Formation of the Russian state at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke

Formation of the Russian state

The completion of the process of unification of the Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III. Ivan III managed to complete the unification of northeastern Russia almost without bloodshed. In 1468, the Yaroslavl principality was finally annexed, and in 1472, the annexation of Perm began. Even Vasily II the Dark bought half of the Rostov Principality, and in 1474 Ivan III acquired the rest. According to M. Lyubavsky, "these were the last purchases of the Moscow prince. He had already become so strong that he could now develop an aggressive policy on a big footing."

Tver, surrounded by Moscow lands, in 1485 passed to Moscow, after its boyars swore an oath to Ivan III, who approached the city with a large army. In 1489, the Vyatka land, important in terms of trade, became part of the state. In 1503, many princes of the western Russian regions (Vyazemsky, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky) passed from Lithuania to the Moscow prince.

The Novgorod boyar republic, which still possessed considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. Fearing the loss of their privileges in the event of submission to Moscow, part of the Novgorod boyars, led by the posadnik Marfa Boretskaya, concluded an agreement on the vassal dependence of Novgorod from Lithuania. Having learned about the collusion of the boyars with Lithuania, Ivan III took drastic measures to subjugate Novgorod. The campaign of 1471 was attended by the troops of all the lands subject to Moscow, which gave it an all-Russian character.

The decisive battle took place on the Shelon River, in which the Novgorod militia suffered a defeat. Novgorod was finally annexed to Moscow in 1478. The veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. Opponents of Moscow were moved to the center of the country, which led, according to N. Borisov, to "the complete eradication of the Novgorod way of life." But Ivan III, given the strength of Novgorod, left him a number of privileges: the right to conduct relations with Sweden, promised not to involve Novgorodians in serving on the southern borders. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

After the annexation of Novgorod in Russia, the specific veche order ended. The accession to Moscow of the Novgorod, Vyatka and Perm lands with the non-Russian peoples of the north and northeast living here expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state.

In 1480, there was a clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River, which went down in history under the name "Standing on the Ugra". At the head of the Horde troops was Ahmed Khan, who made an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV. Ivan III managed to attract to his side the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, whose troops attacked the possessions of Casimir IV, disrupting his speech against Moscow. Having stood on the Ugra for several weeks, the troops did not start the battle; and when Ahmed Khan learned that his capital Saray was attacked by the Siberian Khanate, he withdrew his troops back.

After the great Standing on the Ugra in 1480, Russia finally refused to recognize the power of the khans, ceasing to pay tribute to the Golden Horde several years before 1480. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased. Thus, after the Standing on the Ugra, the 240-year-old Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia ended.

The state created under Ivan III was based on developed feudal relations. A strong central authority was established with the hereditary transfer of the throne to the eldest son. The princes of the annexed lands began to serve at the court of the Moscow sovereign, and the former principalities, which were ruled by governors from Moscow, were subjected to a new administrative-territorial division into counties. At this time, the state apparatus was formed and localism was introduced - the right to occupy public office, depending on the nobility of the clan and merit.

Under the Grand Duke, the Boyar Duma is created with advisory functions. The service class develops, whose representatives received land with the peasants on the estate for service to the "sovereign", the noble militia becomes the basis of the Russian army. During the reign of Ivan III in 1497, the Code of Laws was adopted - a new set of laws of a single state, which reflected the strengthening of the role of the central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country. At the same time, the articles of the Sudebnik limited the right of peasants to move, which can be called the first step towards the establishment of serfdom in the country.

It should also be pointed out that Ivan III was the first ruler who took the title of "Sovereign of All Russia". Under him, the double-headed eagle became the coat of arms of the Russian state, and the term "Russia" began to be used in relation to the state. The historian S. Platonov notes the historical importance of the reign of Ivan III: "The unification of northern Russia around Moscow began a long time ago: under Dmitry Donskoy, its first signs were discovered, but this happened under Ivan III. Therefore, he can rightly be called the creator of the Muscovite state."

Vasily III continued the work of his father. He began the struggle for the abolition of the appanage system and showed himself as an autocrat. Taking advantage of the attack of the Crimean Tatars on Lithuania, Vasily III annexed Pskov in 1510. The families of the richest Pskovites were evicted from the city and replaced by the same number from Moscow cities. The veche system was abolished, and Moscow governors began to rule Pskov. In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from Lithuania, became part of the Moscow state, and in 1521, Ryazan land, which was already dependent on Moscow, became part of Russia. Under Vasily III, after Ryazan, there were also the princes of the Northern Land, who had passed to Ivan III from the Lithuanian prince with their volosts. Basil, taking advantage of their strife, expelled these princes from their cities and took their possessions to Moscow in 1523.

So, as S. Platonov notes, all the so-called "destinies" were abolished, and "only simple service princes remained in the Moscow state, who, in their estates, no longer had any sovereign rights and served the Grand Duke like simple boyars."

The inner significance of the Grand Duke of Moscow also grew with the unification of Russia under his rule and the establishment of autocracy. According to M. Lyubavsky, "it was no longer a zealous patrimonial owner, concerned about increasing wealth, but a great sovereign, called to protect the world and the good life of Orthodox Christianity and armed for this with fullness and unlimited power."

It is necessary to note the significant role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the process of unification of Russian lands into a single state. Over time, the Church established itself as a major owner of the land with the peasants, and church hierarchs proclaimed the "divine" origin of the autocrat. Thus, an important compromise in relations was reached between the church and the state: in exchange for ideological support for the supreme power, the church retained economic independence and supported the tendencies of centralization of the state structure in the subsequent history of Muscovite Russia.

Thus, after the last accessions in the 20s. 15th century completed the process of unification of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia into a single state, which from the end of the XV century. became known as Russia. The creation of a centralized Great Russian state was an important historical achievement. The state principle in Russian feudal society contributed to the organization of social and economic life, the creation of a military force capable of ensuring liberation from the foreign yoke and the unification of Russian lands, laid the foundation for the further development of Russia as a major power.



End of the 15th century many historians define it as the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age. Suffice it to recall that in 1453 the Byzantine Empire fell. In 1492 Columbus discovered America. Many great geographical discoveries were made. In the countries of Western Europe there is a leap in the development of productive forces. Printing appears (1456, Gutenberg). XIV-XVI centuries in world history they have been called the Renaissance.

The end of the 15th century is the time of completion of the formation of nation-states on the territory of Western Europe. Historians have long noticed that the process of replacing fragmentation by a single state is a natural outcome of historical development.

The unification of the principalities and lands of the fragmentation period took place in the most developed countries of Western Europe in connection with the growth of material production, due to the development of commodity-money relations and the destruction of natural economy as the basis of the economy. For example, the yield in the advanced countries of Western Europe was sam-5 and even sam-7 (that is, one planted grain yielded a crop of 5-7 grains, respectively). This, in turn, allowed the city and craft to develop rapidly. In the countries of Western Europe, the process of overcoming economic fragmentation began, national ties arose.

In the current conditions, the royal power, relying on the wealth of cities, sought to unite the country. The unification process was led by the monarch, who was at the head of the nobility - the ruling class of that time.

The formation of centralized states in different countries had its own characteristics. The comparative-historical method of studying historical processes gives reason to say that even if there are appropriate socio-economic reasons, unification may either not occur at all, or it may be greatly delayed due to subjective or objective reasons (for example, Germany and Italy were united only in the 19th century). There were certain features in the formation of the Russian state, the process of creation, which chronologically coincides with many Western European countries.

Features of the formation of the Russian state

The Russian Centralized State was formed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of Kievan Rus, its southern and southwestern lands were included in Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. His education was accelerated by the need to fight against external danger, especially with the Golden Horde, and later with the Kazan, Crimean, Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazakh khanates, Lithuania and Poland.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the socio-economic development of the Russian lands. Unlike the advanced countries of Western Europe, the formation of a single state in Russia took place under the complete dominance of the traditional way of Russia's economy - on a feudal basis. This makes it possible to understand why a bourgeois, democratic, civil society began to take shape in Europe, and why serfdom, estates, and inequality of citizens before the laws will dominate in Russia for a long time to come.

The completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533).

Ivan III. The blind father Vasily II early made his son Ivan III co-ruler of the state. He received the throne when he was 22 years old. Behind him was established the glory of a prudent and successful, cautious and far-sighted politician. At the same time, it is noted that he more than once resorted to deceit and intrigue. Ivan III is one of the key figures in our history. He was the first to take the title "Sovereign of All Russia". Under him, the double-headed eagle became the emblem of our state. Under him, the red brick Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day, was erected. Under him, the hated Golden Horde yoke was finally overthrown. With him in 1497. The first Sudebnik was created and the nationwide governing bodies of the country began to form. Under him, in the newly rebuilt Chamber of Facets, they received ambassadors not from neighboring Russian principalities, but from the Pope, the German emperor, the Polish king. Under him, the term "Russia" began to be used in the relations of our state.

Unification of the lands of northeastern Russia

Ivan III, relying on the power of Moscow, managed to complete the unification of northeastern Russia almost without bloodshed. In 1468 The principality of Yaroslavl was finally annexed, whose princes became the service princes of Ivan III. In 1472 the annexation of Perm the Great began. Even Vasily II the Dark bought half of the Rostov principality, and in 1474. Ivan III purchased the rest. Finally, Tver, surrounded by Moscow lands, in 1485. passed to Moscow, after its boyars swore an oath to Ivan III, who approached the city with a large army. In 1489 in. The composition of the state included the Vyatka land, which is important in terms of trade. In 1503, many princes of the western Russian regions (Vyazemsky, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky) passed from Lithuania to the Moscow prince.

Annexation of Novgorod. The Novgorod boyar republic, which still possessed considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. in Novgorod in 1410. the posadnichestvo administration was reformed: the oligarchic power of the boyars was strengthened. Vasily the Dark in 1456 established that the prince is the highest court in Novgorod (Yazhelbitsky world).

Fearing the loss of their privileges in the event of submission to Moscow, part of the Novgorod boyars, led by the posadnik Marfa Boretskaya, concluded an agreement on the vassal dependence of Novgorod from Lithuania. Having learned about the collusion of the boyars with Lithuania, Ivan III took drastic measures to subjugate Novgorod. On a campaign in 1471. the troops of all lands subject to Moscow participated, which gave it an all-Russian character. Novgorodians were accused of "falling away from Orthodoxy to Latinism."

The decisive battle took place on the Shelon River. The Novgorod militia, having a significant superiority in strength, fought reluctantly; Muscovites, according to chroniclers close to Moscow, “like roaring lions,” attacked the enemy and pursued the retreating Novgorodians for more than 20 miles. Novgorod was finally annexed to Moscow seven years later, in 1478. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. Opponents of Moscow were moved to the center of the country. But Ivan III, given the strength of Novgorod, left him a number of privileges; the right to conduct relations with Sweden, promised not to attract Novgorodians to serve on the southern borders. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

The accession to Moscow of the Novgorod, Vyatka and Perm lands with the non-Russian peoples of the north and northeast living here expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state.

The overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke. In 1480 the Mongol-Tatar yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. At the head of the Horde troops was Akhmat Khan, who made an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV. Ivan III managed to attract to his side the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, whose troops attacked the possessions of Casimir IV, disrupting his speech against Moscow. After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat Khan realized that it was hopeless to enter the battle; and when he learned that his capital Saray was attacked by the Siberian Khanate, he withdrew his troops back.

Russia finally a few years before 1480. stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde. In 1502 Crimean Khan Mengli Giray inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

Vasily III. The 26-year-old son of Ivan III and Sophia Paleolog - the niece of the last Byzantine emperor - Vasily III continued his father's work. He began to fight for the abolition of the appanage system and behaved like an autocrat. Taking advantage of the attack of the Crimean Tatars on Lithuania, Vasily III in 1510. annexed Pskov. 300 families of the richest Pskovites were evicted from the city and replaced by the same number from Moscow cities. The veche system was abolished; Moscow governors began to rule Pskov.

In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from Lithuania, became part of the Muscovite state. In honor of this event, the Novodevichy Convent was built in Moscow, in which the icon of Our Lady of Smolensk, the protector of the western borders of Russia, was placed. Finally, in 1521, the Ryazan land, which was already dependent on Moscow, became part of Russia.

Thus, the process of unification of northeastern and northwestern Russia in one state was completed. The largest power in Europe was formed, which from the end of the 15th century. became known as Russia.

Centralization of power. Fragmentation gradually gave way to centralization. Ivan III, after the annexation of Tver, received the honorary title "by the grace of God the sovereign of All Russia, the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands"

The princes in the annexed lands became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign (“boyarization of the princes”). These principalities were now called uyezds and were ruled by governors from Moscow. The governors were also called boyars-feeders, since they received food for managing the counties - part of the tax, the amount of which was determined by the previous payment for service in the troops. Localism is the right to occupy one or another position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their merits to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

A centralized control apparatus began to take shape.

Boyar Duma. It consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichi (boyars and okolnichi - the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars from the middle of the 15th century. local princes from the annexed lands, who recognized the seniority of Moscow, also sat in the Duma. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on the "affairs of the land."

The future order system grew out of two nationwide departments: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, the Treasury was in charge of finances, the state seal, and archives.

At the Moscow court during the reign of Ivan III, a magnificent and solemn ceremony began to be established. Contemporaries associated his appearance with the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Zoya (Sophia) Paleolog - the daughter of the brother of the last emperor of Byzantium Constantine Palaiologos in 1472.

Sudebnik of Ivan III. In 1497 A new set of laws of the Russian state was adopted - the Sudebnik of Ivan III. The Sudebnik, including 68 articles, reflected the strengthening of the role of the central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country.

Article 57 limited the right of the peasant transition from one feudal lord to another for a certain period for the whole country: a week before and a week after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26). For leaving, the peasant had to pay "old" - a fee for the years lived in the old place. The restriction of the peasant transition was the first step towards the establishment of serfdom in the country. However, until the end of the XVI century. peasants retained the right to transfer from one landowner to another.

Russian Church in the late XV - early XVI century.

The Russian Church played a significant role in the unification process. After being elected metropolitan in 1448. Ryazan Bishop Jonah, the Russian Church became independent (autocephalous).

On the western lands of Russia, which became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, in 1458 a metropolitan was installed in Kyiv. The Russian Orthodox Church split into two independent metropolises - Moscow and Kyiv. Their unification will take place after the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

The intra-church struggle was associated with the appearance of heresies. In the XIV century. Heresy of the Strigolniks arose in Novgorod. On the head of the one who was accepted as a monk, the hair was cut crosswise. The strigolniki believed that faith would become stronger if it was based on reason.

At the end of the XV century. in Novgorod, and then in Moscow, the heresy of the Judaizers spread (a Jewish merchant was considered its initiator). The heretics denied the power of the priests and demanded the equality of all people. This meant that the monasteries did not have the right to own land and peasants.

For some time, these views coincided with the views of Ivan III. There was also no unity among the clergy. Militant churchmen led by the founder of the Assumption Monastery (now the Joseph-Volokolamsky Monastery near Moscow) Joseph Volotsky sharply opposed the heretics. Joseph and his followers (the Josephites) defended the church's right to own land and peasants. The opponents of the Josephites also did not support heretics, but objected to the accumulation of wealth and land holdings of the church. The followers of this point of view were called non-possessors or Sorians - after the name of Nil Sorsky, who retired to a skete on the Sora River in the Vologda region.

Ivan III at the church council of 1502 supported the Josephites. Heretics were executed. The Russian Church became both state and national. Church hierarchs proclaimed the autocrat an earthly king, with his power similar to God. Church and monastic land ownership was preserved.

The end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century - the line between the Middle Ages and the New Age, called the Renaissance, became the period of the final formation of most European states. At the same stage, the process of unification of Russian lands around the Moscow principality was completed. The names of its initiators and executors are alive in the memory of the people. These were the Grand Dukes Ivan III, who ruled from 1462 to 1505, and his son Vasily III, who was in power from 1505 to 1533.

Features of the centralization of the countries of Western Europe and Russia

It should be immediately noted that in Russia and in the leading European countries, the unification of previously fragmented lands took place in various historical realities. In the West, the creation of centralized states was stimulated by the growth of material production, which, in turn, increased due to the improvement of commodity-money relations and the exit of the economy from the narrow framework of natural economy.

In Russia, things were different. Two centuries of the Horde yoke slowed down the development of its economy and culture, and as a result, the unification of Russia took place against the background of the feudal organization of the economy, which undoubtedly served as an obstacle to this process. In addition, the creation itself was possible only in the northwest and northeast of the country, since most of the southern lands that were previously part of Kievan Rus were annexed to Hungary, Poland and Lithuania.

Fragmentation is the reason for the seizure of Russian lands

Undoubtedly, the main reason for the conquest of Specific Russia by the Golden Horde was its fragmentation, an example of which is the Vladimir principality, divided after the death of its ruler among the heirs, and after that becoming easy prey for the conquerors. And similar phenomena in the history of Russia of that period can be traced everywhere. Many great principalities, after their division into small destinies, lost their former power and lost the ability to resist the enemy. Domestic history is full of such examples.

However, according to the researchers, the presence of a constant threat from the Golden Horde, and subsequently the individual khanates into which it broke up, and the aggressive policy of the Western neighbors significantly accelerated the completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, making it vital. Great merit in its implementation belongs to Ivan III, who ascended the throne in 1462.

Creator of the unified state

Subsequently, becoming a truly key figure in Russian history, this ruler received the highest, at that time, power in his hands when he was only twenty-two years old. Having established himself as a successful and far-sighted politician, he was the first in Russian history to be called the "Sovereign of All Russia." It was during the period of his reign that the double-headed eagle became our coat of arms, and the stone Kremlin that exists to this day was erected in Moscow.

Ivan III, having married the niece of the Byzantine emperor, introduced magnificent ceremonies into court use, not inferior to those that were accepted at European courts. It was during his reign that the former word Rus began to be supplanted by the current one - Russia. He carried out a cardinal administrative reform and became one of the authors of the famous Sudebnik - a code of civil and criminal laws.

Code of Laws of Ivan III

According to this document, which was very progressive for its time, the Boyar Duma was established under the Grand Duke. Its representatives received the authority to manage certain areas of public life, and also became governors in regiments and princely governors in cities.

There was also such an innovation as orders - bodies that were in charge of specially appointed boyars or order clerks. In rural areas, or in other words - volosts, the leadership was carried out by the so-called volosts - leading structures consisting of free people.

The Sudebnik established strict control of the center over the leadership of local boyars and stipulated possible penalties if they failed to comply with princely orders. A number of his articles dealt with the organization of the army. Instead of the former scattered squads of specific princes, a single army was created. Local noble landowners were obliged, if necessary, to be at the disposal of the Grand Duke and, at their own expense, arm a certain number of foot and horse slaves brought with them. Their number depended on the size of the estate owned by the owner.

Accession to Moscow of previously independent specific principalities

A wise, and sometimes very cunning politician, Ivan managed, avoiding open clashes, to carry out the annexation of the entire north-east of Russia to Moscow. This began in 1468, when the specific Yaroslavl princes, recognizing the supreme power of Ivan, entered into his subordination.

Four years later, Great Perm became part of his principality. By that time, the Rostov principality remained only half independent - the second part of it had been bought (that's right!) by the father of Ivan III, the Moscow prince Vasily the Dark. In 1474, the deal was continued, and as a result, the entire remaining territory went to Russia.

Some difficulties arose with the annexation of Tver, which had previously been surrounded by a ring of Moscow lands. Her boyars to the last tried to argue with Ivan, defending their independence, but the sight of his large squad approaching the walls of the city was such a convincing argument that they hurried to take the oath of allegiance.

The subsequent process included the annexation in 1489, which was an important fishing area. It was they who replenished the treasury with the most important currency, valued on the international market - furs.

As a result of the policy of centralization of Russia, which Ivan III consistently pursued, in addition to the steady growth of its economy and military power, the prestige of the state also increased. This contributed to the fact that in the early years of the 16th century, a significant number of Russian princes, who originated from the western regions of the country, but for various reasons, who switched to the service of the Lithuanian rulers, returned to their homeland.

The tragedy of Novgorod

However, not at all its stages, the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow proceeded so smoothly. An example of this is the dramatic events that unfolded around Novgorod, which until then had remained an independent boyar republic. In it, as a result of the management reform carried out in 1410, the power of the oligarchic boyars was strengthened, and by the decree of Vasily the Dark from 1456, the highest judicial power was given to the local prince.

Fears (and not unfounded) of losing a significant part of the privileges after the subjugation of Novgorod to Moscow prompted the boyars, led by the townsman's widow, to seek help from the Lithuanian prince Casimir, agreeing to vassalage in case of his support in the fight against Ivan III. In response to this, the Moscow prince took the most decisive measures, as a result of which, in 1471, a united army, made up of squads from all the principalities subject to Moscow, moved to the rebellious city.

A significant argument that allowed Ivan III to gather such an impressive army in a short time was the desire of the Novgorodians to come under the authority of a Catholic ruler, thereby giving reason to accuse them of wanting to exchange the Orthodox faith for the "Latin". In contrast to the Moscow squads, the rebels gathered a very large, but untrained and poorly armed militia. During the decisive battle that took place on the Shelon River, they were defeated and put to flight.

However, despite the complete defeat, the Novgorodians managed to come to an agreement with the prince, and, having paid a hefty indemnity, for some time to preserve the remnants of their former independence. Novgorod was finally annexed to Moscow in 1478. A symbolic gesture of deprivation of the right to self-determination was the seizure of the veche bell from the Novgorodians, which from time immemorial had called them together to resolve important pressing issues.

After the subjugation of Novgorod to the Moscow prince, the conquest of the Tver principality, which until that time had retained its independence, was to be conquered. Here, in a certain way, the same story was repeated as in Novgorod. The prince of Tver, rightly believing that he would not be able to resist the superior forces of Moscow, turned for help to the same Lithuanian ruler as the Novgorodians, and as a result suffered their same fate.

During all forty-three years of his reign, Ivan III pursued a single goal - the unification of disparate Russian lands. For this, he went down in national history as the "collector of Russian lands." He subjugated many previously independent great principalities.

End of the Horde yoke

But, among other things, his reign was marked by such an important event as the end of the period of the Horde yoke, which marked the victory of the troops of the Moscow prince over the hordes of Ahmed Khan in 1480. It was achieved not so much by military superiority as by skillful diplomacy, as a result of which Ivan III managed to make his ally the Crimean Khan, who was the worst enemy of his current enemy, and at the same time neutralize the actions of Ahmed Khan's ally, the Lithuanian king. As a result, realizing the hopelessness of the battle, the Tatars left their positions and retreated.

Father's successor

In 1505, the son of Ivan III, Vasily III, ascended the throne of Moscow, from the first days of his reign, he showed himself to be the successor of his father's work. As a true autocrat, he pursued a tough policy, the purpose of which was to destroy the former system of appanages and annex to Moscow the independent principalities of Russia that still remained at that time.

It is fair to say that the young prince was not inferior to his father either in the decisiveness of his actions, or in the ability to choose the most favorable moment for them. In this regard, the accession to the Moscow principality of Pskov, which until then was under the control of Lithuania, is very characteristic. To do this, Vasily took advantage of its weakening caused by the invasion of the Crimean Tatars.

He was not without the cunning inherent in his father. So, for example, in 1509, Vasily 3 ordered representatives of the Pskov settlement to come to meet him in Novgorod, as well as everyone who was dissatisfied with his desire to bring Pskov under Moscow jurisdiction. He accused all those who arrived on his orders of distrust of him and executed most of them.

The reign of Basil 3 put an end to the former independence of the city. After the execution of the townsmen's representatives in Pskov, the last veche in its history took place, at which a decision was made on the unconditional fulfillment of all the requirements of the prince. The Pskov veche bell, like its Novgorod counterpart, was removed and forever taken out of the city.

In order to protect himself from possible opposition in the future, by annexing the city to his possessions, the young prince evicted three hundred of the richest families from it and in their place settled an equal number of residents who were obviously loyal to him from other areas. However, this idea does not belong to him, but to his father Ivan III, who did exactly the same with the wealthy inhabitants of the conquered Novgorod. Having abolished the former veche system in Pskov, Vasily 3 entrusted the administration to his governors.

Further land consolidation process

Four years later, continuing the unification of Russia he was conducting, Vasily III annexed Smolensk, which he had conquered from the Lithuanians in 1514, to his principality. The memory of this event was immortalized by the creation of the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow. The Smolensk Icon of the Mother of God, recognized as miraculous, and revered as the primordial defender of the borders of Russia, was solemnly transferred to it.

The final completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow was achieved after the Ryazan principality became part of the state in 1521. It had previously been in a certain dependence on the Moscow princes, but at the same time it retained some independence. However, it was the turn of the inhabitants of Ryazan to become subjects of Moscow.

The main organs of government

This was completed in a single state, which became the largest in Europe, and has since been called Russia. But this process affected only the territories located in the northeast and northwest of Russia. Bringing under the Moscow scepter the principalities located in the southwestern lands and continuing to remain under the jurisdiction of Hungary, Poland and Lithuania, was a matter of the future.

The completion of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow required the creation of an apparatus capable of providing centralized control of the newly created state. They became the boyar duma. It had previously included representatives of the two highest (at that time) estates of the boyars and okolnichy, but from the middle of the 15th century, its composition was replenished by the princes of the lands attached to Moscow, loyal to the supreme ruler. The Boyar Duma was deprived of legislative power and had the character of only an advisory body.

During the reign of Vasily 3, two government departments were established, which laid the foundation for the subsequently formed order system. These were the so-called Palace and Treasury. The first managed the lands belonging to the Grand Duke, and the second was in charge of finances, archives and the state press.

According to most researchers, the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow was largely achieved due to the role that the Russian Orthodox Church played in this process. Its significance in solving pressing state issues was strengthened by the elevation in 1448 to the metropolitan throne of the Ryazan Metropolitan Jonah. Since that time, the church in Russia received the status of autocephalous, that is, independent and independent of others, and could actively influence the domestic and foreign policy of the state.

New Level Diplomacy

The Moscow principality of the 16th century, formed as a result of the unification of previously disparate lands, acquired a completely different status in matters of international politics. If before it consisted only of relations with the Horde khans and a limited circle of specific princes, then after the country began to be an association of the Great Russian people, and its ruler was called the sovereign, she took her rightful place in Europe.

Russian diplomacy has reached a completely different level. After the unification of the lands of North-Eastern Russia was completed, foreign embassies began to arrive in Moscow in the past, not risking to go deeper into the Russian expanses beyond Novgorod. Of course, this introduced a certain complexity, since previously one had to deal only with specific princes who professed the same faith and spoke the same language. Now, during the negotiations, it was necessary to take into account the peculiarities of other religions and use the services of translators, and subsequently learn the languages ​​themselves.

The merits of the two Moscow princes Ivan III, as well as his son and successor of the affairs of Vasily III, are undeniable. Thanks to their labors, letters sent abroad have since been signed with the title "Prince of Moscow and All Russia." This meant that all of Russia closed into a monolith, capable of withstanding any trials in the future.

Ivan III:

After the death of Vasily II (1462), his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes Grand Duke. At this time he was 22 years old. It was during the years of his reign that the process of unification of Russian lands was completed. A cautious, prudent man, Ivan III consistently pursued his course to conquer the specific principalities, to return the Russian lands occupied by Lithuania. At the same time, he showed determination and an iron will.

Under Ivan III, Novgorod was finally included in the Moscow principality. Ivan III organized a well-planned campaign against Novgorod. The main battle took place on the Shelon River. And although the Novgorodians had a huge superiority in forces (about 40,000 against 5,000), they suffered a crushing defeat. Ivan III brutally cracked down on representatives of the pro-Lithuanian party: some were executed, others were sent to Moscow and Kaluga and imprisoned. The independence of the Novgorod Republic was severely undermined. After 1471 the situation in Novgorod became even more aggravated. In 1477 Ivan III undertook a second campaign against Novgorod. In December, the city was blocked from all sides. The negotiations lasted a whole month and ended with the capitulation of Novgorod. At the beginning of January 1478, the Novgorod veche was cancelled. Ivan III ordered the veche bell to be removed and sent to Moscow. The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist and became part of the Moscow Principality. Many boyars and merchants were taken from Novgorod to the central regions, and 2,000 Moscow nobles arrived in Novgorod.

In 1485, Ivan III made a trip to Tver, Prince Mikhail of Tver fled to Lithuania. The rivalry between the two centers of North-Eastern Russia ended in favor of Moscow. The prince in Tver was the son of Ivan III - Ivan Ivanovich. The Muscovite principality turned into an all-Russian one. Since 1485, the Moscow sovereign began to be called the "sovereign of all Russia." Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521) were annexed. The unification of the Russian lands was basically completed. There was a territory of the united Russian state - the largest in Europe. From the end of the fifteenth century it became known as Russia. The emblem of the state was a double-headed eagle. During this period, government bodies are formed. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke, to whom the princely-boyar power was subordinate. Along with the boyar elite and the princes of the former specific principalities, the service nobility is gaining strength. It is a support for the Grand Duke in his struggle against the boyars. For service, the nobles receive estates that are not inherited. Naturally, the nobles are interested in supporting the grand duke's power.

The most significant innovation of Ivan III was the judicial reform, promulgated in 1497 in the form of a special legislative collection - the Sudebnik. Until 1497, the deputies of the Grand Duke, for the implementation of judicial and administrative functions, received the right to collect “food” from the subject population for their needs. They were called feeders. These officials abused the power granted to them, imposed exorbitant taxes on the population, took bribes, and performed an unfair trial. The Sudebnik of Ivan III banned bribes for legal proceedings and management, proclaimed an impartial court, and established uniform court fees for all types of judicial activities. This was a major step towards the creation of a judicial apparatus in the country. The Code of Laws in legislative form expressed the interests of the ruling class - boyars, princes and nobles - and reflected the attack of the feudal state on the peasants. Article 57 of the Sudebnik marked the beginning of the legal registration of serfdom. It limited the right of peasants to move from one feudal lord to another. From now on, a peasant could leave his feudal lord a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26), i.e. when all the farm work was done. At the same time, he had to pay the feudal lord for living on his land "elderly" and all debts. The size of the "elderly" ranged from 50 kopecks to 1 ruble (the price of 100 pounds of rye or 7 pounds of honey).

Standing on the river- hostilities in 1480 between the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III, caused by Moscow's refusal (1476) to pay an annual tribute to the Horde. It put an end to the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Muscovite state became completely independent.

Basil III:

Vasily III Ivanovich (March 25, 1479 - December 3, 1533) - Grand Duke of Moscow in 1505-1533, son of Ivan III the Great and Sophia Paleolog, father of Ivan IV the Terrible.

Unification of Russian lands:

Basil in his policy towards other principalities continued the policy of his father.

In 1509, while in Veliky Novgorod, Vasily ordered the Pskov posadnik and other representatives of the city to gather in his presence, including all the petitioners who were dissatisfied with them. Arriving to him at the beginning of 1510 on the feast of Epiphany, the Pskovites were accused of distrusting the Grand Duke and their deputies were executed. The Pskovites were forced to ask Vasily to accept themselves into his fatherland. Vasily ordered to cancel the veche. At the last veche in the history of Pskov, it was decided not to resist and to fulfill the requirements of Vasily. On January 13, the veche bell was removed and sent to Novgorod with tears. On January 24, Vasily arrived in Pskov and treated him in the same way as his father did with Novgorod in 1478. 300 of the most noble families of the city were resettled in Moscow lands, and their villages were given to Moscow service people.

It was the turn of Ryazan, which had long been in Moscow's sphere of influence. In 1517, Vasily called to Moscow the Ryazan prince Ivan Ivanovich, who was trying to enter into an alliance with the Crimean Khan, and ordered him to be put under guard (later Ivan was tonsured a monk and imprisoned in a monastery), and he took his inheritance for himself. After Ryazan, the Starodub principality was annexed, in 1523 - Novgorod-Severskoye, whose prince Vasily Ivanovich Shemyachich followed the example of Ryazan - was imprisoned in Moscow.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands. Ivan III

By the middle of the XV century. Russia, having overcome feudal fragmentation, turned into a single Muscovite state, which became one of the largest states in Europe.

In 1462, 22-year-old Ivan III (1462-1505) came to the throne of Moscow. The main goals of the reign of Ivan III were the unification of North-Eastern Russia into a single state and the fight against the Horde.

During the reign of Ivan III, the ideology of a centralized state began to take shape. In addition to the title "Prince of All Russia", Ivan III also introduced National emblem. The appearance of the double-headed eagle as the state symbol of the Muscovite state was recorded at the end of the 15th century.

During the reign of Ivan III, an ideology was born that was characteristic of a monarchical state. So, in the work of Metropolitan Zosima "The Exposition of Paschalia" (1492), the idea of ​​​​the succession of the grand ducal power from the Byzantine emperors was formulated. According to the author of this work, God appointed Ivan III as "the new Tsar Constantine in the new city - Moscow and over all the Russian land and over many other lands as sovereign."

In 1471, the Ryazan lands became part of the Moscow Principality, in 1472 - Dmitrov, in 1474 - Rostov. In 1478, Novgorod was included in the number of Moscow possessions, which was preceded by two Moscow-Novgorod wars (1471 and 1477-1478). The commercial and aristocratic elite of Novgorod did not want to lose their independence. In 1471, the unwillingness to recognize the supremacy of the Grand Duke of Moscow led to the formation of an influential anti-Moscow group. It was headed by the energetic widow of the posadnik (head of the city) Marfa Boretskaya and her sons. In search of allies in the fight against Moscow, the supporters of M. Boretskaya turned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for help. The campaign against Novgorod was led by Ivan III himself. In July 1471, in the battle on the Shelon River (near Pskov), the Novgorod troops were defeated. The Novgorodians surrendered, paid a significant ransom to Moscow and ceded to it a significant part of their vast lands along the Dvina.

In 1477, the Grand Duke's army set out on a new campaign against Novgorod. It was joined by the troops of Moscow's allies - Tver and Pskov. In January 1478, Novgorod surrendered, the veche order was abolished, and the veche bell and the city archive were sent to Moscow.

The overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke

In the 80s. 15th century The Moscow Principality included lands along the Ob and Vyatka rivers. In 1485, the inhabitants of Tver swore allegiance to Prince Ivan Ivanovich the Young, the son of Ivan III. In the same 1485, Ivan III took the official title of "Grand Duke of All Russia." Thus was born a single Russian state, and in the sources of that time for the first time appears its name - Russia.

Along with the unification of the lands of Russia, Ivan III also solved another task of national importance - liberation from the Golden Horde yoke.

15th century was the time of the decline of the Golden Horde. Internal weakening, civil strife led it to disintegration into a number of khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan on the Volga; Nogai Horde, Siberian, Uzbek - to the east of it; Big Horde and Crimean - to the west and south-west. In 1478, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde, the successor to the Golden Horde. Its ruler Khan Akhmed (Akhmat) in 1480 led an army to Moscow. He approached the Oka in the area where the Ugra River flows into it (near Kaluga). The Grand Duke left Moscow to meet the Horde. On the Ugra, clashes began between Russian and Tatar detachments. However, seeing the clear advantage of the Russian troops, Khan Ahmed did not dare to enter the battle. For a month, Russian and Tatar troops stood against each other on the banks of the Ugra. Finally Ahmed led his troops back to the Horde. The last Russian-Tatar confrontation went down in history under the name "standing on the Ugra River." "Standing on the Ugra" ended with the victory of the Russian state, which gained independence. Russia finally threw off the hated yoke that tormented its people for about two and a half centuries.