New educational and methodological manual “Difficult questions of national history. Textbook on national history for colleges

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

"Kabardino-Balkarian State University named after A.I. HM. Berbekov"

Social and Humanitarian Institute

Department of National History

Educational and methodical instructions for the discipline

NATIONAL HISTORY

For students of non-historical specialties

NALCHIK 2010

UDC 94/99(075)

Reviewer:

Head of the Department of Social Disciplines

Nalchik branch of the Krasnodar University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation

Candidate of Philosophy, Associate Professor

E.A. Zhigalova

Compiled by: Dzamikhov K.F. - Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Apazheva E.Kh. - Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Asanov V.N. - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Ashkhotov R.M. - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Konovalov A.A. - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Lavrova N.S. - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Khafizova M.G. - Ph.D.

Educational and methodological guidelines for the discipline "Patriotic History" are compiled in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education. Designed for students of non-historical specialties.

The discipline is included in the federal component of the cycle of general humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines and is mandatory for study.

The publication contains a work program, topics of lectures and seminars, questions for self-examination and a fund of control questions for the course "Patriotic History".

ÓKabardino-Balkarian State

university. HM. Berbekova, 2010

INTRODUCTION

The proposed teaching and methodological guidelines for the discipline "National History" is part of the main educational program of a higher educational institution, developed at the Department of "National History" of the Kabardino-Balkarian State University. They include the work program of the discipline, educational and methodological support, requirements for the level of mastering the program. An integral part of the guidelines are guidelines for preparing for lectures and seminars for students

Educational and methodological guidelines are based on the developments of the Department of National History for a number of years, which has been issuing methodological recommendations, educational and methodological developments, tested among 1st year students of all specialties of the Kabardino-Balkarian State University.

The methodological level of the presented material, its updating for independent work allow us to adapt the educational and methodological complex for the course "National History" to modern information technologies for students of non-historical specialties.

Extract from the State Higher Professional Education in the discipline "National History" (GSE. F.03)

Essence, forms, functions of historical knowledge. Methods and sources of the study of history. The concept and classification of a historical source. Domestic historiography in the past and present: general and special. Methodology and theory of historical science. The history of Russia is an integral part of world history.

Ancient heritage in the era of the Great Migration of Nations. The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs. The main stages of the formation of statehood. Ancient Russia and nomads. Byzantine-Old Russian connections. Features of the social structure of Ancient Russia. Ethno-cultural and socio-political processes of the formation of Russian statehood. Acceptance of Christianity. The spread of Islam. The evolution of the East Slavic statehood in the XI-XII centuries. Russia and the Horde: problems of mutual influence.

Russia and the medieval states of Europe and Asia. The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state. Rise of Moscow. Formation of the class system of organization of society. Reforms of Peter I. Age of Catherine. Prerequisites and features of the formation of Russian absolutism. Discussions about the genesis of autocracy.

Features and main stages of Russia's economic development. The evolution of forms of land ownership. The structure of feudal landownership. Serfdom in Russia. Manufacturing and industrial production. Formation of an industrial society in Russia: general and special. Social thought and features of the social movement in Russia in the 19th century. Reforms and reformers in Russia. Russian culture of the 19th century and its contribution to world culture.

The role of the twentieth century in world history. Globalization of social processes. The problem of economic growth and modernization. Revolutions and reforms. Social transformation of society. Collisions of tendencies of internationalism and nationalism, integration and separatism, democracy and authoritarianism.

Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. The objective need for the industrial modernization of Russia. Russian reforms in the context of global development at the beginning of the century. Political parties of Russia: genesis, classification, program, tactics.

Russia in the conditions of world war and national crisis. Revolution of 1917 Civil war and intervention, their results and consequences. Russian emigration. Socio-economic development of the country in the 20s. NEP. Formation of a one-party political regime. Education of the USSR. Cultural life of the country in the 1920s. Foreign policy.

The course towards building socialism in one country and its consequences. Socio-economic transformations in the 30s. Strengthening the regime of Stalin's personal power. Resistance to Stalinism.

USSR on the eve and in the initial period of the Second World War. The Great Patriotic War.

Socio-economic development, socio-political life, culture, foreign policy of the USSR in the post-war years. Cold War.

Attempts to implement political and economic reforms. Scientific and technological revolution and its influence on the course of social development.

USSR in the mid-60s-80s: the growth of crisis phenomena.

Soviet Union in 1985-1991 Perestroika. 1991 coup attempt and failure. The collapse of the USSR. Belavezha agreements. October events of 1993

Formation of the new Russian statehood (1993-1999). Russia on the Way of Radical Socio-Economic Modernization. Culture in modern Russia. Foreign policy activity in the new geopolitical situation.

Methodical manual on national history

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

"Kabardino-Balkarian State University named after A.I. HM. Berbekov"

Social and Humanitarian Institute

Department of National History

Educational and methodical instructions for the discipline

NATIONAL HISTORY

For students of non-historical specialties

NALCHIK 2010

UDC 94/99(075)

Reviewer:

Head of the Department of Social Disciplines

Nalchik branch of the Krasnodar University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation

Candidate of Philosophy, Associate Professor

E.A. Zhigalova

The discipline is included in the federal component of the cycle of general humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines and is mandatory for study.

The publication contains a work program, topics of lectures and seminars, questions for self-examination and a fund of control questions for the course "Patriotic History".

Ó Kabardino-Balkarian State

university. HM. Berbekova, 2010

INTRODUCTION

Extract from the State Educational Standard of the Higher Professional Education in the discipline "National History" (GSE. F.03)

The course towards building socialism in one country and its consequences. Socio-economic transformations in the 30s. Strengthening the regime of Stalin's personal power. Resistance to Stalinism.

USSR on the eve and in the initial period of the Second World War. The Great Patriotic War.

Socio-economic development, socio-political life, culture, foreign policy of the USSR in the post-war years. Cold War.

Attempts to implement political and economic reforms. Scientific and technological revolution and its influence on the course of social development.

USSR in the mid-60s-80s: the growth of crisis phenomena.

Soviet Union in 1985-1991 Perestroika. 1991 coup attempt and failure. The collapse of the USSR. Belavezha agreements. October events of 1993

Formation of the new Russian statehood (1993-1999). Russia on the Way of Radical Socio-Economic Modernization. Culture in modern Russia. Foreign policy activity in the new geopolitical situation.

WORKING PROGRAM OF THE DISCIPLINE

"NATIONAL HISTORY"

Explanatory note

Academic discipline "National history" in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education, it is a federal component in the cycle of socio-economic and humanitarian disciplines and is mandatory for first-year students to study full-time and part-time forms of education. In accordance with the curriculum, 68 hours of classroom work (34 hours of lectures and 34 hours of seminars) or 51 hours of classroom work (34 hours of lectures and 17 hours of seminars) are allotted for the study of an academic discipline, depending on the specialty. Subject studying the course is the national history (history of Russia) from ancient times to the present day. The educational material is structured according to the problem-chronological principle and includes 17 topics that correspond to the most important stages in the life of the Russian state and society. It is focused on students mastering the content of national history in a historical retrospective and mastering various methods of cognitive activity, which should form the basis of the cognitive, educational, worldview functions of history.

During lectures on national history, students receive new knowledge, skills of systematization and operation of basic concepts, theoretical data of the course, logical alignment of oral and written answers.

An important role in the study of the course of national history should be given to seminars, in which the material obtained in lectures is consolidated, and they make it possible to reveal the knowledge of students, their skills and creative independence. At the same time, various forms and methods of identifying the cognitive ability of students are used.

Particular attention is paid to independent work under the guidance of a teacher, since the volume of the discipline studied during one semester is significant. Fundamental importance is attached to the systemic nature of the educational process to reduce the role of subjectivity in assessing students' knowledge. The solution of this problem is facilitated by the point-rating system of training and evaluation of students' activities. The study of the discipline ends with an exam in the 1st or 2nd semester of full-time and part-time education.

Goals and objectives of the study of the discipline.

Purpose of the course- to give students the necessary amount of systematized knowledge of national history, to expand and deepen the basic ideas they received in secondary school about the characteristic features of the historical path traversed by the Russian state and its peoples, to identify the place and role of our country in the history of world civilizations.

Course objectives– to analyze the general and the special in Russian history; to show on what issues of national history disputes and discussions are being conducted today in Russian and foreign historiography; reveal the place of history in society; to analyze the changes in historical ideas that have taken place in Russia in the last decade.

Requirements for the level of mastering the content of the discipline.

As a result of mastering the discipline, the student must:

Know the main stages and content of the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day;

To assimilate the historical experience of mankind in general and of its people and state in particular;

Determine the special significance of history for understanding the progressive development of society, its unity and inconsistency;

Assimilate the latest theoretical achievements in modern historical science;

Master a variety of ways of cognitive activity aimed at developing humanitarian thinking, intellectual abilities and cognitive independence, which should become the basis of their professional competence.

Systematize the acquired knowledge;

Operate with basic concepts, theoretical and value constructs of the training course;

Solve cognitive problems;

It is logical to build oral and written texts;

Analyze the general and particular of Russian history;

Using examples from different eras, to identify the organic relationship between Russian and world history;

Determine the place of Russian civilization in the world-historical process.

DEMONSTRATE:

Knowledge of the problems of national history, on which disputes and discussions are being conducted today in Russian and foreign historiography;

Knowledge about the formation and evolution of historical concepts and categories;

Knowledge about the place and role of Russian history and historiography in world science.

Knowledge and skills associated with creative independence, first of all, the ability to read and understand educational and scientific texts, to conceptualize the historical knowledge contained in them.

THEMATIC PLAN OF THE DISCIPLINE

No. pp	Topic of the lesson	Type of work / volume in hours per week
Lecture	Seminar	Seminar
1.	Essence, forms and functions of historical knowledge.
2.	The origins of Russian civilization. Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries).
3.	The formation of the Russian state (XIII - XV centuries).
4.	Russia in the 16th century
5.	Moscow state and society in the 17th century.
6.	Russia in the first half of the 18th century
7.	The reign of Catherine II.
8.	Russia in the first half of the 19th century
9.	Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
10.	Russia at the beginning of the 20th century
11.	Russia in the years of revolutions and civil war.
12.	Soviet society in the 20-30s of the XX century.
13.	USSR on the eve and during the Great Patriotic War.
14.	Soviet society in the post-war period (1946 - 1965).
15.	The Soviet Union in the second half of the 60s - the first half of the 80s of the twentieth century.
16.	Soviet Union in the period of perestroika (1985 - 1991)
17.	Russia on the path of sovereign development (1991-2010)
	Total

Lectures and seminars

Topic No.	Topic of the lecture, seminar, main content.

1.	Essence, forms and functions of historical knowledge. 1. The subject of the history of the Fatherland. historical sources. 2. Basic concepts of the historical process. 3. Russian historical school.
2.	The origins of Russian civilization. Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries). 1. The origin and nature of the economic life of the Ancient Slavs. Their beliefs and customs 2. Kievan Rus: political, socio-economic and cultural development, relations with neighbors. 3. Causes, essence and features of feudal fragmentation in Russia. Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities and Novgorod land.
3.	The formation of the Russian state (XIII-XV centuries). 1. Russia in a hostile environment. Mongol-Tatar invasion. Reflection of the aggression of the German and Swedish feudal lords. 2. Prerequisites and features of state centralization in Russia. The beginning of the rise of Moscow in the XIV century. 3. Relations between Russia and the Horde in the XIV-XV centuries. 4. The unification process in the XV century. Reign of Ivan III. The political system and socio-economic development of Russia in the XV century.
4.	Russia in the 16th century 1. The beginning of the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. Reforms of the Chosen Rada. Estate-representative monarchy. Boyars and nobles. 2. Oprichnina and its consequences. 3. Foreign policy in the XVI century.
5.	Moscow state and society in the 17th century. 1. Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. 2. Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the era of the first Romanovs. The evolution of serfdom. 3. Foreign policy of Russia in the XVII century.
6.	Russia in the first half of the 18th century. 1. Russia under Peter I: a) Northern War and military reforms; b) government reforms; c) Peter's social policy; d) the economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. Manufacturing and industrial production; e) cultural transformations. 2. Russia under the successors of Peter I (1725-1762).
7.	The reign of Catherine II. 1. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II. 2. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. 3. Culture of Russia under Catherine II.
8.	Russia in the first half of the 19th century. 1. The era of the reign of Alexander I. The War of 1812. 2. The Decembrist uprising and the crisis of Russian absolutism during the reign of Nicholas I. 3. Public thought in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Westernizers and Slavophiles. 4. "Golden Age" of Russian culture.
9.	Russia in the second half of the 19th century. 1. Preparation and implementation of the peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom. 2. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s. 19th century and counter-reforms of Alexander III. The establishment of capitalism in Russia 3. Social movements in Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
10.	Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. 1. The situation in the country at the beginning of the twentieth century. The first Russian revolution. 2. The beginning of Russian parliamentarism. Political parties in Russia: their genesis, classification, program and tactics. 3. Stolypin agrarian reform. 4. Russia in the conditions of the First World War and the national crisis.
11.	Russia in the years of revolutions and civil war. 1. February revolution. Dual power. 2. Russia: from February to October 1917 Victory of the October Revolution. 3. The first political and economic transformations of the Soviet power. 4. Civil war and the policy of "war communism".
12.	Soviet society in the 20-30s. 1. Socio-economic development of the country on the basis of the NEP. 2. Formation of a one-party regime. Education of the USSR. 3. The course towards building socialism in one country and its consequences: a) industrialization of the country; b) the collectivization of agriculture; c) "cultural revolution". 4. Resistance to the establishment of Stalin's personal power. Political repressions (1920-1930s).
13.	USSR on the eve and during the Great Patriotic War. 1. World economic crisis 1929-1933 Hitler's rise to power. 2. Foreign policy of the USSR on the eve and in the initial period of the Second World War. 3. The beginning of the Great Patriotic War, its goals and character. Reasons for the failures of the Soviet Union at the initial stage of the war. 4. A radical turning point in the course of the war and its victorious conclusion. World-historical significance and lessons of the Great Patriotic War.
14.	Soviet society in the post-war period (1946-1965). 1. Restoration and further development of the national economy. 2. Socio-political life in the second half of the 1940s - early 1950s: a) toughening of repressions; b) cultural policy; c) the fight against "cosmopolitanism". 3. The first attempts to liberalize Soviet society in the second half of the 1950s - early 1960s of the twentieth century. 4. Foreign policy of the Soviet Union in the conditions of the "cold war" (the period from 1945 to 1965).
15.	The Soviet Union in the second half of the 60s - the first half of the 80s of the twentieth century. 1. Scientific and technological revolution and its influence on the course of social development. 2. Socio-economic development in the mid-1960s - the first half of the 1980s of the twentieth century. Growing crises. 3. Foreign policy of the USSR in 1965-1985 Transition from confrontation to detente and cooperation.
16.	The Soviet Union in the period of perestroika (1985-1991) 1. Perestroika in the USSR - a course towards the renewal of Soviet society. Gorbachev's reforms and their inconsistency. 2. Foreign policy of the USSR. New political thinking. 3. The 1991 coup attempt and its failure. The collapse of the USSR. Belavezha agreements. CIS education.
17.	Russia on the path of sovereign development (1991-2010) 1. Reforms of the political system. Formation of the new Russian statehood (1991-2010). 2. Russia on the path of socio-economic modernization, transition to a market economy. Intentions and results (1991-2010). 3. Foreign policy activity in the new geopolitical situation (1991-2010).

LIST OF LITERATURE ON THE DISCIPLINE "NATIVE HISTORY".

a) Main:

1. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.N., Dmitrenko V.P. Russian history. - M.: AST, 2001.

2. Gorinov M.N., Gorsky A.A., Danilov A.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. - M., 2004.

3. Danilov A.A. National history. - M., 2003.

4. Dvornichenko A.Yu., Ilyin E.V., Krivosheev B.V. and others. Russian history from ancient times to the present day. - M., 2002.

5. Dvornichenko A.Yu., Ilyin Yu.V., Krivosheev B.V., Tot Yu.V. Russian history from ancient times to the present day. - St. Petersburg, 2002.

6. Derevianko A.P. Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the twentieth century. - M., 2001.

7. The Old Russian state in the IX-XVII centuries / Ed. V.V. Gulyaeva. Textbook for universities. M., 2006.

8. Zhukovsky S.T., Zhukovsky I.G. Russia in the history of world civilization. IX-XX centuries - M., 2000.

9. Zuev M.N. History of Russia. - M., 1999.

10. History of the Fatherland. Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 2003.

11. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions / Comp. S.V. Mironenko. M., 1991. In 2 books. - M., 1991.

12. History of the Fatherland: Proc. allowance for students of higher educational institutions / Otv. ed. V.N. Shevelev. - M.; Rostov-on-Don, 2004.

13. History of Russia / Ed. A.V.Vasilyeva, V.Ya. Petaturova. Textbook for universities. - M., 2005.

14. History of Russia / Ed. V.A. Berdinsky. Textbook for universities. - M., 2005.

15. History of Russia (Russia in world civilization) / Ed. A.A. Radugin. - M., 2004.

16. History of Russia IX-XXI centuries. From Rurik to Putin / Ed. E.A. Perekhov. - Rostov-on-Don, 2003.

17. History of Russia in questions and answers: Textbook / Comp. S.A. Kiselev. - Rostov-on-Don, 2001.

18. History and culture of the Fatherland / Ed. V.V. Gulyaeva. Textbook for universities. - M., 2007.

19. History of Russia. IX-XX centuries / Ed. B.V. Levanova. - M., 1996.

20. History of Russia. A course of lectures on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day / Ed. V.V. Lichman. - Yekaterinburg, 1995.

21. History of Russia. From ancient times to the end of the XX century / Ed. A.N. Sakharov: In 3 books. - M., 1996.

22. History of Russia. Proc. allowance. In 2 volumes / Ed. S.V. Leonova. - M., 1997.

23. History of Russia: the era of the Romanovs / Ed. V.V. Gulyaeva. Textbook for universities. - M., 2008.

24. History of the Russian state / Ed. Sh.M. Munchaeva.-M., 2001.

25. Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M. Russian history. - M., 1997.

26. Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M. History of the Soviet state. Textbook for high schools. - M., 2002.

27. Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M., Eriashvili. History of the Russian state. - M.: Unity, 2001.

28. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. Russian history. - M., 2008.

29. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A. Fundamentals of the course of the history of Russia. - M., 2002.

30. Domestic history / Ed. Sh.M. Munchaev. - M., 1998.

31. Domestic history / Ed. A.A. Radugin. - M., 2003.

32. Fatherland. History, people, regions of Russia. Encyclopedic Dictionary / Comp. A. Gorkin, V. Karev. - M., 1999.

33. Political history of the Fatherland. - Stavropol, 2003.

34. Ratkovskiy I.S., Khodyakov M.V. History of Soviet Russia. - SPb., 2001.

35. Sakharov A.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. - M., 2007.

36. Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations. - M., 2005.

37. Semin V.P. National history. Textbook for universities. - M., 2008.

38. Semin V.P. Russian history: problems and controversial issues. Textbook for universities. - M., 2007.

39. Reader on the history of Russia. In 4 volumes - M., 1994.

40. Reader on the history of the USSR. - M., 1990.

41. Shapovalov V.F. Russian studies. - M., 2001.

42. Shevelev V.N. History of Russia: Lecture Notes. A guide to preparing for exams for university students. - Rostov-on-Don, 2005.

43. Yakover A.B. Russian history. M., 2001.

b) Additional

1. Advienko. History of Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries. M., 2002.

2. Barsenkov A.S. Introduction to modern Russian history. 1985-1991. - M., 2002.

3. Barsenkov A.S., Vdovin A.I. Russian history. 1938-2002. - M., 2003

4. Boffa J. History of the Soviet Union. In 2 volumes - M., 1990.

5. Werth N. History of the Soviet state. 1900-1991. - M., 1992.

6. Geller A., Nekrich A. History of Russia 1917-1995. T. 1-4. - M., 1996.

7. Georgiev V.N., Erofeev N.D. History of Russia XIX - early XX century. - M.: TK. Welby, 2004.

8. Georgiev N.G., Georgiev V.A. History of Russia (IX - early XX century): Tests to help teachers and applicants. - M., 1995.

9. Danilevsky I.N. Ancient Russia through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (IX-XII centuries). - M., 1998.

10. Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. Russian history. XX century. - M., 1995.

11. Ancient Russia in the light of foreign sources / Ed. E.A. Melnikova. - M., 1999.

12. Ibragimov K.Kh. History of land ownership in Russia: IX - early XX century. – Nalchik, 2008.

13. History of the Fatherland in faces. From ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Biographer. Encyclopedia / Avt.-comp. S.A. Avetisyan. - M., 1993.

14. History of Russia XIX-XX centuries. / Ed. V.A. Polyakov. Volgograd, 2001.

15. History of Russia 1861-1917. / Ed. V.A. Fedorov. - M., 1998.

16. History of Russia in modern times (1945-2001) / Ed. A.B. Bezborodova - M., 2001.

17. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861 / Ed. N.I. Pavlenko. - M., 2000.

18. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. / Ed. A.N. Sakharova, A.P. Novoseltsev. - M., 2001.

19. History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M., 2001.

20. History of Russia. XX century / Ed. V.P. Dmitrenko. - M., 1996.

21. Kornilov A.A. History of Russia in the 19th century. - M., 1993.

22. The latest history of the Fatherland. XX century: Textbook for universities / Ed. A.F. Kiseleva, E.M. Shchagin. In 2 vols. - M., 1998.

23. Oleinikov D.N. History of Russia from 1801 to 1917 Course of lectures. M., 2005.

24. Domestic history. XX century / Ed. A. Ushakova. - M., 1996.

25. Pavlenko N.I., Andreev I.L., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861 - M., 2004.

26. Seleznev G.K. Political history of modern Russia. 1991-2001 - M., 2001.

27. Sokolov A.K. Lectures on Soviet history. 1917-1940. - M., 1994.

28. Sokolov A.K., Tyazhelnikova B.C. Course of Soviet history. 1941 -1991. - M 1999.

29. Stepanischev A.T. History of Russia IX-XVII centuries. From Russian statehood to the Russian Empire. M., 2007.

30. Troitsky N.A. Lectures on Russian history. XIX century. - M., 1994.

31. Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century. Lecture course. - M., 1997.

32. Filyushkin A.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1801 - M., 2004.

33. Reader on national history (1914-1945) / Ed. A.F. Kiseleva, E.M. Shchagin. - M., 1996.

34. Shchetinov Yu.A. Russian history. XX century. - M., 1998.

c) Classical works on Russian history:

1. Vernadsky G. Russian history. - M., 2001.

2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. In 4 volumes - M., 1988.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Course of Russian history // Works. in 9 vols. vols. 1-5. - M., 1987-1990.

4. Lyubavsky M.L. Lectures on ancient Russian history until the end of the 16th century. - St. Petersburg, 2002.

5. Lyubavsky M.L. Russian history of the XVII-XVIII centuries. - St. Petersburg, 2002.

6. Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. In 3 volumes - M., 1993-1995.

7. Platonov S.F. Lectures on Russian history. - St. Petersburg, 1997.

8. Platonov S.F. Textbook of Russian history. - M., 1991.

9. Soloviev S.M. History of Russia and ancient times. T. 1-7. - M., 1989-1992.

10. Shmurlo E. The course of Russian history. The emergence and formation of the Russian state (862-1462). - St. Petersburg, 1998.

Guidelines for preparing for seminars

A seminar lesson is a special form of organizing the educational process, during which the student must acquire the ability to acquire new educational knowledge, systematize and conceptualize it; operate with basic concepts and theoretical constructs of the academic discipline; solve cognitive problems; logically build oral and written texts.

The purpose of the seminars is the acquisition by students of new knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for professional activities, the development of their humanitarian thinking and intellectual abilities as a means of individual development of the academic discipline. All this requires careful preparation for seminars.

First, you need to familiarize yourself with the plan of the seminar, then read the texts of the recommended literature and find the information necessary for a written answer to the questions posed. In order to logically build an answer to a question, information must be systematized and conceptualized in accordance with the following order:

1. Chronology of historical events.

2. Historiography (different scientific points of view on the issue).

3. Causes of historical events (economic, social, political, spiritual, the influence of the international situation).

4. The course of historical events (systematizing knowledge on a particular issue, it is necessary to identify the main stages (directions) in the development of historical events, and then describe and explain them).

5. Results and consequences of historical events.

6. Significance (determining the significance of certain historical events, it is necessary to show their historical role, give an assessment, and identify the consequences).

When preparing for seminars, attention should be paid to mastering the basic concepts. At the same time, it is necessary not to “memorize” this or that concept, but to independently construct its content. In the process of this construction, it is first necessary to show which subject area the concept defines, and then to characterize its features (features, functions). For example, the state is the main institution of the political system of society, which performs the functions of administrative management, social integration and mobilization, protection of national interests and is characterized by the presence of the following features: 1) public authority; 2) a single territory; 3) subject population; 4) legal system; 5) sovereignty; 6) taxes.

In order to acquire the skills of assimilation of knowledge of an empirical nature through their formalization, it is necessary to perform tasks related to the construction of tables of thematic content, such as “Russian princes of the 9th-13th centuries”, “Russia in the First World War”, “Reforms of the 90s. 20th century in Russia".

The solution of cognitive tasks for proof and comparison contributes to the activation of students' cognitive independence and the development of the logic of historical thinking. It is necessary to perform such tasks in accordance with certain algorithms.

Conducting a seminar with elements of discussion is one of the most effective forms of classroom training based on both individual and group approaches. It is the discussion that creates the conditions for the effective accumulation of theoretical and factual knowledge, since the student acts as an active participant in the issues under discussion. However, the task of self-preparation of students is also solved here, since without a basic knowledge of historical events and phenomena, approaches in historical science, there is no way to participate in the discussion. The student acquires public speaking skills and the opportunity to practically apply the information received in theory.

A special place in the structure of the seminar is occupied by educational reports, which allow students to demonstrate theoretical and empirical knowledge, the ability to systematize and conceptualize the historical information contained in educational and scientific texts, in accordance with the report plan.

Preparing for the report, one must read the recommended literature and draw up simple plans for the texts read, and then draw up a report plan, adhering to the recommended scheme: 1) the time of the event, 2) the historiography of the issue, 3) the theory of the issue, 4) the causes of the event, 5) the content of the event, 6) the meaning of the event. In the report, special attention should be paid to the historiographic and theoretical aspects of the topic.

Abstracts are then written on the basis of the report. A prerequisite for the preparation of abstracts is the use of additional literature.

Russian historical school.

N.M. Karamzin and his History of the Russian State. Liberal trend in historiography. Westernizers, Slavophiles, K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin. CM. Solovyov and "History of Russia since ancient times". IN. Klyuchevsky and his "Course of Russian History". Liberal historians of the late XIX - early XX century. P.N. Milyukov. Conservative trend in historiography. A radical trend in historiography. Historical views of the Decembrists. Evaluation by the revolutionary democrats of the main events in the history of Russia. A.I. Herzen. Marxist trend in historiography. G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Lenin. Historical science in the USSR. M.N. Pokrovsky.

Literature:

1. Gumilyov L.N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. - L., 1989.

2. Danilevsky N.Ya. Russia and Europe. - M., 1991.

3. Kochesokov R.Kh. Philosophy of history: an introductory course (materials for a special course). - Nalchik, 1996.

4. Marx K. Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1884 // Works. T. 48.

5. Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. - M., 1991.

6. Spengler O. Decline of Europe T. 1. - M., 1993.

Feudal war of the XV century. – choice of the way of further development of the country. Unification policy of Ivan III. annexation of Novgorod. Prerequisites for the formation of autocratic features of state power. The meaning of the marriage of Ivan II to Zoya Paleolog. Localism. The beginning of the folding of the centralized apparatus of state power. Sudebnik 1497 Russian church and state. Non-possessors and Josephites.

Abstract topics:

· Russian cities during the Mongol rule.

· Russian peasantry during the yoke: discussions of recent years.

· Russian culture in the period of the Mongol yoke.

Expansion from the West and East to Russia in the XIII century.

The economy of Russian lands in the XII - the first half of the XIII centuries

· The economy of Russia during the period of Mongol rule.

· The place of Russia in the European community in the second half of the XIII - XIV centuries.

· Prerequisites, features and main stages of the formation of the Russian centralized state.

Feudal war in Russia in the 15th century. and its consequences.

Literature:

1. Alekseev D.G. Under the banner of Moscow. The struggle for the unity of Russia. - M., 1992.

2. Borisov N.S. Ivan Kalita. - M., 1995.

3. Buganov V.I., Preobrazhensky A.A., Tikhonov Yu.A. The evolution of feudalism in Russia. Socio-economic problems. - M., 1980.

4. Grekov I.B., Shakhmagonova F.F. The world of history. Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries. - M., 1986.

5. Zimin A.A. Knight at the Crossroads: Feudal War in Russia in the 15th century. - M., 1991.

6. Kuchkin V.A. Formation of the state territory of North-Eastern Russia in the X-XIV centuries. - M., 1984.

7. Sakharov A.M. Formation and development of the Russian state in the XIV-XVII centuries. - M., 1969.

8. Tatar-Mongols in Asia and Europe. - M., 1977.

9. Shaskolsky I.P. Russia's struggle against crusader aggression on the shores of the Baltic in the 12th - 13th centuries. - L., 1978.

10. Yushko A.A. Moscow land IX-XIV centuries. - M., 1991

Topic 4. Russia in the 16th century.

Oprichnina and its consequences.

Oprichnina - forced centralization without the necessary socio-economic prerequisites. Reasons and circumstances for the introduction of oprichnina. Oprichnina and land. Oprichny terror. Cancellation of the oprichnina and its results.

Foreign policy in the XVI century.

Tasks and main directions of foreign policy. Eastern direction. The conquest of the Kazan Astrakhan khanates and the Siberian khanates. South direction. Exploration of the "Wild Field". Relations between Russia and Kabarda. Western direction. Livonian war. Causes of Russia's failure in the war.

Abstract topics:

Vasily III: a man and a politician.

· Reasons for the aggravation of the conflict between the boyar opposition and the grand duke's power in the middle of the 16th century.

· West-Russia-East: the nature of relationships and mutual influence in the XVI century.

Estate-representative monarchy in Russia in the 16th century.

· The crisis in Russian society in the 60-70s. 16th century

· Social protest in Russia in the 16th century: origins, essence, consequences.

· Kazan and Astrakhan campaigns of Ivan the Terrible.

· At the origins of the Russian Cossacks.

· Ivan the Terrible: personality and politician.

Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible.

Russian Orthodox Church of the 16th century

16th century Russia through the eyes of foreigners.

Zemsky Sobors.

Literature:

1. Alshits D.N. Beginning of autocracy in Russia. State of Ivan the Terrible. - L., 1988.

2. Buganov V.I., Preobrazhensky A.A., Tikhonov Yu.A. The evolution of feudalism in Russia. Socio-economic problems. - M., 1980.

3. Kobrin V.B. Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1989.

4. Korolyuk V.D. Livonian war. - L., 1984.

5. Skrynnikov R.G. reign of terror. - M., 1991.

6. Cherepnin L.V. Zemsky Sobors of the Russian state in the XVI-XVII centuries. - M., 1978.

7. Schmidt S.O. The formation of the Russian autocracy. - M., 1973.

8. Dzamikhov K.F. Adygs are milestones of history. – Nalchik, 2008.

Preparation and implementation of the peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom.

Agrarian-peasant question by the middle of the 19th century. The need to abolish serfdom. Preparation of the reform: Secret Committee, Rescript V.I. Nazimov, Main Committee, Editorial Commissions. Manifesto February 19, 1861 Conditions

We are pleased to announce that a teaching aid on difficult issues of national history has been published, prepared by the Heritage NBF as part of the Heritage of My Fatherland project, supported by the Presidential Grants Foundation in 2017-2018.

Here is a short summary of the book:

The Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation has developed a list of 31 "difficult questions" on national history. These are questions on which there are discussions in science. The proposed teaching aid in a popular form offers answers to questions from the list. While working on it, the authors were guided by scientific accuracy, that is, they used works from the "cutting edge of science" and evidence from sources that have undergone multi-layered criticism of specialists, adhered to the principle of respect for the deeds of our ancestors, respect for the history of our Fatherland. The book gives "transparent" references to historical facts, which provides the teacher with methodological recommendations for using the material in the educational process. For methodological purposes, the literature recommended for review on each topic is indicated. The manual is addressed to students of secondary and higher educational institutions, as well as history teachers.

The book is recommended by the Academic Council of the Faculty of History of Voronezh State University for use in the educational process by university students, students of secondary general education institutions, history teachers.

The reviewers of the manual d.h.s. Lavrov V.M. and d.h.s. Minakov A.Yu.

Organizations interested in receiving the publication, please leave a request by mail.

Free distribution of the first fifty orders (addresses) is provided. The number of books at one address is no more than two. Ordering more than 2 books issued upon request with the provision of an official letter from the organization, taking into account the payment of postage. Please note: Applications will be reviewed on June 29th. Detailed information will be published on the website..

The educational and methodological manual "Difficult Issues of National History" is recommended by the Academic Council of the Faculty of History of Voronezh State University for use in the educational process by university students, students of secondary general education institutions, and history teachers.

V.M. Lavrov, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Chief Researcher at the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Review of the educational and methodological manual "Difficult questions of national history" edited by D.M. Volodikhin

Numerous history textbooks, often representing either a thematic order or an ideological project, brought down on readers mutually exclusive interpretations and conclusions even on the fundamental problems of Russian history. The Ministry of Education of Russia has developed a list of more than thirty difficult questions on Russian history, which are not only debatable in historical science, but also cause political tension in today's society. The publication of a manual offering answers to these questions should be recognized as very relevant and timely.

The group of authors includes well-known historians who have gained authority in society, who have long and fruitfully developed the fundamental problems of Russian history: D.M. Volodikhin, G.A. Eliseev, O.I. Eliseeva and A.A. Muzafarov. The authors do not claim their work as a model of "objective history". The epistemological key for the team of authors is the feeling of filial love for the past of the Fatherland or, using the lines of A.S. Pushkin, - "love for the father's coffins, love for the native ashes." It is on this basis that the authors invite the reader to a calm and balanced discussion of issues of history, demonstrating the desire to contribute to the unification of all for whom history is a teacher of life, for whom objective knowledge of the past of our country is interesting and dear.

In chronological order, the authors consider questions from the list developed by the Ministry of Education, starting with the formation of the Old Russian state and ending with the collapse of the USSR. At the same time, the main attention is paid to those problems that have received serious scientific development based on the study of a wide range of historical sources. The authors deliberately limit the range of issues under consideration, relating mainly to the beginning and second half of the 20th century, which remain debatable in Russian historiography, since their full coverage requires further serious work by researchers and the emergence of truly scientific works.

At the same time, the thoughtful and objective sections of D.M. Volodikhina (The role of Ivan IV the Terrible in Russian history; Attempts to limit the power of the head of state during the Time of Troubles and in the era of palace coups, possible reasons for the failure of these attempts; Fundamental features of the social and political system of Russia (serfdom, autocracy) in comparison with the states of Western Europe) , O.I. Eliseeva (Causes, features, consequences and price of Peter's reforms) and G.A. Eliseeva (Causes, consequences and assessment of the establishment of a one-party dictatorship and the autocracy of Stalin). The conclusion of D.M. Volodikhina: “Tsar Peter I took away from the Church its exclusive position and reduced it to the state in which it functioned as part of the state apparatus, controlled by a secular official. This weakened the Church, but the state itself lost its powerful spiritual support, which ultimately became one of the causes of the social cataclysm of 1917.” Another historical observation by Volodikhin deserves attention:

“The monarch, in most cases, prepared for activities at the helm of power from childhood. He received not only a specially pointed education, but also instructions from family members who had long been immersed in the affairs of big politics, as well as experience from military and administrative work. From the second half of the 18th century, there were no people on the Russian throne who were uneducated or unprepared for the labors of the ruler. In contrast to the hereditary monarchy, the republican parliamentary system could bring to the height of supreme power an accidental person who did not have systematic knowledge, a malicious demagogue, a weak-willed puppet. Because of this, the Empire for a decade and a half has never been ruled by people so weak in terms of their ability to work in government, dubious and even outright scandalous people, such as, for example, the North American presidents Hayes and Harding.

The method of presenting the material chosen by the authors deserves high praise. Each chapter contains a brief rationale for the topic and a concise but concise overview of historiography, indicating the sources on which supporters of various views on this issue rely. The authors offer the reader a calm, balanced discussion of the problem, introduce the existing points of view in historical science, present their reasoned conclusions, while using works "from the cutting edge of science", little-known and new historical sources.

It is necessary to note the reasonably chosen style of presentation, which makes it possible to talk about complex problems in an interesting and accessible form for the general reader, without simplifying them and without sliding into their primitivization and vulgarization. The undoubted merit of the team of authors is the concise in form, but very embossed panoramic coverage of Russian history, saturated with portraits of real living heroes, spiritual pastors, statesmen and public figures.

The presented manual is a high-quality, balanced work, a good example of the purification of our historical knowledge from falsifications. The book awakens thought, strengthens the national-state self-consciousness. It will be of great help to teachers and students, and will be interesting and useful to everyone who is interested in Russian history.

Lecture 1. Domestic history as a scientific discipline

1. Domestic history as a scientific discipline (its specificity and main problems). Methods of historical research.

2. Methodology and theory of historical science.

3. The main stages in the development of Russian historiography, modern Russian historical science.

1. Domestic history as a scientific discipline (its specificity and main problems). Methods of historical research

Until recently, the rethinking of the past in Russia took place under the influence of strong critical – often negative – moods both of the pre-revolutionary “imperial” tradition and of Soviet “communist totalitarianism” in the 20th century. In fact, traditional ideas about the history of Russia, the significance of Russian (or Russian) civilization, the role of Russians in the development of the state and their influence on other peoples of the USSR and the Russian Empire were undermined. Together with harsh criticism of "liberated" and "resurgent" nations, this gave rise to a phenomenon that some authors call the "crisis of national identity" of Russians. Historical science has justly condemned the thesis that history is politics overturned into the past. At the same time, it cannot be denied that modernity has a significant influence on the choice of subjects in the study of the past, forcing attention to topics that, for one reason or another, are of particular public interest. This, of course, refers to the problems of recent history, since contemporaries can already see some important consequences of those events and processes, the origins of which they recently observed or even participated in them themselves, but which they previously underestimated or presented in a different light.

The scientific relevance of historiography is indisputable, since it completes the theoretical and methodological training of specialist historians. Knowledge of historiography is especially important for those who specialize in the field of modern and contemporary history. The ideological aspect of historical science comes through especially prominently in the field of historiography, where both different methodological approaches and the results of historical research are compared. The term "historiography" in the literature has a different meaning, and this reflects the path traveled by the science of history itself. Of a number of modern meanings of "historiography", two are the most common:

1) Historiography is a scientific discipline that studies the history of historical science;

2) Historiography- this is an analysis of the totality of historical works on a particular problem;

The first, broad perspective of the historiographical approach requires the study of the formation and development of historical science. Tracing the paths of the historical development of knowledge, historiography is called upon to identify the springs of progress and regression of historical science, to determine the main stages of historical knowledge, the degree of objective truth of the concepts created by historians and their significance for the social life of their time.

The main points of historiographic research are:

1) elucidation of the social conditions for the development of historical science at different stages. The study of various problems of the past, the development of certain concepts of historical development are connected with the substantiation of the socio-political positions of various social groups. But it would be wrong to derive any changes in the development of historiography only from changes in the socio-economic life of society, the historian has materials that have accumulated in the course of the previous development of historical science and contain not only facts, but also certain ideas and theories. Each new generation of historians begins in their research at first from the conclusions drawn up earlier, the technique of analyzing sources.

2) it is necessary not only to study the influence of the general conditions of socio-political development on historical science, but also to identify specific “organizational conditions” through which the influence of the dominant socio-political system is embodied on it. First of all, we are talking about the scientific institutions and historical education that existed in a given period, the conditions for the use of historical materials, the possibility of publication, etc. At turning points in social development, the significance of these elements is especially prominent.

In the scientific community, one can sometimes come across the judgment that the events of the present and the recent past are the subject of study of political science, but not of historical science. This is argued by the fact that history usually deals with completed and accomplished facts and processes, studies them as if from the outside. Political scientists themselves note that their science is aimed mainly at serving the current political process, at a certain complicity in it. In addition, the objects of political science research are primarily political ideas, systems and institutions. Historical science is more focused on the search for origins, roots, conditionality of ongoing events. History as a science, studying the origin, development and completion of this or that process, inevitably faces the need to assess the impact of various factors on the state of the social organism. As academician I. D. Kovalchenko noted, “the object of knowledge of historical science is the totality of the phenomena of social life throughout the history of society. Thus, historical science, in comparison with other specific social sciences and the humanities, acts as a complex, integral science. It deals with all social phenomena that are studied by these sciences. In any historical study, the historian appears in two or even more roles. Because of this, the problems of historical research are much broader than political science, and, as research practice shows, historians are more prepared to create generalizing works.

2. Methodology and theory of historical science

The importance of historiographic research also lies in finding out how the theories developed and changed, from the standpoint of which the historical process was studied, analysis of the theoretical and methodological principles of historical knowledge. Methodology history develops the principles and means of obtaining knowledge about the past, systematizing and interpreting it to clarify the essence and objective direction of the historical process. Methodology depends on the worldview of the historian and therefore is closely connected, directly or indirectly, with various areas of social thought - philosophy, political economy, sociology, political science, with the level of cultural development of society as a whole. The analysis of the eclectic methodology of modern non-Marxist historiography is rather complicated. Thus, the radical leftist school of US history was influenced by the critical trends of modern bourgeois philosophy and sociology - from existentialism and the "Frankfur school" to the youth left counterculture of the 60s. At the same time, certain provisions of Marxism also influenced the formation of the methodology of the radicals. The natural sciences have a huge influence on the formation of methodology. The influence of mathematics and physics on seventeenth-century English sociohistorical thought, for example, led to the emergence of the principles of "social physics"; biology and psychology on the historical science of the second half of the 19th century. - to the formulation of positivist patterns of social development; scientific and technological revolution that unfolded after the Second World War - on the methodology of historical research (primarily the use of interdisciplinary methods), on the formation of a "new scientific history".

It is important to analyze the range and nature of the sources involved by the historian, the specific methods of their study. At the same time, the whole set of methods of studying, interpreting, and using sources that are characteristic of various schools is taken into account. The ability to analyze a source is an essential element of a historian's professionalism. How subtle this operation, which requires adherence to the principles of historicism, is evidenced by the fact that a source extracted from the socio-cultural environment of the past and included in the modern system of assessments often saturates with new understanding, and, therefore, understanding of a particular problem of the past can be deformed.

An important role is played by the study of the formation of the problems of historical research. To a large extent, the study of certain phenomena of the historical past is debated by the availability of sources. But social and political life is perhaps more important. For example, at one time the Russian historical school represented by N. I. Kareev, N. V. Luchitsky, M. M. Kovalevsky turned to the study of the agrarian history of the Great French Revolution, largely in connection with the prospects for the development of Russia along one path or another - revolution or reform. Elucidation of historical issues does a lot for understanding the history of historical science and social thought, explaining what events of the past and why became relevant in scientific terms. All the mentioned aspects of historiographical research are closely related to each other; the absolutization of one of them inevitably leads to a deformation of the overall picture of the development of historical knowledge.

Today, the principles of scientific objectivism should be especially correctly applied when revealing those socio-political forces that in one way or another influenced historians in describing and analyzing the past, determining the social function of historical science at different stages of social development. Often the connection between the ideological orientation and the scientific result of historical research is interpreted in a simplified way. There have been many distortions in the recent past, when adherence to dogmas and opportunistic considerations was covered up with the label of "Marxist analysis." Neither the reduction of history to "pure knowledge" nor the limitation of the tasks of the study of history to the elucidation of changes in worldviews or political ideas can be acceptable.

Methodological problems of the development of historical science constantly attract the attention of researchers. It can be argued that, in contrast to the recent past, today's historical events in Russia are analyzed from different methodological positions. Some experts who have carefully studied this issue consider it possible to single out four existing "cognitive" systems: first, the Marxist; secondly, "civilized"; thirdly, the world is a systematic approach of I. Wallerstein; fourthly, the theory of modernization. Observation of the development of Russian historiography in recent years allows us to think about the popularity of the theory of modernization, which in many ways illuminates the Russian historical process in a new way, including in the 20th century. This approach contributed, in particular, to overcoming the predominantly negative interpretations of Soviet history in the 1980s. The “toolkit” of the modernization theory is also productive in studying modern Russian reality in the context of the main trends in world development. Modernization is defined as a socio-economic, cultural and technological revolution. When analyzing the historical experience of modernization, its organic models are distinguished, which are associated with the development of capitalism while relying on its own resources; they are opposed to inorganic models of modernization, which, as a rule, took place later in time and were influenced by those countries where organic modernization had already taken place. In turn, several types of modernization are distinguished within the framework of modernization itself: early industrial modernization, or industrial revolution; late industrial modernization, during which the transition from factory to mass production was carried out; post-industrial modernization of the era of the information revolution.

3. The main stages in the development of Russian historiography, modern Russian historical science

Almost everyone who studies the history of modern Russia notes as a boundary line 1970–1980 On the one hand, the methods of managing social (in the broad sense) processes that had developed in previous decades became completely unacceptable, and on the other hand, the country had to respond to the emerging global trends in world development. All this was spurred on by "cold" military pressure on the USSR, which also could not be ignored. The main thing was the beginning of the entry of the most developed countries of the West and East into the "post-industrial" phase of development. Its two most important components - the technological revolution based on microelectronics and the expansion of creative (creative) activities, as well as all activities related to the use of information - have attracted a whole trail of radical changes in the economic, social, spiritual and political spheres. Curious is the remark of one of the researchers of modernization - clearly not a communist - V. A. Krasilytsikov that “the emerging post-industrial (information) society essentially corresponds to Marxist communism: it is dominated not by private, but by public property, and “human production” comes to the fore “Instead of the production of things, human capital becomes truly fixed capital, and science becomes a direct production force.” The possibilities of contemporary historians are being significantly expanded through the use of developments in related areas of humanitarian knowledge. Over the past decade, it should be noted the rapid progress of political science - experts identify more than twenty of its constituent parts. Particularly important for historians are its sections such as the history and theory of political institutions and ideologies, geopolitics, elitology, and conflictology. The close relationship and interdependence of historical and political sciences are reflected in attempts to establish such a discipline as "historical political science". Radical changes in the state and political system of the country create the need to attract legal literature as well. Widely used since the late 1980s. The "human dimension" of political and economic transformations requires a broad reference to sociological data. The expansion of the range of methodological approaches both in historical science and in related fields of the humanities should be viewed not as a denial, but as a development and enrichment of the positive methodological baggage that was accumulated by Soviet historiography in previous years.

An analysis of the published literature on the modern period of Russian history indicates the existence of two methodological shortcomings that have become quite widespread. Firstly, some historians do not consider it necessary to hide their civic position, which leads to the politicization of research, and, consequently, to a decrease in their scientific significance. Other authors, when evaluating the phenomena described, rely on moral and ethical criteria, which also largely devalues the often significant efforts expended. The historian of modernity must be aware of the danger of both explainable temptations and strive to create a historical conception based on the principles of historicism and objectivity. The study of modern history has its own characteristics. As it was before, the researcher relies primarily on the variety of published sources, since the large information arrays stored in the current archives are not available for academic purposes for some time. When analyzing perestroika processes, the documents of the highest party and state bodies of the USSR and the RSFSR, which are in the archive of the President of Russia, to which a very narrow circle of people now has access, would be of particular interest. This enhances the importance of memoir sources – fortunately, the most recent period is described by the participants in the main events in almost more detail than any segment of Soviet history – and also places special demands on the breadth and variety of other published materials.

Section II. Civilization of ancient Russia

Lecture 2. Eastern Slavs and their neighbors by the 9th century.

1. Origin and ancestral home of the Slavs: basic concepts. Proto-Slavs in the ancient world: reliable information and hypotheses.

2. Northern Black Sea region. Settlement of the Slavs.

3. Eastern Slavs: territory, natural and climatic conditions, prerequisites for the emergence of feudalism and statehood.

1. Origin and ancestral home of the Slavs: basic concepts. Proto-Slavs in the ancient world: reliable information and hypotheses

We will not try to trace the history of the appearance of the ancient Slavs from the creation of the world, but we will try to find the closer roots of our family tree. The same Bible, telling about the Flood, offers such a version. Patriarch Noah was saved in his ark with his whole family - his wife and three sons: Shem, Ham and Aphet (Japhet, Japhet). When the water subsided, it was from them that the life of post-Flood mankind began, since the father divided the whole earth between his sons: he gave the east to Shem, the south to Ham, and the north and west went to Afet. The children of Noah became the founders of modern peoples, which are now called by their names: Semites, Hamites and Ophites (Japhetids) or Aryans; the Slavic people also went from the Afetov tribe. But if we ignore religious traditions, then the origin of the Slavs is shrouded in a rather dense fog of world history. Here is what the well-known Russian historian S. Solovyov says about this: “The Slavic tribe does not remember about its arrival from Asia, about the leader who brought him out of there, but it retained the legend about its initial stay on the banks of the Danube, about moving from there to the north and east due to the onslaught of some powerful enemy. This legend contains a fact beyond any doubt: the ancient stay of the Slavs in the Danubian countries left clear traces in local names, the Slavs had many strong enemies on the Danube: from the west - the Celts, from the north - the Germans, from the south - the Romans, from east - Asian hordes; only in the northeast could the Slavic tribe find refuge, only in the northeast was a free path open, where, although not without strong obstacles, they managed to found a state and strengthen it in solitude, far from strong onslaughts and influences of the West, until then until it, having gathered strength, could already, without fear for its independence, enter the field and find influence on its part both to the east and to the west.

And here is how the Russian chronicler talks about the appearance of the Slavs in Europe: "... long after the Babylonian pandemonium, the Slavs sat down along the Danube, where now the land is Hungarian and Bulgarian." And then the Slavic tribes went on to breed in Eastern Europe: Moravians and Czechs, Serbs and Horutans, White Croats and so on. And so on - those who settled on the Vistula and were nicknamed the Poles, from whom the Poles came. By the way, in the first century after the birth of Christ, the Slavs were also called by their neighbors Wends, or Serbs.

However, it is rather difficult to establish exactly who in ancient times other peoples - the same Byzantines - called Slavs, or Wends, or other names that meant Slavic tribes. According to the apt statement of S. Solovyov: “the closer the peoples are to the original way of life, the more similar they are to each other in customs, mores, concepts - hence the ease with which any infant nation can be attributed to any tribe according to certain features of customs, customs and beliefs; a few words left from the language of this people cannot also lead to firm conclusions: for the expression of certain objects, all tribes will find common sounds.

However, what to count the beginning of Russian history? There are two views on this issue, which are presented in his "Course of Russian History" by one of the largest Russian scientists Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky. One of them, proposed by the famous German scientist Schlözer, was also supported by Karamzin, Pogodin and the already mentioned Solovyov. Until the middle of the ninth century, that is, before the arrival of the Varangians, on the vast expanse of the Russian plain along the Dnieper from Novgorod to Kyiv, everything was wild and empty: however, people lived here, but without any general government. These were the poorest Slavs and Finns. In "The Tale of the Beginning of the Russian Land" we read that the Eastern Slavs in those days lived here "in a bestial way, bestially", in the forests, like all animals, that is, they killed each other, ate everything unclean, lived solitary, scattered and hostile to each other childbirth. So, according to this version, our history should begin no earlier than the second half of the 9th century, when the local population, thanks to the invitation of the Varangians, began to leave the primitive state.

Another view of the beginning of our history is directly opposite to the first. Professor of Moscow University Belyaev and G. Zabelin in the first volume of his "History of Russian life from ancient times" became its most striking spokesman. The Eastern Slavs from time immemorial lived within the Russian plain, where they settled, perhaps, several centuries before our era. From this assumption, it is concluded that a long and complex historical process of degeneration of small primitive tribal Slavic unions into entire tribes took place on this territory. Cities arose among the tribes, from these cities the main, or older cities grew, which, with small cities and settlements, constituted tribal political unions of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Severyans, and then these main cities of different tribes around the time of the calling of the Varangian princes began to unite into one all-Russian union.