STATE BUDGET PROFESSIONAL

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS VLADIMIR REGION

"VLADIMIR AGRARIAN COLLEGE"

INDIVIDUAL PROJECT

SUBJECT:

Speciality 23.02.03 "Maintenance

and repair of vehicles

Student (ka) I course, group15

Shkulin N.A.

FULL NAME.

Work manager:

teacher Kiryanov V, E

position, full name

Protection " 15 » June2016

Grade

2016 year

Table of contents

Introduction

Chapter 1. Birth of the Russian centralized state.

Chapter 2 .

2.1.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Internet resources

Introduction

On the territory of Eurasia is currently one of the most powerful states in the world - Russia, whose history spans more than five centuries.

The Russian state was formed duringXIV- XVcenturies on a feudal basis: feudal landownership and economy developed, serfdom intensified, class struggle intensified. The unification process ended with the formation at the endXVin. Feudal-serf monarchy.

The relevance of research is determined, on the one hand, by the complexity of the problems associated with understanding the place and role of the state-legal system of Moscow Russia in the 14th-17th centuries, and, on the other hand, by the lack of unity of opinion on the main stages in the birth of statehood in Russia.

The problems of the formation and development of the Muscovite state and law, troubled times, external threats, oprichnina and separatism, etc., were solved in the XIV - XVII centuries. The experience gained in solving these problems requires a deep historical and legal research, the results of which can make it possible to find ways to solve those negative processes that are characteristic of modern Russia and threaten its integrity and statehood.

Much has already been written about the Muscovite state, including by our contemporaries, who worked on recreating the Russian past. However, the topic is far from exhausted in order to create a complete picture of the system of government in Moscow Russia, which is the reason for the choice of the topic of the project study.

The degree of development of the topic . Among the early researchers of the Russian past, V.N. Tatishchev and I.N. Boltin. The works of such scientists as N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky, N. Kostomarov, G. K. Kotoshikhin, M. A. Dyakonov, A. A. Shakhmatov, Soviet scientists - G.V. Abramovich, B.D. Grekova, V.V. Mavrodina, B.A. Rybakova and others. So, N.M. Karamzin in "The History of the Russian State" devoted volumes 2 and 3 to the period under study, and S.M. Solovyov in his work "The History of Russia from Ancient Times" also actively touches upon the problems of the development of state power in Russia. However, there are no common points of view on this period of the evolution of Russian statehood.

object research is a complex of political institutions of national importance, the legal system of Muscovite Russia and their influence on the process of the birth of a centralized Russian state.

Subject project research are the problems of evolution and the birth of the Russian centralized state.

The main goal of the study is to show the birth of the Russian centralized state.

Achieving this goal involves solving the following tasks:

Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state

The process of formation of a centralized state

Changes in the social order

Changes in the state system

Features of the development of law

The author's research was based on the principles of cognition of social phenomena, including political and legal ideas, theories, concepts in their historical development and, from the point of view of theory and practice, history and modernity.

Structure of an individual project. The problem posed, the object, subject and goals of the study determined the internal logic and structure of this work. The project consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a bibliography and Internet resources.

Chapter 1. Birth of the Russian centralized state.

1.1 Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state

On the territory of Eastern Europe for more than two centuries there was a strong state - Kievan Rus. The initial period of the formation of the state was reflected only in the annals. They were written, rewritten and added at different times, so that some of the plots of history look like legends.

In 882, Oleg with a large army leaves Novgorod to the south, conquers Smolensk, Lyubech, and then Kyiv.

Imitating Byzantium, the Russian princes at the same time imitated the Byzantine autocracy. The desire for autocracy was manifested, in particular, in the attempt of Yaroslav the Wise to subjugate the church and independently appoint metropolitans . Undoubtedly, the authority of the princes has greatly increased, and some researchers speak of a decrease in the role of veche assemblies. However, the policy of strengthening the monarchy was in principle incompatible with the Varangian family traditions. These traditions demanded the division between the sons of the estate of the deceased father. Ultimately, Kievan Rus was divided. "Barbarian"orders prevailed over the influence of Byzantium.

Tribal customs were the starting point for the development of law. Each tribe had its own system of tribal customs, different from others. With the unification of the state, a new legal source appears - princely charters and ranks, which contributed to the unification of the former unwritten tribal institutions.

Of course, they were not enough for the needs of a single ancient

Russian state and on the basis of customary tribal law and princely

acts to the beginning of the X century. the “Russian Law” is drawn up - the highest legal act

Kyiv state.

an important part of the Mongolian heritage was that which affected the organization of the state and the foundations of property.

Genghis Khan passed on to his heirs political structures and a method of government that could not be compared in their effectiveness with any other state system of that time.

The Mongolian system aimed at establishing a world Empire, won through a series of constant wars, and it sought to establish, thanks to the power placed everywhere, global peace and social order, in which the words justice and equality would be the key concepts. For his part, the khan, the omnipotent ruler over the lives of his subjects, was also the owner of the lands of his Empire.

In the same way they borrowed from the Mongols the organization of their troops - a single centralized army, composed through conscription, as well as the strategy and tactics that once ensured the victory of the khan. And finally, the postal and intelligence services, which were very efficient and contributed greatly to the maintenance of Mongol rule, were preserved by their Russian heirs, who understood all the benefits they brought.

The Mongolian legacy is in governance, the omnipotence of the state, the confiscation of private property in favor of the khan, and, finally, in

systematic repressive policy using a variety of means. Thus, the death penalty, unknown to Kyiv and the northwestern cities, was introduced by the Mongols and has since been preserved in Russia until recently.

Because of these conflicting outcomes, the Mongols exerted primarily a political rather than a cultural influence.

In contrast to Western Europe, where along with the political prerequisites for the creation of centralized (national) states, there were also powerful socio-economic prerequisites, in Russia political unification was not accompanied by an economic one.

In Western Europe, the development of cities, which were primarily centers of crafts and trade, led to the establishment of strong trade and economic ties between individual parts of the state. Their development was hindered by the carriers of feudal fragmentation - large feudal lords.

The desire to overthrow the power of the feudal lords united the townspeople, peasants and the royal government, which also fought against them. Relying on the social lower classes and the nobility, the kings of the Western European countries led the process of state unification, which took place no longer on a feudal, but on a bourgeois basis.

In Russia, the growth of cities and the development of trade did not lead to the collapse of the subsistence economy and the overcoming of the economic isolation of individual regions. The boyars and monasteries were engaged in trade.

The income received from it was not invested in production, but started to grow, accumulated or spent on the purchase of land. Craftsmen in the cities produced products mainly to order, and not to the market, and therefore did not need economic ties with other regions. For these reasons, the unification of Russian lands took place on a feudal basis. Political centralization was far ahead of the beginning of overcoming economic disunity and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence.

Chapter 2 . Features of the birth of the Russian centralized state:

2.1. The process of formation of a centralized state

The process of unification of Russian lands went through three stages. At the first stage (1301-1389) there is the rise of Moscow, the struggle between the principalities (Moscow, Tver, Ryazan, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod) for the throne of Vladimir. In this struggle, the Moscow principality won. Under the banner of the Moscow prince, Russia defeated the Tatar-Mongols on the Kulikovo field.

At the second stage (1389-1462) there are internal strife between the descendants of the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy (the war of the second quarter of the 15th century). There is a strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke.

At the third stage (1462-1533), the political and territorial formation of the Russian state was completed under the Moscow princes Ivan III and his son Vasily III.

The political formation of the Russian centralized state began with the process of nominating Moscow as the center of the political unification of the Russian lands. Being in the junction of trade routes, Moscow became the center of not only economic, but also political ties between other Russian lands. In addition, the geographical position of Moscow guaranteed her relative safety: from the north-west of Moscow, she was covered by the Tver principality, and from the east and south-east of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents and an increase in population density.

In the transformation of Moscow into the center of the unification of Russian lands, a subjective factor also played a role - the active policy of the Moscow princes. The ancestor of the Moscow princely dynasty is the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel. He received the Moscow throne in 1276. In 1303, the Moscow principality passed to his eldest son Yuri Danilovich. For a long time he fought against Prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver, which eventually ended in favor of Moscow.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy with the Golden Horde, achieved significant success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek, marrying his sister Konchaka, and received a label for a great reign. After he was killed in the Horde, Yuri's brother, Ivan, nicknamed Kalita (purse), began to reign in Moscow. In relations with the Horde, Kalita continued the line of external observance of vassal dependence on the Horde, outlined by Alexander Nevsky, in order not to give them a reason for new invasions and devastation. Formally, he observed vassal obedience to the khans, regularly paid the Horde the established tribute, and at the same time strove for the greatest possible independence in all the internal affairs of Russia. Such a policy did not give the Horde khans a reason for new devastating raids on the Russian land. By his readiness to serve the khan, he not only got himself a label for a great reign, but also acquired the right to collect tribute from the khan. Hiding part of the "exit", Kalita became significantly richer. Knowing how to get along with the Horde and enrich himself at the expense of others, he established his power over Uglich, Galich Kostroma and Beloozero, launched his hand into the possessions of the Rostov princes. But we especially note that Ivan Kalita was the first of the Moscow princes to begin the practice of resettlement, which was so successfully used by his descendants, Ivan III and Ivan IV. This practice consisted in the fact that the landowners of the principalities attached to Moscow moved to Moscow, and Muscovites settled in their place, becoming the support of the prince in the new lands. The resettlement led to the destruction of the administrative and legal ties that existed in different principalities before their subordination to Moscow. The Moscow boyars who received awards became the basis of the new military-administrative system created by Kalita.

Kalita's policy was continued by his sons, Simeon the Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan the Red (1353-1359). This policy, built on subservience to the khans, ultimately led to a paradox: Kalita's grandson, Dmitry Ivanovich, dared to take such actions, for which they were executed under his grandfather. Dmitry decided on an open confrontation with the Horde - and in this he was helped by the power that his predecessors had received at the cost of losses and humiliation. In the second half of the XIV century, the Golden Horde was engulfed in internal unrest; 14 khans have been in power for twenty years. Under these conditions, one of the Horde emirs, Mamai, made an attempt to seize the khan's throne. Mamai was not Genghisides, therefore, both in the Horde and in Russia, he was perceived as an impostor.

Mamai sought to extend his power to the Russian principalities. In 1378, he organized a campaign against Russia, but the Tatar army was defeated on the Vozha River and retreated to the steppe. Mamai began to prepare a new campaign, but in Russia they did not lose their vigilance. The Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich, the grandson of Ivan Kalita, prepared to repulse the enemy and gathered an army unprecedented in Russia until then (the chronicle says that it numbered 150 thousand soldiers).

Mamai's army, according to some sources, reached 200 thousand. The outcome of the confrontation was resolved by the Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on the day of the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, September 8, 1380, on the right bank of the Don, at the confluence of the Nepryadva into it. The bloody battle ended with the flight of Mama's cavalry. Russian warriors won, and Dmitry received the honorary nickname Donskoy among the people, with which he went down in history.

The Battle of Kulikovo has become an important milestone in Russian history - this is recognized by the vast majority of historians. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Russia irreversibly began to grow stronger, its dependence on the Horde weakened.

Under the Grand Duke Vasily, son of Dmitry Donskoy, Russia survived two Tatar invasions. Despite the fact that Vasily was married to the daughter of the Lithuanian prince Vitovt (Sofia), between them it came to open wars. The clashes ended with the fact that the Ugra River was recognized as the border of the possessions of Moscow and Lithuania.

Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich, nicknamed the Dark (blind), was ten years old after the death of his father. The uncle of the Grand Duke - Yuri (the specific prince of Galich) and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka declared their claims to Moscow. The strife dragged on for 20 years. Vasily Vasilyevich was blinded by Dmitry Shemyaka.

The blind father made his son Ivan co-ruler during his lifetime and gave him the title of Grand Duke IvanIII. Gifted with a great mind and strong will, Ivan completed the collection of Great Russian lands under the rule of Moscow. IvanIIIsubjugated Novgorod, Tver, Rostov the Great, Yaroslavl, Ryazan where by force, where by peace agreements. IvanIIIrefused to pay tribute to the Tatar khans.

The great standing on the Ugra River (1480) ended with the retreat of the Tatars. In 1487 Kazan was taken, and in 1514. annexed Smolensk.

The Orthodox Church also contributed to the unification of Russian lands. She supported the flexible policy of a forced alliance with the Golden Horde of Alexander Nevsky, inspired Dmitry Donskoy to the Mamaev battle, during the feudal war she openly opposed the obsolete policy of the appanage princes in order to strengthen the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow. The union of the Russian Church with the Moscow princes was further strengthened during the period of the elimination of feudal fragmentation.

2.2 Changes in the social order

The creation of a single state had a significant impact on the development of the economy, the state and social system.

At the top of the feudal ladder was the Grand Duke of Moscow. Next came the specific princes, who became the service of the Grand Duke and lost their independence. They were supposed to serve in the military. Over time, the specific princes became part of the boyars, forming its top.

The next group of feudal lords were the boyars, the largest and most influential landowners. With the advent of service princes, the upper class of Russian society was still referred to as boyars or "princes and boyars".

The boyars were followed by “free servants” and “children of the boyars”, i.e. medium and small feudal lords. The boyars and the “children of the boyars” had their own squads, their own courts, and when they went to the service of the Moscow prince, they brought them with them to Moscow. The service of the boyars and servants of the freemen was voluntary, not mandatory. However, they could not do without this service; great or specific prince. Only in service, they could count on his protection. Boyars and free servants could refuse to serve their lord and go to serve another. But what is characteristic - they did not lose their rights to the patrimony. The Moscow princes tried to recruit as many servicemen as possible into their service and secure them forever by distributing peasant villages to them for the duration of their service. In the future, unauthorized termination of service and the transition to another feudal lord was prohibited by law, considered as a state crime and entailed the confiscation of granted estates.

The lowest group consisted of servants of the feudal lords, who performed various administrative and household duties and received land for their service.

ATXVin. Serious changes took place in the composition of the feudal class. The ruling class was quite clearly divided into the feudal aristocracy - the boyars and the service class - the nobles. The economic base of the first group was patrimonial land tenure, the second - local land tenure. The votchina was hereditary property, the estate was given for a lifetime. As a rule, estates were larger than estates. The landlords, who received land for a limited period of time, strove to exploit them and the peasants living on them more intensively. In the middleXVIin. the first attempt was made to legally equate the estate with the estate.

The peasants were divided into black tax, who lived on the land of the Grand Duke and on the lands of the specific princes, and the peasants who lived in the estates and estates of the boyars, "children of the boyars" and nobles, as well as on church lands.

Old-timers were called peasants who had long lived and worked on the land of their feudal lord and paid him taxes. Silversmiths were peasants who borrowed silver from their feudal lords at interest. With the exception of the old-timers and Serebryannikovs, the bulk of the population inXVin. Enjoyed the freedom of transition (“exit”). Over time, landowners began to set special dates for this exit: November 26, the so-called St. George's Day, in late autumn, was considered the most suitable, when all agricultural work ended. Few of the peasants exercised this right under the fear of a harsh winter.

According to legislative acts XIV – XV for centuries, all ranks of peasant landowners - black, palace, boyar, patrimonial, local in relation to landowners were dividedinto three unequal categories:

1) taxable peasants, state, taxed with certain state taxes and duties, who did not have the right to transfer. They constituted the predominant mass of the state population;

2) privately owned peasants who lived on the land of their masters and paid them dues;

3) free peasant colonists on foreign lands, public and private, exempted from taxes and duties for a certain grace period, after which they are classified as black or privately owned peasants.

The landowners and votchinniks were judges of their peasants in all cases, with the exception of criminal ones.

urban population in XVII in. Receives the stable name "posad people". A certain hierarchy has developed: guests and a living hundred (merchants trading abroad of the state), a cloth hundred, black hundreds (medium, small and retail traders) and settlements (handicraft quarters and workshops). Representatives of the guests, the living room and the cloth shop were endowed with significant privileges, exempted from a number of taxes and duties.

A significant part of the households in the city, belonging to the spiritual and secular feudal lords, were exempted from the state "tax" (direct sovereign tax, archery tax, yam money, etc.) and were called "white settlements". They represented serious competition to the posad, luring skilled labor from the "black settlements". Therefore, the townspeople have repeatedly raised the issue of returning to the settlement the departed people and the city property mortgaged by the "Belolilists".

Cathedral Code of 1649 basically solved this problem by securing the monopoly right of the posad on craft and trade, including the “white settlements” in the state “tax” and returning the departed fugitives to the posad. At the same time, all of its population was assigned to the posad, the transition from posad to posad was prohibited.

2.3 Changes in government

So, the Moscow principality gradually began to acquire the character of a centralized state, on the entire territory of which uniform laws apply and all parts of which are subordinate to the political institutions of Moscow.

IIIrelations of vassalage were finally replaced by relations of allegiance. All residents of the state, regardless of their affiliation, became subjects of the Moscow prince, his serfs. In his activities, the prince relied on the Boyar Duma, which was a permanent body with legislative functions. It included from 5 to 12 boyars and about 12 okolnichy.

A special place in the system of state bodies was occupied by Zemsky Sobors, held from the middleXVIin. to the middleXVIIin. Their convocation was announced by royal charter. The Council included the Boyar Duma, the "Consecrated Cathedral" (church hierarchs) and elected from the nobility and towns. Zemsky Sobors resolved the main issues of foreign and domestic policy, legislation, finance, and state building. Questions were discussed according to estates (“by chambers”), but were accepted by the entire composition of the Council.

The Grand Duchy of Moscow was administratively divided into counties - cities with lands belonging to them. Along with counties, there was a division into lands. Counties were subdivided into volosts, volosts into camps. Local rulers, appointed by the princes, were called governors and volosts. The governor was subordinate only to the Grand Duke. Both governors and volostels were usually appointed for 3 years. The governor appoints assistants for himself - tiuns, closers and greetings. The governors were in charge of the collection of taxes, duties, repaired the court and reprisals. In addition to financial and judicial rights, the governors had police and recruiting functions. The income of the governor or volost was called "fodder", and hence the entire management system is called the feeding system. The assistants to the governors and volostels - tiuns, closers, and greetings - also received food.

The local representative bodies in the middleXVIin. became zemstvo and labial huts. The establishment of these bodies limited and replaced the feeding system: elected self-governing huts assumed financial and tax (zemstvo) and police and judicial (labial) functions. The competence of these bodies was enshrined in lip charters and zemstvo charters signed by the tsar, their staff consisted of "the best people", sots, fifties, elders, kissers and clerks.

The activities of the zemstvo and labial huts were controlled by various branch orders, the number of which increased along with the new branch orders - Razboyny, Streletsky - new territorial orders appeared - Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Siberian orders. The reorganization of the order system, the sequential disaggregation or merging of orders occurred quite often. In the work of these bodies, a real bureaucratic style was developed: strict subordination (vertically) and strict management of instructions and regulations (horizontally).

ATXVII

2.4 Features of the development of law

III1497 The main content of the Sudebnik is procedural rulings. They are borrowed from the statutes. There is nothing new here, but it is important that the procedural decrees scattered in different princely charters were combined into one act. Among the norms of procedural law there are criminal decisions. There are few of them. Some, obviously, were the result of the legislative activity of IvanIII- “on covetousness”, “on denial of justice”, “on perjury”, etc.

The second, smaller part of the Sudebnik consists of civil law norms - “on prescription”, “on inheritance”, “on sale and purchase”, “on loan”, “on servitude”, etc. These decisions are borrowed from the Pskov Judicial Charter. Russkaya Pravda was also a source of Sudebnik.

A crime in the lawsuit is understood not only as causing material or moral damage, “insult”. The protection of the existing social and legal order comes to the fore. A crime is, first of all, a violation of established norms, regulations and, at the same time, the will of the sovereign, which was inextricably linked with the interests of the state. To the "dashing", i.e. especially dangerous cases included robbery, robbery, arson, murder (“murder”), special types of tatba. The concept of "sedition" appears, i.e. anti-state action. In addition to the listed types of especially serious crimes, it also included conspiracies and rebellions.

Thus, we can state the appearance in the law of the concept of a state crime, which was unknown to Russkaya Pravda. Adjacent to this type is a group of malfeasance and crimes against order of administration and court: a bribe (“promise”), making a deliberately unfair decision, embezzlement. The development of the monetary system gave rise to such a crime as counterfeiting.

In the group of crimes against a person, qualified murders (“state murderer”, robbery murderer), insult by action and word are distinguished. In the group of property crimes, much attention was paid to tatba, in which qualified types were also distinguished: church, “head” (kidnapping) tatba, robbery and robbery that are legally unlimited from each other.

The system of punishments becomes more complicated, new goals of punishment are formed: intimidation and isolation of the criminal. The capital punishment was the death penalty. The execution procedure turns into a kind of performance, new types of execution and punishment appear. Corporal punishment was used. The most common type was the "commercial execution", i.e. whipping in the marketplace. Self-mutilating punishments (cutting off ears, tongue, branding) were only beginning to be introduced during the period of the Code of Laws. In addition to intimidation, these types of punishments performed an important symbolic function - highlighting the criminal from the general mass, "designating" him.

There are two forms of litigation. The adversarial process is used in civil and less serious criminal cases. Witness testimony, an oath, ordeals (in the form of a duel) were widely used here. In the adversarial trial, a wide range of procedural documents was used: the subpoena was carried out by means of a “petition”, “attached” or “urgent” letter. At the court session, the parties filed "petition petitions", declaring their presence. According to the resolved case, the court issued a "letter of law", with the issuance of which the claim was terminated.

The second procedural form - the search process - was used in the most serious criminal cases (state crimes, murders, robbery, etc.), and their circle gradually expanded. The essence of the search (“inquisitorial”) process was as follows: the case was initiated at the initiative of a state body or official, during the proceedings such evidence as being caught red-handed or one's own confession played a special role. To obtain the latter, torture was used. As another new procedural measure, a "massive search" was used - a massive interrogation of the local population in order to identify eyewitnesses of the crime and carry out the procedure of "faking". In the search process, the case began with the issuance of a "letter of summons" or "letter of passage", which contained an order to the authorities to detain and bring the accused to court.

In Sudebnik 1550. (“royal”) the range of issues regulated by the central government is expanding, a clearly expressed social orientation of punishment is being carried out, and the features of the search process are intensifying. The regulation covers the spheres of criminal law and property relations. The class principle of punishments is fixed and at the same time the circle of subjects of the crime is expanding - it includes serfs. The subjective signs of a crime are established much more definitely in the law, forms of guilt are developed.

CONCLUSION

On the territory of Eastern Europe for more than two centuries there was a strong state - Kievan Rus. The initial period of the formation of the state was reflected only in the annals.

The Mongol conquest led to the spread in Russia

Mongolian culture (modernization according to the eastern model). Most

an important part of the Mongolian heritage was that which affected the organization of the state and the basis of property in particular, the confiscation of private property in favor of the khan and, finally, in a systematic repressive policy using various means. Because of these conflicting outcomes, the Mongols exerted primarily a political rather than a cultural influence.

One of the reasons for the rise of Moscow is the appointment of Kalita as the general tax collector in all of Russia. Another reason is that Moscow copied the organization of power from the Golden Horde.

The feudal estates and the nobility, who owned estates on the terms of serving large estate owners, also gravitated towards strong princely power. Interested in keeping a contingent of workers in their possessions, they sought to enslave the peasants, attach them to the land. However, in conditions of feudal fragmentation, this was difficult. Such a task was only within the capacity of a strong central government with a developed state apparatus.

In Russia, the growth of cities and the development of trade did not lead to the collapse of the subsistence economy and the overcoming of the economic isolation of individual regions. The boyars and monasteries were engaged in trade. The income received from it was not invested in production, but started to grow, accumulated or spent on the purchase of land. Craftsmen in the cities produced products mainly to order, and not to the market, and therefore did not need economic ties with other regions. For these reasons, the unification of Russian lands took place on a feudal basis. Political centralization was far ahead of the beginning of overcoming economic disunity and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence.

The Orthodox Church also contributed to the unification of Russian lands. The union of the Russian Church with the Moscow princes was further strengthened during the period of the elimination of feudal fragmentation.

The Grand Duke of Moscow was at the head of the state. He was the owner of all lands, as well as the highest judicial and administrative authority. During the reign of IvanIIIrelations of vassalage were finally replaced by relations of allegiance.

The Grand Duchy of Moscow was administratively divided into counties - cities with lands belonging to them. Along with counties, there was a division into lands. Counties were subdivided into volosts, volosts into camps. Local rulers, appointed by the princes, were called governors and volosts. The governor was subordinate only to the Grand Duke. Both governors and volostels were usually appointed for 3 years. The governor appoints assistants for himself - tiuns, closers and greetings.

Estate-representative bodies in the field in the middleXVIin. became zemstvo and labial huts. The establishment of these bodies limited and replaced the feeding system: elected self-governing huts assumed financial and tax (zemstvo) and police and judicial (labial) functions.

ATXVIIin. local government is being reorganized: zemstvo, labial huts and city clerks began to obey the governors appointed from the center, who assumed administrative, police and military functions. The governors relied on a specially created apparatus (prikazba) of clerks, bailiffs, clerks.

The main sources of all-Russian law in the XV - XVII centuries. were: the great princely (tsarist) legislation (commended, decrees, spiritual letters and decrees), "sentences" of the Boyar Duma, resolutions of the Zemsky Sobors, branch orders of orders.

The most significant monument of law was the lawsuit of IvanIII1497 The main content of the Sudebnik is procedural rulings. They are borrowed from the statutes.

In Sudebnik 1550. (“royal”) the range of issues regulated by the central government is expanding, a clearly expressed social orientation of punishment is being carried out, and the features of the search process are intensifying.

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. more than two centuries of struggle of the Russian people for their state unity and national independence ended with the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow into a single state.

Features of the process of state centralization were as follows: Byzantine and Eastern influence led to strong despotic tendencies in the structure and policy of power; the main support of autocratic power was not the union of cities with the nobility, but the local nobility; centralization was accompanied by the enslavement of the peasantry and the strengthening of class differentiation.

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Internet resources

http://bookz.ru History of Russia. Textbook for university entrants / A.Yu. Polunov, N.L. Golovakina, T.V. Sdobina and others; Under the editorship of L.I. Semennikova.-M.: Aspect Press, 2002. p.82

Political history of the Russian state: Textbook for universities / Sh.M. Munchaev, V.M. Ustinov, A.A. Chernobaev; Ed. Prof. Sh.M. Munchayeva. - M .: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1998. p.89

History of the State and Law of Russia: Textbook for universities / G 75 Edited by S.A. Chibiryaev - 2002., p. 75

The final collapse of Russia in 1132 was inevitable. The development of feudal society always leads to this. In itself, this phenomenon is not negative for the society of the corresponding era. Of course, history lessons at school, as well as the study of ancient literature, instill in descendants a negative connotation of fragmentation. Suffice it to recall some authors who "reconciled" the princes, warned them about the danger of fragmenting the state. However, this process, on the contrary, leads to the development of the periphery, the flourishing of culture, productive forces in each land. Fragmentation "squeezes" the maximum out of the specific principalities before uniting into a stronger state with a single market.

Fragmentation coincides with invasion

The formation of a centralized one was not fast, despite all the prerequisites. It's all to blame for the invasion in the 30s of the 13th century by hordes of Mongols-Tatars. Their expansion delayed the formation of a centralized Russian state for several centuries, and the specific centers of Russia from powerful rich cities turned into rundown villages. The princely administration during the period of the Mongol occupation ceased to care about the territories entrusted to them. Her main task is to collect tribute to the conquerors in time, while not forgetting about herself. The stronger the principality became, the more dangerous in the eyes of the Mongols it was considered.

Forgotten "exploits" of Alexander Nevsky

The history of this time has several cases of the total destruction of entire cities that dared to rebel against the power of the khans. The most remarkable thing is that such conspiracies were "drowned in blood" by the Russian princes. One of the main accomplices of the Mongols is our "defender" of the faith, Alexander Nevsky. Several times, on the orders of the khans, he personally led punitive expeditions against the rebels. However, it was Alexander Nevsky who started a new dynasty, with which the unification of Russian lands around Moscow is connected.

Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state

Former Russia could not but unite into a single state. This was facilitated by:

• Single language.
• General Faith.
• Common traditions, laws.
• Unified counting measures.
• Family ties, etc.

Agricultural development

Until the development of productive forces reaches its peak in the regions, it is too early to talk about unification. But from the beginning, active economic cooperation between the once united lands begins. The reason for this is the intensive development of agriculture.

The lands have already learned to live under oppression. However, do not forget that the "Mongolian cap" reliably protected against large-scale wars and invasions. Peaceful development has led to the fact that the once empty territories began to develop again. In addition, the invaders showed new industries that the Russians had not previously mastered - animal husbandry and horse breeding. Economic zoning took place, without which active economic cooperation would be simply useless. Therefore, the formation of a centralized Russian state was influenced by the need to create a single market. But most of all it was necessary for the big feudal lords. The largest of them was the church. It will be discussed further.

The role of the church

The Church plays an enormous role in the formation of the Russian centralized state. This is due to the fact that during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the invaders did not touch it. On the contrary, they gave her complete freedom and independence. The wisdom of the Mongols knows no analogues in history - they never changed the conquered peoples. Being, as a rule, lower in cultural and technical development than the conquered peoples, the Mongol-Tatars tried to adopt all the significant results of their development. However, even what they did not need was preserved: religion, literature, art. Only political liberties were limited. As far as economic and cultural development is concerned, complete freedom of choice was given here, as long as the “exit” was paid on time.

Having adopted Islam, the Horde never once raised the issue of infringing on Orthodoxy in Russia and imposing another religion. They understood that for an ordinary person, tribute is considered a common thing. It doesn't matter where she goes - to Kyiv or to Sarai. However, an attempt on faith, on the soul - a person could not put up with this. Life was perceived as a temporary refuge before eternal bliss. Try to change this - and the Russian people will die in the fight against the invaders.

The occupation of Russia leads to the rise of the church

For this reason, the church in Russia not only did not die out, but, on the contrary, became rich. She was given empty lands that were devastated by war and devastation. In addition, the church was a powerful feudal lord. Offended and oppressed people ran to her. Here they received shelter, shelter, but they were obliged to work for her good. The conditions, of course, are much milder than those of ordinary feudal lords. The church was exempted from paying the obligatory Mongol "exit", and the holy fathers were more modest than secular aristocrats.

The growing power of the feudal lords demanded a unified state

The power of monasteries and large feudal lords demanded a single state in order to legislate their privileged position not in each individual principality, but on a single vast territory with a powerful administrative apparatus. Therefore, the church was the first of the feudal lords to support the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. It is the move here from Vladimir, the only metropolitan for all Russian lands, long before her elevation, that allows us to draw such conclusions.

Creation of a unified state: stage one (end of the 13th century - 1462)

The creation of a centralized Russian state took place in several stages. First, the question of the future capital was decided. Today it is hard to believe, but the formation of a centralized Russian state could have taken place under the flag of Tver, and not Moscow, since it had much more chances for this:

• advantageous geographical position;
• major center;
• initial support for khans;
• economic and military strength.

Weakness is the main advantage

However, the peculiarities of the formation of the Russian centralized state are that the above-mentioned advantages in the struggle for leadership often turned into disadvantages. The khans were distrustful of such centers. First, they disarmed the city of Vladimir, making it only a nominal center. Recall that the main title in Russia was called "Grand Duke of Vladimir". With him, the Russian princes received a label for administrative leadership in all cities. However, the city of Vladimir itself turned into a village, as the Mongols watched the impossibility of its rise. They feared that he might become the banner of the liberation struggle against the khans.

Winners are not judged

Under the first Daniil Alexandrovich (1282-1303), only the surrounding villages within a radius of 40 km departed from Moscow. However, the descendants of the winner of the Germans and Swedes in 80 years did, perhaps, everything that was possible: they became related to the khan, saved up money, bought up all the free boyar estates in other principalities, transferred the residence of the metropolitan to themselves, and also brutally suppressed the uprising in Tver against Khan, razing this city to the ground.

First resistance

By 1380, having believed in his own strength, Prince Dmitry decided to give resistance to the Horde. Of course, no matter what the chronicles and ancient Russian authors say, it was not against the Khan, but against one of the Horde Murza - Mamai. In modern terms, "upstarts" who had no legitimate power in the entire Horde. But the fact of disobedience in itself gave rise to the fact that already official 2 years later, in 1382, he personally took part in the campaign against Moscow and burned it to the ground. History textbooks talk a lot about the Battle of Kulikovo, its significance, victory. However, only two lines in them mention the punitive reprisals against the Russians after this event.

Unification can't be stopped

In addition to the battle with the Golden Horde, Dmitry Donskoy continued the formation of a centralized Russian state. Dmitrov, Uglich, Starodub, Kostroma, and the territories of Beloozero were annexed to Moscow.

By the end of the 14th century, the first steps were taken towards annexation. However, it was not even possible to secure the right to the Dvina land. Novgorod is a serious richest shopping center not only in Russia, but also in the world. Huge finances allowed her to give any rebuff to the invaders. Only later, after the annexation of all the lands that supplied bread for the freedom-loving republic, did Moscow, with the help of blackmail and an economic blockade, make a hole in the defense of Novgorod. Novgorod's dependence on grain played a cruel joke on the republic.

Final stage

The final stage of the unification is attributed to the year 1462-1533 - from the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) to the end of the reign of his son Vasily III (1505-1533). After them, a single state will exist peacefully only under Ivan the Terrible. If, of course, this time can be called peaceful. After that, a long period of the Time of Troubles and interventions will come.

The formation of the Russian centralized state (14th-15th centuries) is associated with the following major events:

• Joining Tver.
• Annexation of Novgorod.

After the overthrow of the Horde in 1480, there was no longer any force capable of hindering such a process as the formation of a centralized Russian state.

Accession timeline

• 1478 - Ivan III annexes Novgorod by force. Moscow doubles its territory.
• 1485 - finally joins the main political enemy of Moscow - Tver.
• 1489 - Vyatka land with a large non-Russian population.
• 1510 - Pskov, which at one time separated from Novgorod. After that, the accession of the latter remained only a matter of time.
• 1514 - Moscow, during the war with Lithuania, recaptures the ancient Russian city of Smolensk. This city in the future will become a stumbling block in the foreign policy of the Russian state and will lead to constant wars with the Commonwealth.
• 1521 - Ryazan formally joins, although in fact, long ago, the Moscow princes won over all the Ryazan boyars to their side.

I would like to say that Muscovy, as our country was then called, was the largest in Europe. But the formation and development of the Russian centralized state was not peaceful. The processes were accompanied by constant wars, bribery, executions, and betrayal.

Formation of a centralized Russian state. Politics of Ivan III and Vasily III

After the unification process was completed, a policy of enslaving the peasants began. Actually, what the feudal lords, including the church, were striving for. It was in the judicial record of Ivan III of 1497 that the restriction of the right to leave the peasants from the landowners was first recorded. Of course, the screws were not tightened to the end, but such a restriction itself was already a serious shock. So far, peasants were allowed to cross one week before St. George's Day, at the end of November, and one week later, at the beginning of December. However, the Sudebnik of 1550 of Ivan the Terrible will also cancel this rule. This is where the saying goes: "Here you are, grandmother, and St. George's Day," which rightly reflects the initial distrust when it was introduced.

Rules for the transition of peasants

As for the timing of the transition, everything is logical here. The cycle of agricultural work was limited. If the workers leave the landowner in the middle of the cycle, then this will turn into ruin for him. There were two innovations during the transition:

• A short period, equal to two weeks of autumn.
• The need to pay "old".

The last point means that the peasant did not have the right to simply leave the feudal lord. It was also necessary to pay for the working hands plus for the stay, that is, for living in the house. If the worker occupied the yard for more than four years, then he was obliged to pay the full cost of the new building.

Thus, the formation of a unified state led to the beginning of the enslavement of the peasants on the land, as the administrative ability to control their movements appeared.

Chronology

• 1276 - 1303 Reign of Daniil Alexandrovich. Formation of the Moscow principality.
• 1325 - 1340 Reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita.
• 1462 - 1505 Reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich.
• 1480 “Standing” on the Ugra River, liberation of Russian lands from the Golden Horde yoke.

Rise of Moscow

The rulers of the principalities that entered into rivalry with Moscow, not possessing sufficient forces of their own, were forced to seek support in the Horde or Lithuania. Therefore, the struggle of the Moscow princes against them acquired the character of an integral part of the national liberation struggle and received the support of both the influential church and the population interested in the state unification of the country.

From the end of the 60s. 14th century a long struggle began between the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) and the creative prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, who entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich, the Golden Horde entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became more and more tense. At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for a campaign against Russia. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became the most important condition for the completion of the state-political unification of Russia begun by Moscow.

In the summer of 1380, having gathered almost all the forces of the Horde, which also included detachments of mercenaries from the Genoese colonies in the Crimea and the vassal Horde peoples of the North Caucasus and the Volga region, Mamai went to the southern borders of the Ryazan principality, where he began to expect the approach of the troops of the Lithuanian prince Jagiello and Oleg Ryazansky. The terrible threat looming over Russia raised the entire Russian people to fight against the invaders. In a short time, regiments and militias from peasants and artisans from almost all Russian lands and principalities gathered in Moscow.

On September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place- one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples

Battle of Kulikovo

This battle showed the power and strength of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unite the Russian lands. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, the amount of tribute was reduced. In the Horde, the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands was finally recognized. For personal bravery in battle and military merits, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the fourteenth century in the Moscow principality, several specific possessions were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, his sons Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy) began the struggle for the grand ducal throne, and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark One). In fact, it was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. As a result, according to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky "under the noise of specific princely quarrels and Tatar pogroms, the society supported Vasily the Dark". The completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of government

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, there was a gathering of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes. Under Ivan III, the Grand Duke rises above the rest of the princes not only in the amount of power and possessions, but also in the amount of power. It is no coincidence that a new title “sovereign” appears. The double-headed eagle becomes a symbol of the state when, in 1472, Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleolog. Ivan III, after the annexation of Tver, received the honorary title "by the grace of God the sovereign of All Russia, the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and other lands."

The princes in the annexed lands became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called uyezds and were ruled by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy one or another position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their merits to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

A centralized control apparatus began to take shape. The Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichi (boyars and okolnichi - the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars from the middle of the 15th century. local princes from the annexed lands, who recognized the seniority of Moscow, also sat in the Duma. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on “land affairs.” With the increase in the function of state administration, it became necessary to create special institutions that would manage military, judicial, and financial affairs. Therefore, “tables” were created, controlled by clerks, who later turned into orders. The prikaz system was a typical manifestation of the feudal organization of state administration. It was based on the principles of inseparability of judicial and administrative power. In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the entire state, under Ivan III in 1497, the Sudebnik was compiled.

In 1480 it was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River.

Formation of the Russian centralized state

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. Chernigov-Seversky lands became part of the Russian state. In 1510, the Pskov land was included in the state. In 1514, the ancient Russian city of Smolensk became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. And finally, in 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was basically completed. A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process of historical development. From the end of the XV century. the term "Russia" began to be used.

Socio-economic development in the XIV - XVI centuries.

The general trend in the socio-economic development of the country during this period is intensive growth of feudal landownership. Its main, dominant form was the patrimony, the land that belonged to the feudal lord by right of hereditary use. This land could be changed, sold, but only to relatives and other owners of estates. The owner of the patrimony could be a prince, a boyar, a monastery.

nobles, those who left the court of a prince or boyar owned an estate, which they received on the condition of serving on the patrimony (from the word “estate” the nobles were also called landowners). The term of service was established by the contract.

In the XVI century. there is a strengthening of feudal-serfdom orders. The economic basis of serfdom is feudal ownership of land in its three forms: local, patrimonial and state. A new term “peasants” appears, which has become the name of the oppressed class of Russian society. According to their social status, the peasants were divided into three groups: the possessive peasants belonged to various secular and ecclesiastical feudal lords; palace peasants who were in the possession of the palace department of the Moscow grand dukes (tsars); black-mouse (later state) peasants lived in volost communities on lands that did not belong to any owner, but were obliged to perform certain duties in favor of the state.

The defeat of old, large cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc., a change in the nature of economic and trade ties and routes led to the fact that in the XIII - XV centuries. New centers developed significantly: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, and others. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, and the number of artisans and merchants grew. Great success was achieved by such branches of craft as blacksmithing, foundry, metalworking, and coinage.

21. Formation and strengthening of the service centralized state in the 14th-16th centuries

Unification of Russian lands around Moscow

The formation of a centralized state is an important stage in the development of Russian statehood. The process of centralization was carried out for two centuries. A centralized state can be considered a state in which there are laws recognized in all its parts, a management apparatus that ensures the implementation of laws. The rationale for centralization is the idea of ​​a national community.

The formation of a centralized state chronologically coincides with the formation of monarchies in a number of Western European countries. In Russia, a special type of feudal society was formed, different from the common European one, with autocracy at the head, a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry.

The birth of the state took place in civil strife, the struggle with the Golden Horde, Kazan, Crimean (from the beginning of the 16th century), Lithuanian principalities, the Livonian Order, and the Kingdom of Sweden.

The peculiarity of statehood was determined by:

1. The length and openness of easily accessible borders.

2. The confessional isolation of Russian Orthodoxy.

3. The Russian state could become centralized only by throwing off the economic and political dependence of the Horde

The reasons for the formation of a centralized state are not only the need for the country to gain independence, but also:

1. The interest of the feudal lords in the centralized apparatus for enslavement.

2. The development of cities dictated an interest in the elimination of feudal fragmentation

3. The interest of the peasantry in the stabilization of power.

Prerequisites for the formation of a Russian centralized state.

Economic background 1) Emerging landownership 2) The need to eliminate customs borders between the principalities in order to create favorable conditions for the development of trade 3) The gradual destruction of the naturalness of agricultural production 4) The need to introduce a single monetary system, common measures of weight, volume and length in order to ensure favorable conditions for development trade 5) The growth and strengthening of cities as trade and craft centers

Political background 1) The preservation of North-Eastern Russia, which is under the Mongol-Tatar yoke, of its Orthodoxy and statehood 2) The experience of the Golden Horde from the end of the 14th century of feudal fragmentation.

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, the Golden Horde broke up into separate khanates: Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, Crimean and Nogai Horde. 3) The need to fight for national independence 4) The far-sighted policy of the Moscow princes 5) The transformation of Moscow into the religious center of the Russian lands as a result of the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow 6) The transformation of the Moscow principality into a national center that raised the banner of the liberation struggle Social background 1) The need of the feudal lords for a strong princely power, which has an effective administrative apparatus and an army to suppress popular uprisings 2) The need for boyars and free servants in a powerful and rich prince, distributing estates for service princely power, capable of overcoming the disunity of the Russian lands, providing conditions for the exchange of goods, as well as the independence of the country.

Factors that influenced the formation of a centralized Russian state. a) Natural-climatic and economic factors.

Infertile soils

Slash-and-burn farming system -> fallow three-field (reduced yield) -> the need for community labor

Effects:

1) Commodity production developed slowly. The volume of the total surplus product was extremely low. And this was of great importance for the formation of a certain type of statehood on the territory of the historical core of Russia, forcing the ruling class to create rigid levers of the state mechanism, allowing them to withdraw that share of the surplus product that went to the needs of the development of the state itself, society and the ruling class. From here come the origins of the strict regime of serfdom, and the colonization of new territories, because it was possible to increase the surplus product only through the growth of the agricultural population and the development of new spaces while maintaining the extensive nature of agriculture.

2)The development of the Russian economy as predominantly agricultural led to a slowdown in the process of separation of industry from agriculture, which led to a slowdown in the process of urban formation. The economic development of the Russian lands was negatively affected by the Tatar-Mongol conquest. The Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the economic life of Russia, to a sharp decrease in the population, to the outflow of a significant share of the surplus product to the Horde in the form of tribute, although the Mongols refused to directly include Russian lands in the Golden Horde and did not encroach on the Orthodox faith.

Features of natural and climatic conditions largely predetermined the features of the formation of the Russian centralized state.

Unlike the countries of Western Europe, the growth of cities, the development of trade, the formation of a single national market and the formation of economic unity on this basis were not the main reasons for the formation of a centralized state in Russia.

b) Socio-political factors Centralization is not a spontaneous process carried out by historical subjects.

Land ownership on patrimonial and conditional holding in islands interspersed in the sea of ​​peasant communities, until the end of the 15th century. black lands dominated in North-Eastern Russia. Black lands: communal land tenure of peasants with individual ownership of a personal plot and arable land. Relations in the community were regulated through elected peasant volost self-government under the control of representatives of the princely administration - governors and volosts.

In the XIV century, the term "peasants" appears.

Black peasants who lived in communities in villages that did not belong to individual feudal lords paid a tax;

Owning peasants who lived on allotment lands in the system of feudal patrimony, dependent on the feudal lord

During the formation of a centralized state, the main form of dependence is field barshchina.

The end of the XIII-XIV centuries - the emergence of the need for labor to cultivate specific land in the field corvée, the peasants are still free and do not want to work for the landowner. Motivation requires coercive force, namely, state power.

The landowners were interested in attracting the agricultural and artisan population to their territories, as well as in the development of new lands and colonization. In this sense, the colonization of the population in the North-Eastern lands was supported by those who sought to unite the lands and create a unified state power.

Consolidation stages (briefly(1)+additions(1.1))

1) (late XIII-80g. XIV) economic recovery, the struggle between the strongest Russian principalities for the throne (Moscow, Tver, Ryazan.), 1301 - the rise of Moscow, the beginning of unification around it.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow: Vladimir-Suzdal principality - the center of arable farming and crafts, trade; Favorable geographical position: security, control over river and trade routes, developed economic ties with other principalities .; A constant influx of population, the growth of villages, settlements, estates; Metropolitan residence; Active policy of the Moscow princes; Protection of the Horde. Moscow becomes an economic, political, spiritual and cultural center.

Ivan Kalita(1325-1340). He maintained ties with the Golden Horde, paid tribute, enlisted its support, received a label to reign.

Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389). Rallying principalities around Moscow to fight the Golden Horde. The victory of 1380 (Battle of Kulikovo) became possible because the army was all-Russian in territory. and nationwide in composition, the motive of defending the united Russian land determined the victory. Victory Meaning: the revival of the national consciousness of Russia, a new ethnic community - Moscow Russia.

1.1Initial stage of consolidation(late XIII-first half of the XIV centuries)

In North-Eastern Russia, the unification of large feudal centers and the selection of the strongest among them

The main rivals in the struggle for the role of the center: Moscow and Tver

Increase in population due to the influx of peasants and artisans (economy and political rise)

NB! The important role of the Horde. In order to keep Russia in obedience and draw income from it, centralized power was needed. But a strong prince would be dangerous, and the unity of Russia under his rule is a direct threat to the dominion of the Horde. The Horde could not allow the strengthening of one prince and constantly intervened in the rivalry between the Moscow and Tver princes. After the reign and struggle of Yuri Danilovich of Moscow and Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver, the time has come for Ivan Kalita.

Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340) (brother of Yuri, (1328-1340), grandson of Nevsky, laid the foundation of a centralized state and the foundations of the future power of the Muscovite state, had an ally in the form of the Orthodox Church).

Main directions of activity - Implementation of two principles: Peace - and - Order.

Expansion of the boundaries of the Moscow principality

Purchase of large territories - Galich, Uglich, Beloozero (1328). Accession of part of the Rostov Principality (1331)

Maintaining good relations with the Horde

Fight with Tver for the label

Participation together with the Horde army in a punitive campaign against Tver (1327)

Obtaining the right to collect tribute from Russian lands and deliver it to the Horde

Close cooperation with the Orthodox Church

Transfer of the center of Russian Orthodoxy from Vladimir to Moscow (since 1328)

Construction of five white stone churches in Moscow (from 1326 to 1333)

An alliance with Novgorod was achieved in 1335. Due to maintaining contact with the Horde, the positions of the Moscow principality were strengthened.

Semyon Proud(1340-1353, son of Kalita)

Continuation of the policy of Ivan Kalita

Good relations with the Horde

Conducting a balanced foreign policy  Absence of military clashes with neighboring principalities

Subjugation of Novgorod through the appointment of Moscow governors

Outcome: Raised the importance of Moscow to the level of the all-Russian capital

IvanIIRed(1353-1359, son of Kalita)

Continuation of the policy of Kalita and Proud

Possession of a label for a great reign

Commencement of hostilities with Lithuania

Carrying out a peaceful policy towards neighboring principalities

Second half of the 14th century The North-Eastern lands with the center in Moscow were called "Great Russia".

Basis: Moscow's defeat of its political rivals, the transition from Moscow's assertion of its political supremacy in Russia to the state unification of Russian lands around it and the organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke.

The reign of Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389). Support of Metropolitan Alexei.

Main policies

Unification of Moscow and Vladimir principalities

Struggle for leadership in Russia  Confrontation:

With the Horde - the desire to weaken the dependence of the Russian principalities on the Horde

Fight with Mamai

• With Tver - for a shortcut to a great reign, victory

  With Ryazan - about disputed territories, victory

The collapse of the Horde-Lithuanian plans for the weakening of Russia

Impulse for the further unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow

Creation of prerequisites for the liberation of Russia from the Horde

The Horde recognized the supremacy of Moscow in Russia.

2) (80 XIV-mid XV). further unification, struggle with the Moscow specific princes.

The victory of the Moscow Principality under Vasily II was conditioned by an alliance with the Horde, the support of the church. Polit. unification ended under Ivan III(1462-1505) and his son Vasily III (1505-1533). Ivan III managed to unite almost all of Russia

2.2 Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy handed over to his eldest son Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) by will the Grand Duchy of Vladimir as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes, thereby not recognizing the right of the khan to issue a label. The process of merging the principality of Vladimir and Moscow was completed. From that moment on, Moscow asserted the role and importance of the territorial and national center of the emerging Russian state. Even under Dmitry Donskoy, Dmitrov, Starodub, Ulich and Kostroma, vast territories in the Volga region were annexed. At the end of the XIV century. The Nizhny Novgorod principality lost its independence. The attempt of the specific princes, led by the Galician princes, to stop the liquidation of the feudal fragmentation order did not give any result. The defeat of the specific princes created the conditions for the transition to the final stage of unification.

The main activities of Vasily I

Horde - reconciliation and receiving a label for a great reign

Further growth of the Moscow principality

3) (2 floors. XV - beginning of the XVI century) the formation of a single state. Associated with the reigns of Ivan III and Vasily III.

The overthrow of the yoke (since 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute), the annexation by force of the Novgorod land (1478), the Principality of Tver (1485), the Pskov Republic. (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan principality (1521).

A single territory was divided into counties, camps and volosts. In 1497, a legislative collection was put into effect - the Sudebnik, which fixed the rule for the transition of peasants from one feudal lord to another, was the beginning of the legal enslavement of the peasants. Boyar Duma - Council under the Grand Duke. Orders are the organs of central control. The Moscow army is a single military body of noble landlords. In the process of creating the state, there was a redistribution of landed property, a change in the structure of the ruling class of feudal lords. The service nobility appeared.

Russia's isolation from Western Europe was overcome. Development of culture, use of European experience.

The establishment of sole power, the elimination of independent principalities, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, the transition from defensive to offensive foreign policy are necessary conditions. The need for unity for survival contributed to the consolidation of the nation, the increase in the prestige of the state. Monarchical power stood above the interests of various classes, therefore it was the most effective state. form for the unification of the country.

A significant contribution to the strengthening of the Russian centralized state was made by Ivan III (1462-1505). He concentrated power in his hands, was supported by all classes.

With the support of the church, the nobility, the townspeople, the peasants, Ivan III laid the foundation of the empire and brought the struggle against the yoke to the end. Moscow governors in the former princely capitals - Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Starodub, Beloozero.

In 1478 Ivan III conquered the Novgorod feudal republic. Then the Muscovite troops conquered the Grand Duchy of Tver. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown. The ruler of the Golden Horde, Ahmed Khan, entered into an alliance with the Polish king Casimir IV, invaded Russian land in order to again force the Grand Duke of Moscow to pay tribute. The situation was complicated by the outbreak of rebellion of the specific princes - the brothers of Ivan III.

"Standing on the Ugra River" - the liberation of the Russian land from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. There remained the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates that grew out of the Golden Horde.

Ivan III was helped with advice by Metropolitan Jonah, who took care of him. He opposed the separatist policy of the specific princes, for the creation of a strong centralized state, for its liberation from the Horde yoke, against any claims of Lithuania and Poland. Ivan III united almost all of Russia and became the first real sovereign of All Russia from 1485.

Under Ivan III:

Major changes in the structure of land ownership and ruling classes;

The service nobility and the local (conditional) landownership grew significantly;

Army: instead of the feudal squads supplied by the boyars, the army was equipped with noble militias, noble cavalry, foot regiments with firearms (squeakers).

A centralized administration apparatus was formed with the participation of the nobility - the Boyar Duma, the Grand Palace and the Treasury.

The need for labor is growing. A new legal order is needed.

Judicial reform of Ivan III in 1497 in the form of a special collection of laws "Sudebnik". Uniform all-Russian legislation was introduced. Prohibition of bribes for legal proceedings, the establishment of uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities.

According to the Sudebnik, the following acted on the territory of the entire state:

the court of the Grand Duke and his children, the court of boyars and roundabouts, the court of governors and volostels (the territory of the country was divided into counties, counties into volosts and camps.

Power in the counties belonged to the princely governors, and in the volosts and camps - to the volosts). The Sudebnik established the obligatory presence of a deacon at the boyar court, kissers (court officers, elders) and the best people at the local court.

some norms of the old law have been preserved. So, the complainants could resolve the dispute "by the field", that is, by a judicial duel on clubs. The judges had to watch that one did not kill the other.

According to Sudebnik, the long-standing rule of the transfer of peasants from one owner to another within two weeks of the year has become a national norm. In a single period of transition - a week before November 26 and after - the peasant could leave only after paying all his debts and "elderly". Sudebnik forbade free people to be enslaved into slaves.

Ivan III reformed the calendar. Since 1472 (since 7000 from the creation of the world), the New Year began to be celebrated not on March 1, but on September 1.

During the reign of Ivan III, four aspects of Russian foreign policy clearly emerged:

northwestern (Baltic problem)

western (Lithuanian issue)

southern (Crimean)

Eastern (Kazan and Nogai).

In accordance with the new political position as sovereign over the united Russian land, Ivan III in official relations called himself the "sovereign of all Russia", and sometimes "tsar". The idea of ​​unlimited power was connected with the title "sovereign", the term "tsar" was used earlier in Russia in relation to the Byzantine emperor and the Tatar khan and corresponded to the title "emperor". Under Ivan, a new coat of arms was adopted in the form of a double-headed eagle. The external expression of continuity with the Byzantine Empire was the "barma" (mantle) and the cap of Monomakh.

The last years of the final stage of the unification of the Russian lands fell on the beginning of the reign of Vasily III (1505-1533). Vasily III was nicknamed "the last collector of the Russian land."

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

Vasily III bequeathed the throne to his eldest son Ivan IV (1533-1584)

Grand Duke Vasily III died when his son was three years old. After the death of her mother, Grand Duchess Elena, the country was ruled by the Boyar Duma. Power passed from one boyar group to another. As a result of many years of bloody strife, the relatives of the Grand Duchess, the Glinskys, won.

The uncle of the young Grand Duke Mikhail Glinsky and his grandmother Anna, on the advice and with the help of Metropolitan Macarius, managed to prepare an act of great national importance - the wedding of Ivan to the kingdom. The king received the crown from the hands of the head of the church. This emphasized that the church fully supports and blesses autocracy, as well as the special place of the church in the state. The Church became the mother of royal power and its guarantor. The coronation took place on January 16, 1547, when young Ivan was 16 years old.

The act of crowning the kingdom did not, however, put an end to boyar rule. It was ended by the popular uprising of 1547, which became a spontaneous outburst of indignation at the boyar civil strife and exorbitant need.

The result of the uprising was:

the liberation of the tsar from the heavy guardianship of the boyars and the nomination of new people into his entourage, expressing the interests of the service nobility and the top of the urban settlement.

A government was formed based on a compromise between the interests of various estates.

Metropolitan Macarius played a key role in the formation of the new ruling group. With his participation, those persons who symbolized the new government, the "Chosen Rada", turned out to be surrounded by the king. We are talking, first of all, about Alexei Fedorovich Adashev (an unborn nobleman) and the priest Sylvester, as well as about the princes Andrei Kurbsky, Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryany, the boyars Sheremetiev, Viskovat and others. This was the actual government, which under the leadership of the tsar implemented a number of important reforms.

The main goals of the reforms were:

1) create a state on a single legal basis, put an end to specific feudal orders;

2) to create such a system of supreme government in which royal power would be limited by "wise advice";

3) create a powerful army of central subordination;

4) an active foreign policy aimed at expanding the land, primarily the conquest of the Volga region.

What has been done to achieve these goals?

1) Release of the nobles from the jurisdiction of the boyars-governors

2) The abolition of parochialism and the establishment of appointment to the service as a state duty

3) Adoption of the new Code of Laws of 1550

By which:

jurors appeared at every trial

feudal immunities abolished

tarkhan letters were introduced (tax exemption)

unified legislation was created, confirming St. George's Day

4) Zemstvo reform, which introduced local elected self-government instead of the power of governors. The draft population (posad and black-soshnoe) elected from among the children of the boyars "favorite heads" or elders to collect taxes in favor of the state and judicial functions. Thus, direct ties were established between the state and its population, the inhabitants of the former appanages turned into subjects of one state

5) All lands rewritten and a unified system of taxation was established. New taxes were established - "squealing money" for the maintenance of the archery troops and "Polonian money" for the ransom of prisoners

6) Central Government Reform, which included the formation of a system of new orders: Local, Kazan, Posolsky

7) Military reform, which provided for the formation of an officer corps - 1070 nobles - the support of the king and autocratic power and established two types of service - by instrument (by choice) and by fatherland (by origin).

According to the device, the archery army was formed. Every free person could become a Sagittarius, the service was not hereditary. Russia did not have a navy then. During the Livonian War, Ivan IV brought a privateer fleet in the Baltic Sea in order to prevent the trade of Poland, Lithuania and Sweden. In October 1570, the mercenary flotilla of Grozny was arrested by the Danish king, the ships were confiscated

8) Church reform. In 1551, on the initiative of Grozny, a Church Council was convened. His decisions are summarized in One Hundred Chapters (Stoglavy). The tsar gave a speech, urged the church to approve the reforms and the Sudebnik, and proposed to correct the church structure in a non-possessive spirit. The council headed by Macarius did not approve this proposal. The church and monastic land ownership was declared unshakable, those who attempted to attack it were called predators and robbers. A compromise was reached: the Council allowed monasteries to buy and sell land only with royal permission and forbade churchmen to engage in usury. The cathedral unified all ceremonies and worship

9) In 1552 and 1556, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were annexed. The Volga route became Russian.

The reforms of the government of Ivan IV tended not only to strengthen the centralized state, but also to turn it into a class-representative monarchy. The events of later years destroyed many of the results of these reforms. Ivan the Terrible himself was the first to have a hand in this. The path along which the members of the "Chosen Rada" led the state could lead to the non-full power of the monarch, such as, for example, in Poland, where the gentry actually ruled the country. Such an example frightened Grozny. He proceeded to decisive action and, in order to strengthen the autocracy, created the oprichnina.

Oprichnina.

Oprichnina is an instrument of coercion with which the king strengthened his power:

The main idea is the division of the sovereign's servants into those who "serve closely", that is, faithful, and those who are not so reliable.

The corps of faithful servants, with the help of which one can protect oneself and one's power from the encroachments of the surrounding and unreliable "siglicts", should be replenished from the inferior ranks.

The rise of a serviceman - from rags to riches - should chain him forever to the king. It does not follow from this that Ivan the Terrible created his apparatus of power out of the mediocre ones.

The noble ones also served in the highest posts, but they were "stratified" by the poor.

In 1564, the tsar leaves Moscow for Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda and announces that he is leaving his kingdom, because "the boyars and all ordered people" caused all sorts of losses to both the population of the country and the state. The goal is to enlist the support of the townspeople and put forward their conditions for returning. In order to "blow the sovereign and cry," a representative delegation from the clergy, boyars, nobles, clerks, merchants and townspeople went to Alexandrov Sloboda. After listening to the envoys, Grozny agreed to return to Moscow, but on the condition that from now on the tsar, at his own discretion, will execute those whom he considers necessary without the consent of the church.

On February 2, 1565, Tsar Ivan Vasilievich solemnly entered the capital, and the next day he announced to the clergy, boyars and noble officials about the establishment of the oprichnina.

The main activities were:

1) the allocation of oprichnina territories - the sovereign's destiny;

2) formation of the oprichnina corps;

3) the formation of the oprichnina court - the supreme leadership of the main services and institutions of the state. Law enforcement agencies (Discharge, Yamskoy, Palace, Treasury orders) entered into his subordination. The Boyar Duma was established in the oprichnina (along with the Zemsky Boyar Duma).

All forces opposed to the autocracy were persecuted. The victims of the oprichnina terror were not only representatives of the opposition boyars, the aristocracy, but also independently minded nobles and boyar children. The victims of land terror, that is, land confiscations, were landowners of all categories - everyone who was not close to the king did not prove his loyalty. In an effort to create the impression of popular support for his policy, Grozny continued to convene Zemsky Sobors from representatives of all strata of landowners, as well as tenements.

The decree on the introduction of the oprichnina was submitted for approval by the Zemsky Sobor in February 1565. Zemstvo, who turned to the tsar with a request to abolish the oprichnina, suffered a cruel reprisal. Most of the members of the Boyar Duma (zemstvo) were destroyed during the years of the oprichnina, the Duma turned into a submissive authority.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………3

1. The formation of a centralized Russian state……………….4

2. The formation of a class-representative monarchy in Russia.…………7

3. Institute of serfdom -

an important element of Russian statehood……………………………..14

4. Socio-political crisis in Russia

at the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century………………………………………………..16

5. Strengthening Russian statehood

in the 2nd half of the 17th century……………………………………………………...21

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………25

List of used literature…………………………………………..26

Introduction

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. more than two centuries of struggle of the Russian people for their state unity and national independence ended with the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow into a single state.

Despite the commonality of socio-economic and political facts underlying the state-political centralization that took place in the XIII-XV centuries. in many European countries, the formation of the Russian centralized state had its own significant features. The catastrophic consequences of the Mongol invasion delayed the economic development of Russia, marked the beginning of its lagging behind the advanced Western European countries that had escaped the Mongol yoke. Russia took upon itself the brunt of the Mongol invasion. Its consequences largely contributed to the conservation of feudal fragmentation and the strengthening of feudal-serf relations. Political centralization in Russia, it significantly outstripped the beginning of the process of overcoming the economic disunity of the country and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence, for organizing a rebuff to external aggression. The trend towards unification was manifested in all Russian lands. The Russian state was formed during the XIV-XV centuries. on a feudal basis in the conditions of the growth of feudal landownership and economy, the development of serfdom and the intensification of the class struggle. The unification process ended with the formation at the end of the 15th century. feudal serf monarchy.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the state reforms of the XVI-XVII centuries. To achieve it, it is necessary to identify the features of the formation of a centralized state in Russia, to consider the social, state system, as well as the development of the legal policy of the autocracy in the 16th-17th centuries.

1. Formation of a centralized Russian state

In parallel with the unification of Russian lands, the creation of the spiritual basis of the national state, a process was going on strengthening of Russian statehood, formation of a centralized Russian state. The prerequisites for this process were laid during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Researchers note that the vassal dependence of Russian lands on the Golden Horde to a certain extent contributed to the strengthening of Russian statehood. During this period, the volume and authority of princely power within the country increase, the princely apparatus crushes the institutions of people's self-government, and the veche - the oldest body of people's power - gradually disappears from practice throughout the historical core of the future Russian state.

During the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, city liberties and privileges were destroyed. The outflow of money to the Golden Horde prevented the emergence of the "third estate", the backbone of urban independence in the countries of Western Europe. The wars with the Tatar-Mongol invaders led to the fact that during them most of the combatants - feudal lords - were destroyed. The class of feudal lords began to revive on a fundamentally different basis. Now the princes distribute land not to advisers and comrades-in-arms, but to their servants and stewards. All of them are in personal dependence on the prince. Having become feudal lords, they did not cease to be his subordinates.

Due to the political dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde, the unification process proceeded under extreme conditions. And this left a significant imprint on the nature of power relations in the emerging Russian state. The process of joining other states, "principal lands" to the Moscow principality most often relied on violence and assumed the violent nature of power in the unifying state. The feudal lords of the annexed territories became the servants of the Moscow ruler. And if the latter, in relation to his own boyars, by tradition, could maintain some contractual obligations that still come from vassal relations, then in relation to the ruling class of the annexed lands, he was only a master for his subjects. Thus, due to a number of historical reasons in the formation of the statehood of the Moscow kingdom is dominated by elements of Eastern civilization . Relations of vassalage, established in Kievan Rus before the Tatar-Mongol yoke, are inferior to relations of subjection.

Already during the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) in the Russian state, authoritarian system, which had significant elements of oriental despotism. The "Sovereign of All Russia" possessed a volume of power and authority immeasurably greater than that of European monarchs. The entire population of the country - from the highest boyars to the last smerd - were subjects of the tsar, his serfs. Relations of allegiance introduced into law Belozersky Charter of 1488. According to this charter, all estates were equalized in the face of state power.

The economic basis of subject relations was predominance of state ownership of land. In Russia, noted V.O. Klyuchevsky, the tsar was a kind of patrimony. The whole country for him is property with which he acts as a full owner. The number of princes, boyars and other estates was constantly decreasing: Ivan IV (1533-1584) reduced their share in economic relations in the country to a minimum. The decisive blow to private property in land was dealt by the institution oprichnina. From an economic point of view, the oprichnina was characterized by the allocation of significant territories in the west, north and south of the country, which were declared the personal possessions of the king, as a special sovereign inheritance. And this means that all private owners in the oprichnina lands had to either recognize the supreme rights of the king or were subject to liquidation, and their property was confiscated. Large patrimonies of princes, boyars were divided into small estates and were distributed to the nobles for the sovereign's service in hereditary possession, but not in property. Thus, the power of the specific princes and boyars was destroyed, the position of the service landowners of the nobles was strengthened under the unlimited power of the autocratic tsar.

The policy of the oprichnina was carried out with extreme cruelty. Evictions, confiscation of property were accompanied by bloody terror, accusations of conspiracy against the king. The strongest pogroms were carried out in Novgorod, Tver, and Pskov. As a result of the oprichnina, society submitted to the unlimited power of the sole ruler - the Moscow Tsar. The service nobility became the main social support of power. Boyar Duma still preserved as a tribute to tradition, but became more manageable. Economically independent from the government owners, who could serve as the basis for the formation of civil society, were liquidated.

In addition to state property, corporate, i.e., collective property, was quite widespread in the Moscow kingdom. The church and monasteries were the collective owners. Collective ownership of land and lands was owned by free communal peasants (chernososhnye). Thus, in the Russian state there was practically no institution of private property, which in Western Europe served as the basis for the principle of separation of powers, the creation of a system of parliamentarism.

Nevertheless, Russian statehood cannot be fully attributed to Eastern despotism. For a long time, such bodies of public representation like the Boyar Duma, Zemstvo self-government and Zemsky Sobors.

2. The formation of a class-representative monarchy in Russia

From the middle of the sixteenth century a new period begins in the history of the state, which in Russian historiography is called the period of the estate-representative monarchy. Estate-representative monarchy - this is a form of government in which the power of the sovereign is to a certain extent limited by the presence of any body of estate representation. Through this body, the government has the opportunity to contact the society and learn about public needs. In European countries, a monarchy with estate representation arises during a period of mature feudalism. In England, the parliament became the representative body of estates, in France - the States General, in Spain - the Cortes, in Germany - the Reichstag, etc. In Russia, the body of estate representation became zemsky cathedrals .

Unlike the corresponding bodies in European countries, Zemsky Sobors were not a permanent institution, they did not have a competence defined by law. They did not ensure the rights and interests of the entire people. The role of the third estate was much weaker compared to similar institutions in Western European countries. In fact, Zemsky Sobors did not limit as representative institutions of Europe, but strengthened the power of the monarch. The largest researcher of the history of zemstvo cathedrals L.V. Cherepnin counted 57 cathedrals. It is possible that there were more. As a rule, representatives of the clergy, the boyars, the nobility, deaconry and merchants were present at the cathedrals.

Zemsky sobors can be conditionally divided into four groups: 1) convened by the tsar, 2) convened by the tsar on the initiative of the estates, 3) convened by the estates or on their initiative in the absence of the tsar, 4) elective for the kingdom. Most cathedrals belong to the first group.