a country with a short history.
development of the economy of the modern type, an undeveloped system of cities with
the dominant role of the only major city operating to a greater extent
outside, not inside the country. If the territory is characterized by a high population density and it is saturated with cities, then the real curve will be located above the ideal one.

Again some bullshit. That's simpler, but still nichrome is not clear

Zipf's rule ("rank-size")

Model for calculating the population of any city in the country (hierarchy of cities). If the territory is an integral economic region, then the population of the n-th largest city is 1/n of the population of the largest city.

33. World cities.

A global city is a city considered to be an important element of the global economic system. Such a city is usually of key importance for large regions of the Earth and has a serious political, economic or cultural influence on them.

In contrast to the concept of "metropolis", which can also be used in relation to the center of a particular agglomeration or region, "global city" makes sense only within the framework of a system of cities throughout the globe. The term "global city" was first used by Saskia Sassen in her work The global city (1991) in relation to London, New York and Tokyo and contrasted with the term "megalopolis"; the term "world city" goes back to Patrick Geddes' 1915 description of cities with a disproportionate number of business meetings.

It should also be taken into account that, in fact, the population and significance of cities, including global ones, largely determine their agglomerations.

The writing

The intrepid travelers of our day tend to regard the globe as small and cramped. They travel around it in no more than a few days, tirelessly plow unfamiliar seas in all directions, trying to visit unexplored, unexplored places, boldly rush over the once inaccessible ice cap of the Arctic.

Neither at the poles, nor in the bowels of sun-baked Africa, nor in the virgin forests of Brazil - nowhere science expects to find any special secrets. And some people begin to think that there are too few undiscovered lands, unknown seas left in the world, and that soon science will have nothing to discover. But this is not true. No matter how much people have already learned about the world around them, no matter how immeasurable progress science has made, the unexplored still surrounds us from all sides. It is hard to believe that animals not known to science have survived in our time, but, nevertheless, they exist. There are many places on the globe where, in the literal sense of the word, no human foot has set foot. Many wild and inaccessible territories people have seen only from the air, but have never been there. There are also areas that have not been surveyed at all or poorly studied by zoologists and botanists, where one or two expeditions have visited in the entire history of mankind. But land is only 29 percent of the globe. The rest is the oceans. And there are still not so many places where a person descended to a depth of more than a thousand meters. But the average depth of the ocean reaches four kilometers, and the limit is more than eleven.

Jacques Yves Cousteau recently described more than a hundred previously unknown fish off the coast of Argentina. Often, scientists discover creatures that seem to have died out long ago. Among these relic animals, tuatara is a contemporary of dinosaurs, and a deep-sea mollusk neopilina that lived in the ocean 400-500 million years ago. Recently, hunters in Paraguay shot some animal. In the seas, rivers and lakes you can find an abundance of fish and various underwater animals.

The life of the underwater world is complex and interesting. Biologists, for example, study the lifestyle of fish. When searching for food, fish are assisted by the organs of taste. Fish distinguish between sour and salty, sweet and bitter. Based on numerous observations, we can conclude that many fish make sounds. The biological significance of the sounds produced by fish is very great. Fish make sounds mainly during periods of spawning and feeding. Consequently, they try to attract each other, call to places that are safer or with abundant food. Sounds contribute to greater organization of the flock, and sometimes the sounds of fish warn each other of danger. Fish have hearing organs, they hear well. Especially well fish perceive low sounds. Currently, biologists are studying the sounds made by fish. Their results can be used in the development of special equipment and methods for reconnaissance of fish concentrations.

Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are written ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.

On Earth, even before the appearance of man (B) FOR millions of years, events took place that changed our planet: mountain ranges rising from sea waters were undermined by snow waters, and ALSO (SAME) by glaciers that descended from mountain peaks.

In many countries, recreational areas are being expanded (FROM) THROUGH extensive areas of former quarries: (FOR) EXAMPLE, in Greece, several quarries are planned to be developed, where sports fields, attractions and beaches will be located.

(B) CONTINUED for long hours Andrei Rublev remained in the temple (IN) ONE with his teacher Theophan the Greek, who revealed the secrets of painting to the icon painter.

The peculiar composition of the text is determined by variable repetitions, when the thesis (C) of the BEGINNING is formulated, and (FOR) THEM is repeated many times.

Lightning flashed, and hordes of clouds rushed WHERE (THAT) (TO) FAR.

Explanation (see also Rule below).

Here is the correct spelling.

On Earth, even before the appearance of man, FOR (the preposition is written separately) for millions of years, events took place that changed our planet: mountain ranges rising from the sea waters were undermined by snow waters, and ALSO (the union is spelled together: it can be replaced by the union I) by glaciers that descended from the mountain peaks.

In many countries, recreation areas are being expanded AT THE CAUSE of (the derivative preposition is written separately) vast areas of former quarries: FOR EXAMPLE, in Greece, several quarries are planned to be developed, where sports fields, attractions and beaches will be located.

IN CONTINUATION (derivative preposition) for long hours, Andrei Rublev remained in the temple ALONE (the adverb is spelled together) with his teacher Theophan the Greek, who revealed the secrets of painting to the icon painter.

The peculiar composition of the text is determined by variable repetitions, when the thesis FIRST (the adverb is written together) is formulated, and THEN (the adverb is written together) is repeated many times.

Lightning flashed, and hordes of clouds flew away SOMEWHERE (-THAT, -OR, -NEVER are written with a hyphen) Away (the adverb is written together).

Answer: first, then.

Answer: first then | then first

Source: Demo version of the USE-2016 in the Russian language.

Rule: Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words. Task 14.

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of various parts of speech.

According to the "Specification" in this task, knowledge of the most voluminous, most diverse and therefore the most complex material is checked. In this "Reference" section, the rules of school textbooks will be systematized, as well as supplemented with the information that is necessary for the successful completion of the USE assignment and mastering practical literacy. The set of rules that will be analyzed is not accidental: the creation of the list was preceded by work on the study of tasks from past years, the FIPI bank, as well as printed publications, the authors of which are the creators of KIMs (Tsybulko I.P., Egoraeva, Vasiliev I.P. and others ).

Table 1 contains words, a distinctive feature of many is the presence of homonyms, that is, words that sound the same, but have different spellings. To indicate parts of speech and explanations abbreviations used:

noun - noun

num. - numeral

nar. - adverb

places. - pronoun

dep. - gerund

n / n - derivative preposition

n / n - non-derivative preposition

v / s - introductory word

fe - phraseological unit

Letter	CONNECTED/SEPARATED/HYPHEN	EXPLANATION
B	would, b	merged only in union in order to. I went to bed earlier to don't miss the train. ( union = in order to would cannot be moved or removed) To not to be left without a certificate, you will have to study how the particle "by" is written. So that Don't forget, I'll write it down in my diary.
		separately in all other cases: What would should I read? ( local + frequent, would can be moved or removed.) Said would before; as would do not be late; what would did I do without you? I will return that would neither happened.
AT	after all	according to the rule of writing a particle - the same. Always with a hyphen.
	at the end unlike (difference) in the dark aside in general (not at all) openly all the time doesn't matter through thick and thin	always separate
	down below double (triple...) back home after	always together
	due to	missed due to disease (n / n, \u003d because of) have in mind (FE) decoration as butterflies
	up, above	look (where? adv.) up; located ( where? adverb) up aim (into what?) to the top(what?) tree, target ( )
	deep into	leave deep into (where? bunk.) leave deep into (what?) forests ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	In the end	to weaken In the end (as? adv., = final) rearrange the phrase In the end (what?) suggestions ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	instead, together to the place, to the place	spoke instead of me ( n / n, \u003d for), together(adverb) with me. Impossible: instead of me get ( into what?) instead of fall, found ( where?) at the location ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	away, away in the distance, in the distance	look ( where?, adverb) into the distance; seen away (where? adverb.) into the distance ( what?, n/n + n. in Rod. case) seas; seen in the distance (what?) seas ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	at first	difficult at first(when? nar.) at first ( what?) books ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word
	in time	do in time (when? bunk.) hurts during (what?) sleep ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	down, down	fell ( where? bunk.)down; located ( where? adverb)down below take aim ( into what?) down (what?) tree, target ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word), at the (very) bottom of the mountain
	up to	learn up to am ( n / n, \u003d to) clothe ( into what?) in the flesh and blood ( noun+n/a)
	close into dense	come up back to back (as? adv., = very close) wrap up into dense paper ( what? adj.+n/a)
	right	to turn right(where, adverb) into what? to the right possession of an inheritance noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	entitled	entitled discover ( f/s, = has the right) share in(in what?) law apartment ownership ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word), in criminal ( what?) right
	in continuation in continuation, in continuation	a preposition that specifies a period of time. Combines with the words day, day, hour, week, etc.: during the day, during the lesson, during the year (similar to "throughout") Noun continuation in different cases with the preposition in: in continuation ( into what?) novel will introduce new characters. In the continuation of the novel in what?) we learn about their fates.
	for the first time	see for the first time (when? bunk.) miss for the first time days ( which? number+n/a)
	due to in consequence, in consequence	flight delayed due to (n / n, \u003d due to) bad weather Noun consequence in different cases: intervene ( into what?) as a consequence(noun+n/a) ; errors in (preliminary) investigation(noun+n/a)
	after	look ( where, what?) after(adv.) for the outgoing train to go after him, after another ( n / n, \u003d for) to follow (to follow) noun+n/a)
	during during, during	a preposition that specifies a period of time. Combines with the words day, day, hour, week, etc.: during the day, during the lesson, during the year (similar to "throughout") Noun flow in the accusative or in the prepositional case with the preposition v: during ( into what?) rivers; ( about what) about the flow of the river.
E	if	always the same
F	Same	Always separated by the particle rule. The particle contributes an amplifying value. Necessary same, tell same, as same possible as same, This same wrong, one and the same same, then same most, at that same time, exactly same. Not to be confused with unions ALSO and ALSO (see table)
W	work and live abroad for lack of time or money at the expense (treat at the expense of the institution)	always the same
	before dark	always the same
	then	Adverbs and conjunctions: then (when? adv., = later) we will leave; What for asked? ( adv., = for what purpose?); little, but (union = but) smart. Pronouns with prepositions: I came for topics (which one?) a kitten that I liked; I got in line for topics (which one?) by a man who went to the window. Likewise: for how(namely) queue? ( local + n / a, = for which product?) For what (exactly) did you come back? For the keys. Likewise: I thank you for then(for what exactly?) that you helped me; I'm not offended then (for what exactly?) that you did not come, but for that ( for what exactly?) that deceived me.
	often for often	often no result ( adv., =often) for frequent change of mood ( for what? adj.+n/a)
And	from afar	always together
	so	So let's start the lesson! ( introductory word) twisted so and so ( as? people + union); so (how so?) many times, so all the time
To	-KA	Always hyphenated by the particle rule. Bring -ka, tell -ka, see -ka
To	in a row	Repeatedly in a row (like, adverb = in a row) sneezed To a row(why, noun name + n \ n.) numbers, to a row acquaintances
	as if once howbeit	always the same
L	Li (particle)	Always the same and separate.
H	against through not far away	Always the same
	for	always the same
	towards to a meeting	go towards(where? bunk.); go towards(to whom?) friend (p / n) go on the(long awaited) meeting with friend ( noun+n/a)
	finally	finally he fell asleep adv., = after everything) postpone finally months ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	ahead to the front (rarely!)	I know everything ahead(as? adv., = in advance) fell on the front cars ( )
	like like	figure like ball ( n / n, = like) task ( for what?) like triangles ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	For example For example	Was, For example, (introductory word) is such a case. note on the(this) example (noun+n/a)
	half half	destroyed half (adv., = partially) claim ( for what?) half Houses ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	about	discover about (n/n, =o) tickets put money on the(bank) check(noun+n/a), don't take it personally (FE)
	back back (rare!)	turn around back (where? bunk.) look on the(broken) ass car ( noun+n/a)
	up, up up, up*	climb up(where? bunk.), upstairs (where? bunk.) it was cold climb to the top (what?) the mountains ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word), on the ( how?) on top of a building, on top of bliss (figurative)
	violently	violently kept (how? adv., = with great difficulty) hope on the(my) force (for what? noun+n/a)
	how much how much	How much It's right? ( adv., = to what extent?) How much raise your pension? (local + n / a)
	so so much	so tired to sleep to what extent? bunk.) What number so much less? ( = for the same number, places + n / a)
	maybe maybe	Probably, it will be raining. ( introductory word = probably) Probably business let's go! ( adj. + n / a, for what business? correct)
	to death to death	beat to death(as? adv., = to death) They were sent on the(correct) death.(n.+n/a)
	utterly on the head	enemies are defeated utterly (as? adv., = final) bandage on the head (for what? noun+n/a)
	vying with each other for interruptions	started talking vying with each other (as? adv., = interrupting each other) to complain on (permanent) interruptions water supply ( for what? noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	frankly for cleanliness	talk frankly (as? adv., = frankly) note for cleanliness in room ( for what? noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
	on the face	facts on the face (ext., = available) apply cream on the(own) face (for what? noun+n/a)
	for a long time	leave for a long time(nah, for how long?) look for a long time dancing girl ( dancing how? long, adv. + n / a)
	forever and ever forever and ever	leave forever and ever(nah, for how long?) look on the always neat girl ( neat when? always, adv.+n/a)
	in spite of despite	fled, in spite of fatigue ( n / n, \u003d contrary to) fled, despite under your feet ( dep., = without looking)
	regardless of regardless	Regardless of fatigue, we went to explore the city ( n / n, \u003d contrary to) I tried to sit regardless of surrounding and hiding his eyes ( dep., = without looking)
O	from there	always the same
	from this	always separate
	because	I didn't receive a notice because and didn't show up. ( adv., = for this reason) From that who is not nice, and the gift is disgusting. ( from whom? local + n / a, \u003d from a person) pushed off from that shores ( from what? local + n / a, \u003d from adj.)
	from what	From what You did not sleep? ( adv., = for what reason?) Because it worked. From what did you refuse? ( local + n / a) From work, from the task.
	partly	Partly you are right. ( how much? adv., = partially) He refused from(larger) parts income. ( from what? noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
P	behind simply insofar as little by little one by one	always together
	because compared with) with the flow	always separate
	and	The thing is beautiful and inexpensive. ( union, = besides, in addition) What does will you stay? ( local + n / a, \u003d with what?) At what ( local + n / a) Are the parents here, if he is to blame?
	besides	The thing is beautiful besides inexpensive. ( union, = besides, in addition) At volume manual has an application. ( at what? local + n / a, \u003d adj.)
	because	He stayed because, who wants to know the truth. ( why? adv., = for that reason) go because shore ( on what? local + n / a, \u003d adj.) guessed because what I saw ( local + n / a, \u003d according to what he saw)
	why	Why are you silent? ( adv., = for what reason?) Because I don't want to talk. Why are you doing? ( local + n / a, \u003d for which allowance?) According to Rosenthal's textbook. Why do you miss the most? In the summer, in the sun.
	That's why	worked a lot, That's why tired ( nar., why? for what reason?) study That's why textbook ( local + n / a, according to what? =adj.)
	truly truly	This is truly a rare thing. ( adv., = actually) People are bored on(real) truth. (noun+n/a)
	at first at the beginning	miss at first (adv., = first time) guess on(to myself) beginning novel ( noun + n / n, there is an explained word)
With	with time	always separate
	immediately, right away	always the same
	at first	at first think ( when? bunk.) Shouldn't the fairy tale start with(himself) start? (why? noun+n/a)
	at all	at all not enough sleep ( as? adv., = perfect) left at all property ( with which? local + n / a)
	shouldered	swung shouldered(as? adv., = immediately) take off with(own) shoulder parrot ( why? noun+n/a)
T	Taki	It can be written either with a hyphen or separately. broke still, again still, straight still after verbs, adverbs, particles through a hyphen Me still hired, I still late - in all other cases separately
	immediately	appeared immediately (as? adv., = immediately) has come that hour (local + noun, what time is it? that) when I saw you again
		Homonyms: there are unions too, also I too Like you, I study foreign languages. ( union, \u003d and, SAME cannot be omitted). I have a cat and you too.. I'm into music and also I love to read very much. ( union, \u003d and, SAME cannot be omitted). The cat loves to sleep also hide in new packages. Homonyms: pronoun with a particle same. She amplifies the meaning, see SAME Meet at Same time. ( local + frequent, what time exactly?) - at that time; same Brother advised Same as you. ( local + frequent, advised what exactly?) - then; same you can omit it, replace it with a union and you can’t! You same way as young as ten years ago. (nar., how young?) - so; same can be omitted, replaced by a union and cannot).
	right	always separate
X	at least, at least	always separate

Table 1 is based on the materials of the Russian language teacher Kryukova M.A. (website "Deep in the OGE and the Unified State Examination!")

Adverbs are written through a hyphen, formed:

1) from full adjectives or pronouns using a prefix on- and ending in -mu, -him, -tski, -ski, -i	act in a friendly way sing in a Kazakh way live in a new way do it your own way in a hare cowardly
2) from ordinal numbers to -oh, -them using an attachment in- (in-)	secondly thirdly fifthly
3) by repeating the same word or root, complicated by prefixes, suffixes	barely, exactly the same day-to-day, more or less
4) by combining synonyms	unexpectedly, unexpectedly, I’ll pick up, I’ll say hello to
5) using a prefix something and suffixes something, something, something	somewhere, sometime, somewhere, anywhere

Semi- is always written together: crescent, half a year.