Lecture plan:

1. The relevance of biological knowledge in the modern world. The place of general biology in the system of biological sciences.

2. Study methods.

3. The concept of "life" and the properties of the living.

4. Levels of organization of the living.

5. Practical value of biology.

1. The relevance of biological knowledge in the modern world.

BIOLOGY is the science of life in all its manifestations and patterns that govern living nature. Its name arose from a combination of two Greek words: BIOS - life, LOGOS - teaching. This science studies all living organisms.

The term "biology" was introduced into scientific circulation by the French scientist J. B. Lamarck in 1802. The subject of biology is living organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria), their structure, functions, development, origin, relationship with the environment.

In the organic world, 5 kingdoms are distinguished: bacteria (grass), plants, animals, fungi, viruses. These living organisms are studied respectively by the sciences: bacteriology and microbiology, botany, zoology, mycology, virology. Each of these sciences is divided into sections. For example, zoology includes entomology, theriology, ornithology, ichthyology, and others. Each group of animals is studied according to a plan: anatomy, morphology, histology, zoogeography, ethology, etc. In addition to these sections, one can also name: biophysics, biochemistry, biometrics, cytology, histology, genetics, ecologists, breeding, space biology, genetic engineering and many others.

Thus, modern biology is a complex of sciences that study living things.

But this differentiation would lead science to a dead end if there were no integrating science - general biology. It unites all biological sciences at the theoretical and practical levels.

· What does general biology study?

General biology studies the patterns of life at all levels of its organization, the mechanisms of biological processes and phenomena, the ways of the development of the organic world and its rational use.

· What can unite all biological sciences?

General biology plays a unifying role in the system of knowledge about wildlife, since it systematizes previously studied facts, the totality of which makes it possible to identify the main patterns of the organic world.

· What is the purpose of general biology?

Implementation of reasonable use, protection and reproduction of nature.

2. Methods for studying biology.

The main methods of biology are:

observation(allows you to describe biological phenomena),

comparison(makes it possible to find common patterns in the structure, life of various organisms),

experiment or experience (helps the researcher to study the properties of biological objects),

modeling(many processes are imitated that are inaccessible for direct observation or experimental reproduction),

historical method (allows, on the basis of data on the modern organic world and its past, to know the processes of development of living nature).

General biology uses the methods of other sciences and complex methods that allow you to study and solve the tasks.

1. PALEONTOLOGICAL method, or morphological method of study. The deep internal similarity of organisms can show the relationship of the compared forms (homology, analogy of organs, rudimentary organs and atavisms).

2. COMPARATIVE - EIBRYOLOGICAL - identification of germline similarity, the work of K. Baer, ​​the principle of recapitulation.

3. COMPLEX - triple parallelism method.

4. BIOGEOGRAPHIC - allows you to analyze the general course of the evolutionary process on a variety of scales (comparison of floras and faunas, features of the distribution of closely related forms, the study of relict forms).

5. POPULATION - allows you to capture the direction of natural selection by changing the distribution of trait values ​​in populations at different stages of its existence or when comparing different populations.

6. IMMUNOLOGICAL - allows with a high degree of accuracy to identify the "blood relationship" of different groups.

7. GENETIC - allows you to determine the genetic compatibility of the compared forms, and therefore, to determine the degree of relationship.

There is no single "absolute" or perfect method. It is advisable to use them in combination, since they are complementary.

3. The concept of "life" and the properties of the living.

What is life?
One of the definitions more than 100 years ago was given by F. Engels: “Life is a way of existence of protein bodies, an indispensable condition for life is a constant metabolism, with the termination of which life also stops.”

According to modern concepts, life is a way of existence of open colloidal systems that have the properties of self-regulation, reproduction and development based on the geochemical interaction of proteins, nucleic acids and other compounds due to the transformation of substances and energy from the external environment.

Life arises and proceeds in the form of highly organized integral biological systems. Biosystems are organisms, their structural units (cells, molecules), species, populations, biogeocenoses and the biosphere.

Living systems have a number of common properties and features that distinguish them from inanimate nature.

1. All biosystems are characterized high orderliness, which can be maintained only thanks to the processes taking place in them. The composition of all biosystems that lie above the molecular level includes certain elements (98% of the chemical composition falls on 4 elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and in the total mass of substances the main share is water - at least 70 - 85%). The orderliness of the cell is manifested in the fact that it is characterized by a certain set of cellular components, and the orderliness of the biogeocenosis is that it includes certain functional groups of organisms and the inanimate environment associated with them.
2. Cell structure: All living organisms have a cellular structure, with the exception of viruses.

3. Metabolism. All living organisms are capable of exchanging substances with the environment, absorbing from it substances necessary for nutrition and respiration, and releasing waste products. The meaning of biotic cycles is the transformation of molecules that ensure the constancy of the internal environment of the body and, thus, the continuity of its functioning in constantly changing environmental conditions (maintaining homeostasis).
4. Reproduction, or self-reproduction, - the ability of living systems to reproduce their own kind. This process is carried out at all levels of the organization of the living;
a) DNA replication - at the molecular level;
b) doubling of plastids, centrioles, mitochondria in the cell - at the subcellular level;
c) cell division by mitosis - at the cellular level;
d) maintaining the constancy of the cellular composition due to the reproduction of individual cells - at the tissue level;
e) at the organismic level, reproduction manifests itself in the form of asexual reproduction of individuals (an increase in the number of offspring and the continuity of generations is carried out due to the mitotic division of somatic cells) or sexual reproduction (an increase in the number of offspring and the continuity of generations are provided by germ cells - gametes).
5. Heredity is the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics, properties and developmental features from generation to generation. .
6. Variability- this is the ability of organisms to acquire new signs and properties; it is based on changes in biological matrices - DNA molecules.
7. Growth and development. Growth is a process that results in a change in the size of an organism (due to cell growth and division). Development is a process that results in a qualitative change in the organism. Under the development of living nature - evolution is understood as an irreversible, directed, regular change in objects of living nature, which is accompanied by the acquisition of adaptation (adaptations), the emergence of new species and the extinction of pre-existing forms. The development of the living form of the existence of matter is represented by individual development, or ontogenesis, and historical development, or phylogenesis.
8. Fitness. This is the correspondence between the characteristics of biosystems and the properties of the environment with which they interact. Fitness cannot be achieved once and for all, since the environment is constantly changing (including due to the impact of biosystems and their evolution). Therefore, all living systems are able to respond to environmental changes and develop adaptations to many of them. Long-term adaptations of biosystems are carried out due to their evolution. Short-term adaptations of cells and organisms are provided due to their irritability.
9 . Irritability. The ability of living organisms to selectively respond to external or internal influences. The reaction of multicellular animals to irritation is carried out through the nervous system and is called a reflex. Organisms that do not have a nervous system are also deprived of reflexes. In such organisms, the reaction to irritation is carried out in different forms:
a) taxis are directed movements of the body towards the stimulus (positive taxis) or away from it (negative). For example, phototaxis is movement towards the light. There are also chemotaxis, thermotaxis, etc.;
b) tropisms - the directed growth of parts of the plant organism in relation to the stimulus (geotropism - the growth of the root system of the plant towards the center of the planet; heliotropism - the growth of the shoot system towards the Sun, against gravity);
c) nastia - the movement of plant parts in relation to the stimulus (the movement of leaves during daylight hours depending on the position of the Sun in the sky or, for example, the opening and closing of the corolla of a flower).
10 . Discreteness (division into parts). A separate organism or other biological system (species, biocenosis, etc.) consists of separate isolated, i.e., isolated or delimited in space, but, nevertheless, connected and interacting with each other, forming a structural and functional unity. Cells consist of individual organelles, tissues - from cells, organs - from tissues, etc. This property allows the replacement of a part without stopping the functioning of the whole system and the possibility of specializing different parts for different functions.
11. Autoregulation- the ability of living organisms living in continuously changing environmental conditions to maintain the constancy of their chemical composition and the intensity of the flow of physiological processes - homeostasis. Self-regulation is provided by the activity of regulatory systems - nervous, endocrine, immune, etc. In biological systems of the supraorganismal level, self-regulation is carried out on the basis of interorganismal and interpopulation relations.
12 . Rhythm. In biology, rhythm is understood as periodic changes in the intensity of physiological functions and shaping processes with different periods of fluctuations (from a few seconds to a year and a century).
Rhythm is aimed at coordinating the functions of the organism with the environment, that is, at adapting to periodically changing conditions of existence.
13. Energy dependence. Living bodies are systems that are "open" for energy to enter. Under the "open" systems understand dynamic, ie not in a state of rest systems, stable only under the condition of continuous access to them by energy and matter from the outside. Thus, living organisms exist as long as they receive energy in the form of food from the environment.

14. Integrity- living matter is organized in a certain way, subject to a number of specific laws characteristic of it.

4. Levels of organization of living matter.

In all the diversity of living nature, several levels of organization of living things can be distinguished.Viewing the educational film "Levels of organization of the living" and, on its basis, compiling a brief reference summary.

1. Molecular.Any living system, no matter how complex it may be organized, consists of biological macromolecules: nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, as well as other important organic substances. From this level, various processes of the body's vital activity begin: metabolism and energy conversion, transmission of hereditary information, etc.

2. Cellular.Cell - structural and functional unit, as well as a unit of development of all living organisms living on Earth. At the cellular level, the transfer of information and the transformation of substances and energy are conjugated.

5. Biogeocenotic. Biogeocenosis - a set of organisms of different species and varying complexity of organization with the factors of their habitat. In the process of joint historical development of organisms of different systematic groups, dynamic, stable communities are formed.

6. Biospheric.Biosphere - totality of all biogeocenoses, system covering all phenomena of life on our planet. At this level, there is a circulation of substances and the transformation of energy associated with the vital activity of all living organisms.

5. Practical value of general biology.

o In BIOTECHNOLOGY - biosynthesis of proteins, synthesis of antibiotics, vitamins, hormones.

o In AGRICULTURE - selection of highly productive breeds of animals and plant varieties.

o IN SELECTION OF MICROORGANISMS.

o In NATURE PROTECTION - development and implementation of methods of rational and prudent nature management.

Test questions:

1. Define biology. Who proposed this term?

2. Why is modern biology considered a complex science? What subdivisions does modern biology consist of?

3. What special sciences can be distinguished in biology? Give them a brief description.

4. What research methods are used in biology?

5. Give the definition of "life".

6. Why are living organisms called open systems?

7. List the main properties of living things.

8. How do living organisms differ from inanimate bodies?

9. What levels of organization are characteristic of living matter?

What is the science of biology? In simple terms, it is the study of life in all its diversity and grandeur. From microscopic algae and bacteria to giant elephants and giant blue whales, life on our planet is incredibly diverse. Taking this into account, where do we borrow what is alive? What are the main characteristics of life? These are all very important questions with equally important answers!

Characteristics of life

Living beings include both the visible and invisible world of bacteria and viruses. At a basic level, we can say that life is orderly. Organisms have an extremely complex organization. We are all familiar with the intricate systems of the main cell.

Life can "work". I will introduce not a daily variety of work, but the maintenance of metabolic processes, by obtaining energy in the form of food from the environment.

Life grows and develops. This means more than just copying or resizing. Living organisms also have the ability to recover from certain types of damage.

Life can be played. Have you ever seen mud or rocks multiply? Most likely not! Life can only come from other living beings.

Life can react. Think about the last time you hit a part of your body. A pain reaction follows almost immediately. Life is characterized by a reaction to various stimuli and external stimuli.

Finally, life can adapt and respond the requirements of the environment.

There are three main types of adaptations that can occur in higher organisms:

• Reversible changes occur as a response to changes in the environment. Suppose you live near sea level and travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty breathing and an increase in heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms disappear when you return to sea level.
• Somatic changes occur as a result of continuous changes in the environment. Using the previous example, if you stay in a mountainous area for a long time, you will notice that your heart rate will start to slow down and you will begin to breathe normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.
• The final type of adaptation is called genotypic (caused by a genetic mutation). These changes occur in the genetic composition of the organism and are not reversible. An example is the development of pesticide resistance in insects and spiders.

Thus, life is organized, "works", grows, reproduces, responds to stimuli and adapts. These characteristics underlie the study of the science of general biology.

Basic principles of modern biology

The foundation of the science of biology that exists today is based on five basic principles. These are cell theory, gene theory, evolution, homeostasis and the laws of thermodynamics.

• : All living organisms are made up of cells. is the basic unit of life.
• : traits are inherited through gene transfer. are located on and are made up of DNA.
• : any in a population that is inherited over several generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.
• : the ability to maintain a constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.
• A: The energy is constant and the energy conversion is not completely efficient.

Sections of biology

The field of science of biology is very broad and can be divided into several disciplines. In the most general sense, these disciplines are classified according to the type of organism studied. For example, it studies animals, botany studies plants, and microbiology studies microorganisms. These research areas can also be broken down into several specialized subdisciplines. Some of these include anatomy, genetics, and physiology.

General biology studies the basic patterns of life phenomena that occur at various levels of organization of the living. Consideration of the organization of living matter begins with the elucidation of the structure and properties of complex organic molecules. Cells of multicellular organisms are part of tissues, two or more tissues form an organ. A multicellular organism of a complex structure, which has tissues and organs in its composition, at the same time is an elementary unit of a biological species. Interacting species form a community, or an ecological system, which, in turn, is one of the components of the biosphere.

Accordingly, several levels of organization of living matter are distinguished.

1. Molecular. Any living system, no matter how complex it may be organized, manifests itself at the level of functioning of biological macromolecules - biopolymers: nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, and other important organic substances. From this level, the most important processes of the organism's vital activity begin: metabolism and energy conversion, the transfer of hereditary information, and the like.

2. Cellular. A cell is a structural and functional unit, as well as a unit of development of all living organisms that live on Earth. There are no free-living non-clinical life forms.

3. Fabric. A tissue is a collection of similar cells, united by the performance of a common function.

4. Organ. Organs are structural and functional associations of several types of tissues. For example, human skin is like a different substance. As a result of a number of complex chemical transformations, substances from the environment are likened to substances of a living organism and its body is built from them. These processes are called assimilation or plastic exchange.

5. Organismic. A multicellular organism is an integral system of organs specialized to perform various functions.

6. Population-species. A set of organisms of the same species, united by a common housing, creates a population as a system of superorganism order. Simple, elementary evolutionary transformations are carried out in this system.

7. Biogeocenotic. Biogeocenosis - a set of organisms of different species and organization of varying complexity with all environmental factors.

Let's give some examples. Plants with carbon dioxide and water synthesize complex organic compounds - carbohydrates (starch and cellulose), which are used as reserve nutrients and building material. The protein of a chicken egg in the human body undergoes a series of complex transformations before it turns into proteins characteristic of the body - hemoglobin, keratin or any other.

The other side of metabolism is dissimilation processes, as a result of which complex organic compounds break down into simple ones, while their similarity with the substances of the body is lost and the energy necessary for biosynthesis reactions is released. Therefore, dissimilation is also called energy metabolism.

Metabolism ensures the constancy of the chemical composition and structure of all parts of the body and, as a result, the constancy of their functioning in continuously variable environmental conditions.

Self-reproduction (reproduction). When living organisms reproduce, offspring usually resemble their parents: cats reproduce kittens, dogs reproduce puppies. From dandelion seeds, dandelion grows again. The division of a unicellular organism - amoeba - leads to the formation of two amoebas, completely similar to the mother cell. Thus, reproduction is the property of organisms to reproduce their own kind.

What underlies the process of self-reproduction? Let us pay attention to the fact that this process is carried out practically at all levels of the organization of living matter. Thanks to reproduction, not only whole organisms, but also cells, cell organelles (mitochondria, plastidi, etc.) after division are similar to their predecessors. From one DNA molecule - deoxyribonucleic acid - when it is doubled, two daughter molecules are formed, completely repeating the initial one.

Self-reproduction is based on the reactions of matrix synthesis, that is, the formation of new molecules and structures based on the information contained in the sequence of DNA nuclei. Consequently, self-reproduction is one of the main properties of the living, closely related to the phenomenon of heredity.

Heredity. It consists in the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics, properties and features of development from generation to generation. It is due to stability, i.e., the constancy of the structure of DNA molecules.

Variability. This property seems to be the opposite of heredity, but at the same time it is closely related to it, since in this case hereditary inclinations change - the genes that determine the development of certain traits. If the reproduction of matrices - DNA molecules - always occurred with absolute accuracy, then during the reproduction of organisms, the continuity of only pre-existing characters would be carried out, and the adaptation of species to changing environmental conditions would be impossible. Consequently, variability is the ability of organisms to acquire new features and properties, which is based on changes in biological matrices.

Variability creates a variety of material for natural selection, that is, the selection of the most attached individuals to specific conditions of existence in natural conditions, which, in turn, leads to the emergence of new forms of life, new types of organisms.

Growth and development. The ability to develop is a universal property of matter. Development is understood as an irreversible directed regular change in objects of animate and inanimate nature. As a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object arises, as a result of which its composition or structure changes. The development of a living form of the existence of matter is represented by individual development, or ontogenesis, and historical development, or phylogeny.

During ontogenesis, the individual properties of organisms gradually and consistently manifest themselves. Development is accompanied by growth. Regardless of the method of reproduction, all daughter individuals formed from one zygote or spore, kidney or cell, inherit only genetic information, that is, the ability to show certain signs.

In the process of development, a specific structural organization of the individual arises, and an increase in its mass is due to the reproduction of macromolecules, elementary structures of cells, and the cells themselves. Phylogeny, or evolution, is the irreversible and directed development of living nature, accompanied by the formation of new species and the progressive complication of life. The result of evolution is the diversity of living organisms on Earth.

Irritation. Any organism is inextricably linked with the environment: it extracts nutrients from it, is exposed to adverse environmental factors, interacts with other organisms, and the like. In the process of evolution, living organisms have developed and consolidated the properties of selectively responding to external influences. This property is called irritation. Any change in environmental conditions in relation to the body is irritation, and its reaction to external stimuli is an indicator of its sensitivity and a manifestation of irritation.

The reaction of multicellular animals to irritation is carried out with the help of the nervous system and is called a reflex.

Organisms that do not have a nervous system, such as protozoa or plants, lack reflexes. their reactions, expressed in a change in the nature of movement or growth, are usually called taxis or tropisms, adding the name of the stimulus to their designation. For example, phototaxis is movement towards the light; chemotaxis - the movement of an organism in relation to the concentration of chemicals. Each kind of taxis can be positive or negative, depending on whether the stimulus acts on the organism in an attractive or repulsive way.

Under tropisms understand the specific nature of growth, which is characteristic of plants. So, heliotropism (from the Greek helios - the Sun) means the growth of the above-ground parts of plants (stems, leaves) towards the Sun, and geotropism (from the Greek geos - Earth) - the growth of underground parts (roots) towards the center of the Earth.

8. Discreteness (from Latin discretus - intermittent, divided). Discreteness is a universal property of matter. So, from the course of physics and general chemistry, it is known that each atom consists of elementary particles, that atoms form a molecule. Simple molecules are part of complex compounds or crystals, and the like. Life on Earth also manifests itself in discrete forms. This means that a separate organism or other biological system (species, biocenosis, etc.) consists of separate isolated, that is, isolated or delimited in space, but nevertheless closely related and interacting parts, creating a structural and functional unity. For example, any kind of organisms includes individual individuals. The body of a highly organized individual forms spatially delimited organs, which, in turn, consist of individual cells. The energy apparatus of the cell is represented by individual mitochondria, the apparatus of protein synthesis is represented by ribosomes, etc., up to macromolecules, each of which can perform its function only if it is spatially isolated from the others. The discreteness of the structure of the body is the basis of its structural order, it creates the possibility of its constant self-renewal by replacing structural elements (molecules, enzymes, cell organelles, whole cells) that are “worn out” without stopping the function performed. The discreteness of a species predetermines the possibility of its evolution through the death or elimination of unsuitable individuals from reproduction and the preservation of individuals with traits useful for survival.

9. Self-regulation (autoregulation). This is the ability of living organisms living in continuously changing environmental conditions to maintain the constancy of their chemical composition and the intensity of the course of physiological processes. At the same time, the lack of intake of any nutrients mobilizes the internal resources of the body, and the excess causes the storage of these substances. Such reactions are carried out in different ways due to the activity of regulatory systems - nervous and endocrine. The signal for turning on one or another regulatory system can be a change in the concentration of a substance or the state of a system.

For example, a decrease in the concentration of ATP - a universal accumulator (accumulator) of energy in a cell - serves as a signal, starting the process of its synthesis. On the contrary, the replenishment of ATP stores stops the intensive synthesis of this substance. An increase in the concentration of glucose in the blood leads to an increase in the production of the hormone of the pancreas - insulin, which reduces the level of sugar in the blood. A decrease in blood glucose levels slows down the release of the hormone into the bloodstream. A decrease in the number of cells in a tissue (for example, as a result of an injury) causes increased reproduction of the cells that remain; the restoration of a normal number of cells gives a signal about the cessation of intensive cell division.

10. Rhythm. This property is inherent in both living and inanimate nature. It is due to various cosmic and planetary reasons: the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, the change of seasons, the phases of the Moon, and the like. Inanimate nature is characterized, for example, by changes in illumination and temperature during the year and day, ebbs and flows in the seas and oceans, the movement of air masses - winds, and the like. Living organisms are also subject to external time sensors, but their reaction is much more complicated than changes in the environment.

Everywhere in animate and inanimate nature, oscillatory processes are common. Ocean tides, the change of day and night, the phases of the moon, the alternation of the seasons, the periodic increase in solar activity, the cyclical nature of geological processes, including the periodic change of land by sea and sea by land - all these are various forms of oscillatory processes. Periodic changes in the environment have a profound effect on wildlife and on the own rhythms of living organisms.

Rhythm is the repetition of the same state at different intervals. In biology, rhythm is understood as periodic changes in the intensity of physiological functions with different periods of fluctuations (from a few seconds to a year and a century). The daily rhythms of sleep and wakefulness in humans are well known; seasonal rhythms of activity and hibernation in some mammals (ground squirrels, hedgehogs, bears) and many others.

Rhythm is aimed at coordinating the functions of the body with the environment, that is, at adapting to the constantly changing conditions of existence.

11. Energy dependence. Living bodies are "open" to the energy of the system. This concept is borrowed from physics. By "open" they mean dynamic, there are systems that are not at rest, stable only under the condition of continuous access to them by energy and matter from the outside. So, living organisms exist as long as they receive energy and matter in the form of food from the environment. It should be noted that living organisms, unlike objects of inanimate nature, are delimited from the environment by membranes (the outer cell membrane in unicellular organisms, the integumentary tissue in multicellular organisms). These shells impede the exchange of substances between the organism and the external environment, minimize the loss of substances and maintain the spatial unity of the system.

Thus, living organisms differ sharply from the objects of physics and chemistry - non-living systems - in their exceptional complexity and high structural and functional order. These differences give life qualitatively new properties. Lives is a special stage in the development of matter.

Now, after getting acquainted with the basic properties of living organisms, we can formulate a definition of the concept of "life". The materialistic definition of life was given by F. Engels: “Life is a mode of existence of protein bodies, and this mode of existence consists in its essence in the constant self-renewal of the chemical constituents of these bodies.” This definition was given by Engels more than 100 years ago. It included two important provisions: 1) life is closely connected with protein bodies and 2) an indispensable condition for life is a constant metabolism, with the cessation of which life also stops.

The achievements of the biology of our time have made it possible to reveal new features characteristic of living organisms, and on this basis to give a more detailed definition of the concept of "life". One of these definitions belongs to M. V. Volkenshtein: "Living bodies that exist on Earth are open self-regulating and self-creating systems built from biopolymers - proteins and nucleic acids."

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"VYATKA STATE UNIVERSITY"

Department of Biology

Department of Microbiology

I.V. DARMOV

General biology

Lecture course

Tutorial

Approved by the editorial and publishing committee of the Methodological Council of the FGBOU VPO "Vyatka State University" as a textbook for students of the direction 020400.62 "Biology" of all training profiles

Reviewers:

Associate Professor of the Department of Biotechnology FGBOU VPO "Vyatka State University",

Candidate of Biological Sciences O. N. Shupletsova;

Chief Researcher, Research Center 33 Central Research Institute of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Kirov, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor V.B. Kalininsky

Darmov, I.V.

UDC 573(07)

The textbook is intended for students of direction 020400.62 "Biology" of all training profiles studying the discipline "General Biology".

Those. editor E.V. Kaygorodtseva

© VyatSU, 2014

1. Biology as a science. Properties of living systems……………………………...4

2. Fundamentals of cytology. Prokaryotes…………………………………………..17

3. Fundamentals of cytology. Eukaryotes. Membrane components …………….21

4. Fundamentals of cytology. Eukaryotes. Non-membrane components…..……..29

5. Asexual reproduction. Mitosis……………………………………………..34

6. Sexual reproduction. Meiosis………………………...………………………43

7. The main patterns of heredity………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8.Basic patterns of variability……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Biological diversity………………………………………………….79

List of sources used……………………………….…….105

Lecture #1

Lecture topic: Biology as a science . Properties of living systems.

Lecture plan:

1. Biology as a science

2. Methods of biology

3. Basic concepts of biology

4. Levels of organization of the living

5. Basic properties of living systems

6. Modern definition of a living organism and life

1. Biology as a science

Biology (gr. bios- a life, logos- word, doctrine) - a set of sciences about life, about wildlife. Biology subject - the structure of living organisms, their functions, origin, development, relationship with the environment. Along with physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, etc. refers to natural sciences.

Biology is one of the oldest sciences, although this term appeared only in 1797 (its author is the German professor of anatomy T. Ruz (1771-1803). Aristotle (384-322 BC) is often called the "father of biology", who belongs to the first classification of animals.

What are peculiarities biology as a science?

1.1 Biology closely associated with philosophy. This is due to the fact that out of the 3 fundamental problems of natural science, 2 are the subject of biological research.

1. The problem of the origin of the Universe, space, nature in general (physics, astronomy deals with it).

2. The problem of the origin of life, i.e. living from non-living.

3. The problem of the origin of Reason and man as its bearer.

The solution of these questions is closely related to the solution fundamental question of philosophy What comes first - matter or consciousness? Therefore, a significant place in biology is occupied by philosophical aspects.

1.2. Relationship of biology with social and ethical issues.

Social Darwinism, for example, transfers the concept of "natural selection" to human society, the differences between classes are explained by biological factors.

Other examples: racism, organ transplants, the problem of aging.

1.3. deep specialization biology.

As a result of the differentiation of biology by object of study private biological sciences arose: botany, zoology, microbiology (bacteriology, virology, mycology, etc.).

Another division of biological sciences - by levels of organization and properties of living matter Keywords: genetics (heredity), cytology (cellular level), anatomy and physiology (structure and functioning of organisms), ecology (relationships of organisms with the environment), etc.

As a result integration with other sciences arose: biochemistry, biophysics, radiobiology, space biology, etc.

Those. biology is a complex of sciences, and general biology engaged in the study of the most general patterns of structure, life, development, origin of living organisms. The main question that general biology tries to answer is what is life?

1.4. At present, biology, while remaining theoretical basis knowledge of the living becomes directly productive force , gives rise to new technologies: biotechnology, genetic and cell engineering, etc.

Allowance for applicants to universities
Author Galkin.

Introduction.

Biology is the science of life. This is a set of scientific disciplines that study living things. Thus, the object of study of biology is life in all its manifestations. What is life? There is no complete answer to this question so far. Of the many definitions of this concept, here is the most popular one. Life is a special form of existence and physico-chemical state of protein bodies, characterized by a mirror asymmetry of amino acids and sugars, metabolism, homeostasis, irritability, self-reproduction, system self-government, adaptability to the environment, self-development, movement in space, information transfer, physical and functional discreteness of individual individuals or social conglomerates, as well as the relative independence of superorganismal systems, with the general physical and chemical unity of the living matter of the biosphere.

The system of biological disciplines includes the direction of research on systematic objects: microbiology, zoology, botany, the study of man, etc. General biology considers the broadest patterns that reveal the essence of life, its forms and patterns of development. This area of ​​knowledge traditionally includes the doctrine of the origin of life on Earth, the doctrine of the cell, the individual development of organisms, molecular biology, Darwinism (evolutionary doctrine), genetics, ecology, the doctrine of the biosphere and the doctrine of man.

Origin of life on earth.

The problem of the origin of life on Earth has been and remains the main problem, along with cosmology and knowledge, to find the structure of matter. Modern science does not have direct evidence of how and where life arose. There are only logical constructions and indirect evidence obtained through model experiments, and data in the field of paleontology, geology, astronomy, etc.

In scientific biology, the most well-known hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth are the theory of panspermia by S. Arrhenius and the theory of the origin of life on Earth as a result of a long evolutionary development of matter proposed by A. I. Oparin.

The theory of panspermia was widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. And now she has many supporters.

According to this theory, living beings were brought to Earth from outer space. Particularly widespread were assumptions about the introduction of the embryos of living organisms to Earth with meteorites or cosmic dust. Until now, in meteorites, they are trying to find out what signs of life. In 1962, American scientists, in 1982, Russian scientists reported the discovery of the remains of organisms in meteorites. But it was soon shown that the found structural formations are actually mineral granules and only in appearance resemble biological structures. In 1992, the works of American scientists appeared, where, based on a study of material selected in Antarctica, they describe the presence in meteorites of the remains of living beings resembling bacteria. What awaits this discovery time will tell. But, interest in the theory of panspermia has not faded to this day.

The systematic development of the problem of the origin of life on Earth began in the 1920s. In 1924, A. I. Oparin's book "The Origin of Life" was published, and in 1929 an article by D. Haldane on the same topic. But, as Haldane himself later noted, one could hardly find anything new in his article that Oparin did not have. Therefore, the theory of the origin of life on Earth as a result of the "biological big bang" can be safely called the Oparin theory, and not the Oparin-Haldane theory.

According to Oparin's theory, life originated on Earth. This process consisted of the following stages: 1) Organic substances are formed from inorganic substances; 2) there is a rapid physico-chemical rearrangement of primary organic substances. Mirror asymmetric organic prebiological substances in conditions of active volcanic activity, high temperature, radiation, enhanced ultraviolet radiation, thunderstorms quickly. During the polymerization of left-handed amino acids, primary proteins were formed. At the same time, nitrogenous bases - nucleotides - arose; 3) physical and chemical processes contributed to the formation of coacervate drops (coacervates) - gel-type structures; 4) the formation of polynucleotides - DNA and RNA and their inclusion in coacervates; 5) the formation of a "film" that separated the coacervates from the environment, which led to the emergence of a pre-biological system, which was an open system. Had the ability to matrix protein synthesis and decomposition.

In subsequent years, Oparin's theory was fully confirmed. The great merit of a theory is that much of it can be tested or logically related to verifiable propositions.

An extremely important step in the process of the emergence of life was the transition of inorganic carbon compounds into organic ones. Astronomical data have shown that even now the formation of organic substances is taking place everywhere, completely independently of life. From this it was concluded that such a synthesis took place on Earth during the formation of the earth's crust. A series of works on synthesis was started in 1953 by S. Miller, who synthesized a number of amino acids by passing an electric discharge through a mixture of gases, presumably constituting the primary atmosphere (hydrogen, water vapor, ammonia, methane). By changing individual components and factors of influence, various scientists obtained glycine, ascargic acid and other amino acids. In 1963, by modeling the conditions of the ancient atmosphere, scientists obtained individual polypeptides with a molecular weight of 3000-9000. In recent years, the chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and the mechanism of formation of coacervate drops have been studied in detail at the Institute of Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Moscow State University. It was shown that simultaneously with the general process of evolution of prebiological systems, their transformation into more specialized structures took place.

And here it becomes clear that natural selection should lead in the future to the emergence of a cell - an elementary structural and functional unit of a living organism.

The main features of the living.

The ability to move. Signs clearly appearing in animals, many of which are able to actively move. In the simplest organs of movement are flagella, cilia, etc. In more organized animals, limbs appear. Plants also have the ability to move. The single-celled alga Chlamydomonas has flagella. Dispersion of spores, dispersal of seeds, movement in space with the help of rhizomes are all variants of movement.

The ability to grow. All living things are able to increase in size and mass due to stretching, cell division, etc.

Nutrition, respiration, excretion are the processes by which metabolism is ensured.

Irritability is the ability to react and give responses to external influences.

Reproduction and the phenomenon of variability and heredity associated with it are the most characteristic feature of the living. Any living organism produces its own kind. The offspring retain the traits of their parents and acquire traits that are only characteristic of them.

The combination of these features undoubtedly characterizes the living as a system forming metabolism, irritability and the ability to reproduce. But it should be remembered that the concept of living is much more complicated (see introduction).

levels of organization of life.

The level of organization is the functional place of the biological structure of a certain degree of complexity in the general "system of systems" of the living. Usually, molecular (molecular-genetic), cellular, organismal, population-species, biocenotic, biospheric levels of organization are distinguished.

The elementary and functional unit of life is the cell. A cell has almost all the main features of a living thing, unlike the so-called non-cellular organisms (eg viruses), which exist at the molecular level.

The organism is a real carrier of life, characterized by all its bioproperties.

A species is a group of individuals similar in structure and origin.

Biocenosis is an interconnected set of species inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or water.

The biosphere is the totality of all biocenoses of the Earth.

Methods for studying biology.

Methods of modern biology is determined by its tasks. One of the main tasks of biology is the knowledge of the world of living beings around us. The methods of modern biology are aimed specifically at studying this problem.

Scientific research usually begins with observations. This method of studying biological objects has been used since the beginning of the meaningful existence of man. This method allows you to create an idea about the object under study, to collect material for further work.

Observation was the main method in the descriptive period of the development of biology. Based on the observations, a hypothesis is put forward.

The next steps in the study of biological objects are related to the experiment.

It became the basis for the transition of biology from descriptive science to experimental science. The experiment allows you to check the results of observations and obtain data that cannot be obtained at the first stage of the study.

A true scientific experiment must be accompanied by a control experiment.

The experiment must be reproducible. This will allow obtaining reliable data and processing data using a computer.

In recent years, the modeling method has been widely used in biology. The creation of mathematical models of phenomena and processes became possible with the widespread introduction of computers into biological research.

An example is the algorithm for studying the species of a plant. At the first stage, the researcher studies the signs of the organism. The results of the observation are recorded in a special journal. Based on the identification of all available features, a hypothesis is put forward that the organism belongs to a particular species. The correctness of the hypothesis is determined by experiment. Knowing that representatives of the same species freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring, the researcher grows an organism from seeds taken from the individual under study and crosses the grown organism with a reference organism, the species belonging to which is established in advance. If, as a result of this experiment, seeds are obtained from which a viable organism develops, then the hypothesis is considered confirmed.

Diversity of the organic world.

Diversity, as well as the diversity of life on Earth, is studied by systematics - the most important section of biology.

Systems of organisms are a reflection of the diversity of life on Earth. Representatives of three groups of organisms live on Earth: viruses, prokaryotes, eukaryotes.

Viruses are organisms that do not have a cellular structure. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are organisms whose main structural unit is the cell. Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-formed cell nucleus. In eukaryotes, the cell has a true nucleus, where the nuclear material is separated from the cytoplasm by a two-membrane membrane.

Prokaryotes include bacteria and blue-green algae. Bacteria are unicellular, mostly heterozygous organisms. Blue-green algae are unicellular, colonial or multicellular organisms with a mixed type of nutrition. Blue-green cells have chlorophyll, which provides autotrophic nutrition, but blue-greens can absorb ready-made organic substances from which they build their own macromolecular substances. There are three kingdoms within eukaryotes: fungi, plants, and animals. Mushrooms are heterotrophic organisms whose body is represented by the mycelium. A special group of fungi are lichens, where fungal symbionts are unicellular or blue-green algae.

Plants are primarily autotrophic organisms.

Animals are heterozygous eukaryotes.

Living organisms on Earth exist in the state of communities - biocenoses.

The very relation of viruses to organisms is debatable, since they cannot reproduce outside the cell and do not have a cellular structure. And yet, most biologists believe that viruses are the smallest living organisms.

The Russian botanist D.I. Ivanovsky is considered the discoverer of viruses, but only with the invention of the electron microscope did it become possible to study the structure of these mysterious structures. Viruses are very simple. The "core" of the virus is a DNA or RNA molecule. This "core" is surrounded by a protein shell. Some viruses develop a lipoprotein envelope that arises from the cytoplasmic membrane of the host cell.

Once inside the cell, viruses acquire the ability to reproduce themselves. At the same time, they “turn off” the host DNA and, using their nucleic acid, give the command to synthesize new copies of the virus. Viruses can "attack" the cells of all groups of organisms. Viruses that "attack" bacteria are given a special name - bacteriophages.

The importance of viruses in nature is associated with their ability to cause various diseases. This is the mosaic of leaves, influenza, smallpox, measles, polio, mumps and the "plague" of the twentieth century - AIDS.

The method of transmission of viruses is carried out by drop-liquid, by contact, with the help of carriers (fleas, rats, mice, etc.), through feces and food.

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS virus.

AIDS is an infectious disease caused by an RNA virus. The AIDS virus has a rod-shaped or oval or round shape. In the latter case, its diameter reaches 140 nm. The virus consists of RNA, a revartase enzyme, two types of proteins, two types of glycoproteins and lipids that form the outer membrane. The enzyme catalyzes the reaction of DNA strand synthesis on the viral RNA template in a virus-affected cell. The AIDS virus is expressed to T-lymphocytes.

The virus is unstable to the environment, sensitive to many antiseptics. The infectious activity of the virus is reduced by 1000 times when heated at a temperature of 56C for 30 minutes.

The disease is transmitted sexually or through blood. Infection with AIDS is usually fatal!

Fundamentals of Cytology.

Basic provisions of the cell theory.

The cage was discovered in the second half of the 17th century. The study of the cell developed especially strongly in the second half of the 19th century in connection with the creation of the cell theory. The cellular level of research has become the guiding principle of the most important biological disciplines. In biology, a new section has taken shape - cytology. The object of study of cytology is the cells of multicellular organisms, as well as organisms whose body is represented by a single cell. Cytology studies the structure, chemical composition, ways of their reproduction, adaptive properties.

The theoretical basis of cytology is the cellular theory. The cell theory was formulated in 1838 by T. Schwann, although the first two provisions of the cell theory belong to M. Schleiden, who studied plant cells. T. Schwann, a well-known specialist in the structure of animal cells, in 1838, based on the data of the works of M. Schleiden and the results of his own research, made the following conclusions:

The cell is the smallest structural unit of living organisms.

Cells are formed as a result of the activity of living organisms.

Animal and plant cells have more similarities than differences.

The cells of multicellular organisms are interconnected structurally and functionally.

Further study of the structure and life activity made it possible to learn a lot about it. This was facilitated by the perfection of microscopic techniques, research methods and the arrival of many talented researchers in cytology. The structure of the nucleus was studied in detail, a cytological analysis of such important biological processes as mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization was carried out. The microstructure of the cell itself became known. Cell organelles were discovered and described. The cytological research program of the 20th century set the task of elucidating and more accurately distinguishing the properties of the cell. Hence, special attention was paid to the study of the chemical composition of the cell and the mechanism by which the cell absorbs substances from the environment.

All these studies have made it possible to multiply and expand the provisions of the cell theory, the main postulates of which currently look like this:

The cell is the basic and structural unit of all living organisms.

Cells are formed only from cells as a result of division.

The cells of all organisms are similar in structure, chemical composition, and basic physiological functions.

The cells of multicellular organisms form a single functional complex.

Cells of higher plants and animals form functionally related groups - tissues; Organs that make up the body are formed from tissues.

Structural features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotes are the oldest organisms forming an independent kingdom. Prokaryotes include bacteria, blue-green "algae" and a number of other small groups.

Prokaryotic cells do not have a distinct nucleus. The genetic apparatus is presented. is made up of circular DNA. There are no mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus in the cell.

Eukaryotes are organisms that have a true nucleus. Eukaryolts include representatives of the plant kingdom, the animal kingdom, and the fungi kingdom.

Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells, divided into separate structural elements. DNA bound to a protein forms chromosomes, which are located in the nucleus, surrounded by a nuclear envelope and filled with karyoplasm. The division of eukaryotic cells into structural elements is carried out using biological membranes.

eukaryotic cells. Structure and functions.

Eukaryotes include plants, animals, fungi.

The structure of plant and fungal cells is discussed in detail in the botany section "Manuals for applicants to universities" Compiled by M. A. Galkin.

In this manual, we will point out the distinctive features of animal cells, based on one of the provisions of cell theory. "There are more similarities between plant and animal cells than differences."

Animal cells do not have a cell wall. It is represented by a naked protoplast. The boundary layer of an animal cell - the glycocalyx is the upper layer of the cytoplasmic membrane "reinforced" by polysaccharide molecules, which are part of the intercellular substance than in the cell.

Mitochondria have folded cristae.

Animal cells have a cell center consisting of two centrioles. This suggests that any animal cell is potentially capable of division.

Inclusion in an animal cell is presented in the form of grains and drops (proteins, fats, carbohydrate glycogen), end products of metabolism, salt crystals, pigments.

In animal cells, there may be contractile, digestive, excretory vacuoles of small sizes.

There are no plastids in the cells, inclusions in the form of starch grains, grains, large vacuoles filled with juice.

Cell division.

A cell is formed only from a cell as a result of division. Eukaryotic cells divide according to the type of mitosis or according to the type of meiosis. Both of these divisions proceed in three stages:

The division of plant cells according to the type of mitosis and according to the type of meiosis is described in detail in the "Botany" section of the manual for applicants to universities compiled by M. A. Galkin.

Here we indicate only the features of division for animal cells.

Features of division in animal cells are associated with the absence of a cell wall in them. When a cell divides according to the type of mitosis in cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells occurs already at the first stage. In plants, daughter cells take shape under the protection of the cell wall of the mother cell, which is destroyed only after the appearance of the primary cell wall in the daughter cells. When a cell divides according to the type of meiosis in animals, division occurs already in telophase 1. In plants, in telophase 1, the formation of a binuclear cell ends.

The formation of the spindle of division in telophase one is preceded by the divergence of centrioles to the poles of the cell. From the centrioles, the formation of spindle filaments begins. In plants, spindle filaments begin to form from pole clusters of microtubules.

Cell movement. Organelles of movement.

Living organisms consisting of one cell often have the ability to actively move. The mechanisms of movement that have arisen in the process of evolution are very diverse. The main forms of movement are - amoeboid and with the help of flagella. In addition, cells can move by secreting mucus or by moving the main substance of the cytoplasm.

The amoeboid movement got its name from the simplest organism - the amoeba. The organs of movement in the amoeba are false legs - pseudo-similarity, which are protrusions of the cytoplasm. They are formed in different places on the surface of the cytoplasm. They can disappear and reappear elsewhere.

Movement with the help of flagella is characteristic of many unicellular algae (for example, chlamydomonas), protozoa (for example, green euglena) and bacteria. The organs of movement in these organisms are flagella - cytoplasmic outgrowths on the surface of the cytoplasm.

The chemical composition of the cell.

The chemical composition of the cell is closely related to the features of the structure and functioning of this elementary and functional unit of the living.

As well as morphologically, the most common and universal for cells of representatives of all kingdoms is the chemical composition of the protoplast. The latter contains about 80% water, 10% organic matter and 1% salts. The leading role in the formation of the protoplast among them is primarily proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates.

According to the composition of chemical elements, the protoplast is extremely complex. It contains substances both with a small molecular weight and substances with a large molecule. 80% of the weight of the protoplast is made up of high molecular weight substances and only 30% is low molecular weight compounds. At the same time, for each macromolecule there are hundreds, and for each large macromolecule there are thousands and tens of thousands of molecules.

If we consider the content of chemical elements in the cell, then the first place should be given to oxygen (65-25%). Next come carbon (15-20%), hydrogen (8-10%) and nitrogen (2-3%). The number of other elements, and about a hundred of them were found in the cells, is much less. The composition of chemical elements in a cell depends both on the biological characteristics of the organism and on the habitat.

Inorganic substances and their role in the life of the cell.

The inorganic substances of the cell include water and salts. For life processes, of the cations that make up the salts, the most important are K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, NH, from the anions NO, HPO, HPO.

Ammonium and nitrate ions are reduced to plant cells to NH and are included in the synthesis of amino acids; In animals, amino acids are used to build their own proteins. When organisms die, they are included in the cycle of substances in the form of free nitrogen. They are part of proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids and ATP. If phosphorus-phosphates, being in the soil, are dissolved by the root secretions of plants and absorbed. They are part of all membrane structures, nucleic acids and ATP, enzymes, tissues.

Potassium is found in all cells in the form of K ions. The "potassium pump" of the cell promotes the penetration of substances through the cell membrane. It activates the vital processes of cells, excitations and impulses.

Calcium is found in cells in the form of ions or salt crystals. Included in the blood contributes to its coagulation. Included in the bones, shells, calcareous skeletons of coral polyps.

Magnesium is found in the form of ions in plant cells. Included in chlorophyll.

Iron ions are part of the hemoglobin contained in red blood cells, which provide oxygen transport.

Sodium ions are involved in the transport of substances across the membrane.

In the first place among the substances that make up the cell, is water. It is contained in the main substance of the cytoplasm, in the cell sap, in the karyoplasm, in organelles. Enters into reactions of synthesis, hydrolysis and oxidation. It is a universal solvent and a source of oxygen. Water provides turgor, regulates osmotic pressure. Finally, it is a medium for physiological and biochemical processes occurring in the cell. With the help of water, the transport of substances through the biological membrane, the process of thermoregulation, etc. is ensured.

Water with other components - organic and inorganic, high and low molecular weight - is involved in the formation of the protoplast structure.

Organic substances (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, ATP), their structure and role in the life of the cell.

The cell is the elementary structure in which all the main stages of biological metabolism are carried out and all the main chemical components of living matter are contained. 80% of the weight of the protoplast is made up of macromolecular substances - proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids.

Among the main components of protoplasm, the leading value belongs to the protein. The protein macromolecule has the most complex composition and structure, and is characterized by an extremely rich manifestation of chemical and physico-chemical properties. It contains one of the most important properties of living matter - biological specificity.

Amino acids are the main building blocks of a protein molecule. The molecules of most amino acids contain one carboxyl and one amine group each. Amino acids in a protein are interconnected through peptide bonds due to carboxyl and - amine groups, that is, a protein is a polymer, the monomer of which is amino acids. The proteins of living organisms are formed by twenty "golden" amino acids.

The set of peptide bonds that unites a chain of amino acid residues forms a peptide chain - a kind of backbone of polypeptide molecules.

In a protein macromolecule, several orders of structure are distinguished - primary, secondary, tertiary. The primary structure of a protein is determined by the sequence of amino acid residues. The secondary structure of polypeptide chains is a continuous or discontinuous helix. The spatial orientation of these helices or the combination of several polypeptides constitute a higher-order system - a tertiary structure characteristic of the molecules of many proteins. For large protein molecules, such structures are only subunits, the mutual spatial arrangement of which constitutes a quaternary structure.

Physiologically active proteins have a globular structure such as a coil or cylinder.

The amino acid sequence and structure determine the properties of the protein, and the properties determine the function. There are proteins that are insoluble in water, and there are proteins that are freely soluble in water. There are proteins soluble only in weak solutions of alkali or 60-80% alcohol. Proteins also differ in molecular weight, and hence in the size of the polypeptide chain. A protein molecule under the influence of certain factors is able to break or unwind. This phenomenon is called denaturation. The process of denaturation is reversible, i.e. the protein is able to change its properties.

The functions of proteins in the cell are varied. These are, first of all, building functions - the protein is part of the membranes. Proteins act as catalysts. They speed up reactions. Cellular catalysts are called enzymes. Proteins also perform a transport function. A prime example is hemoglobin, an oxygen-carrying agent. The protective function of proteins is known. Recall the formation in cells of substances that bind and neutralize substances that can harm the cell. Although insignificantly, proteins perform an energy function. Breaking down into amino acids, they release energy.

About 1% of the dry matter of the cell is carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are divided into simple sugars, low molecular weight carbohydrates and high molecular weight sugars. All types of carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

Simple sugars, or monoses, are divided into pentoses and heptoses according to the number of carbon units in the molecule. Of the low molecular weight carbohydrates in nature, sucrose, maltose, and lactose are the most widespread. High molecular weight carbohydrates are divided into simple and complex. Simple are polysaccharides, the molecules of which consist of residues of any one monose. These are starch, glycogen, cellulose. Complex ones include pectin, mucus. The composition of complex carbohydrates, in addition to monoses, includes the products of their oxidation and reduction.

Carbohydrates perform a building function, forming the basis of the cell wall. But the main function of carbohydrates is energy. When complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple ones, and simple ones into carbon dioxide and water, a significant amount of energy is released.

All animal and plant cells contain lipids. Lipids include substances of various chemical nature, but having common physical and chemical properties, namely: Insolubility in water and good solubility in organic solvents - ether, benzene, gasoline, chloroform.

According to their chemical composition and structure, lipids are divided into phospholipids, sulfolipids, sterols, fat-soluble pigments, fats and waxes. Lipid molecules are rich in hydrophobic radicals and groups.

The building function of lipids is great. The bulk of biological membranes consists of lipids. During the breakdown of fats, a large amount of energy is released. Lipids include some vitamins (A, D). Lipids perform a protective function in animals. They are deposited under the skin, creating a layer with low thermal conductivity. The camel's fat is the source of water. One kilogram of fat oxidizes to give one kilogram of water.

Nucleic acids, like proteins, play a leading role in the metabolism and molecular organization of living matter. They are associated with protein synthesis, cell growth and division, the formation of cellular structures, and, consequently, the formation and heredity of the body.

Nucleic acids contain three basic building blocks: phosphoric acid, a pentose-type carbohydrate, and nitrogenous bases; when combined, they form nucleotides. Nucleic acids are polynucleotides, i.e. polymerization products of a large number of nucleotides. In nucleotides, structural elements are connected in the following sequence: phosphoric acid - pentose - nitrogenous base. At the same time, pentose is connected with phosphoric acid by an ether bond, and with a base - by a glucosidic bond. The connection between the nucleotides in the nucleic acid is carried out through phosphoric acid, the free radicals of which cause the acidic properties of nucleic acids.

In nature, there are two types of nucleic acids - ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic (RNA and DNA). They differ in the carbon component and the set of nitrogenous bases.

RNA contains ribose as a carbon component, DNA contains deoxyribose.

The nitrogenous bases of nucleic acids are derivatives of purine and pyramidin. The former include adenine and guanine, which are essential components of nucleic acids. Pyramidine derivatives are cytosine, thymine, uracil. Of these, only cytosine is required for both nucleic acids. As for thymine and uracil, the former is characteristic of DNA, the latter of RNA. Depending on the presence of a nitrogenous base, nucleotides are called adenine, cytosyl, guanine, thymine, uracil.

The structural structure of nucleic acids became known after the greatest discovery made in 1953 by Watson and Crick.

The DNA molecule consists of two helical polynucleotide chains twisted around a common axis. These chains face each other with nitrogenous bases. The latter hold both chains together throughout the molecule. Only two combinations are possible in a DNA molecule: adenine with thymine, and guanine with cytosine. Along the helix, two "grooves" are formed in the macromolecule - one small one is located between two polynucleotide chains, the other - a large one represents an opening between the turns. The distance between base pairs along the axis of the DNA molecule is 3.4 A. 10 pairs of nucleotides fit into one turn of the helix, respectively, the length of one turn is 3.4 A. The cross-sectional diameter of the helix is ​​20 A. DNA in eukaryotes is contained in the cell nucleus, where is part of the chromosomes, and in the cytoplasm, where it is found in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

A special property of DNA is its ability to duplicate itself - this process of self-reproduction will determine the transfer of hereditary properties from the mother cell to the daughter ones.

The synthesis of DNA is preceded by the transition of its structure from double-stranded to single-stranded. After that, on each polynucleotide chain, as a new polynucleotide chain is formed on the matrix, the nucleotide sequence in which corresponds to the original one, such a sequence is determined by the principle of base complementarity. Against each A stands T, against C - G.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymer whose monomers are ribonucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil.

Currently, there are three types of RNA - structural, soluble or transport, informational. Structural RNA is found mainly in ribosomes. Therefore, it is called ribosomal RNA. It makes up to 80% of all cell RNA. Transfer RNA consists of 80-80 nucleotides. It is found in the main substance of the cytoplasm. It makes up approximately 10-15% of all RNA. It plays the role of a carrier of amino acids to the ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place. Messenger RNA is not very homogeneous; it can have a molecular weight of 300,000 to 2 million or more and is extremely metabolically active. Messenger RNA is continuously formed in the nucleus on DNA, which plays the role of a template, and is sent to ribosomes where it participates in protein synthesis. In this regard, messenger RNA is called messenger RNA. It is 10-5% of the total amount of RNA.

Among the organic substances of the cell, adenine triphosphoric acid occupies a special place. It contains three known components: the nitrogenous base adenine, carbohydrate (ribose), and phosphoric acid. A feature of the structure of ATP is the presence of two additional phosphate groups attached to the already existing phosphoric acid residue, resulting in the formation of energy-rich bonds. Such connections are called macroenergetic. One macroenergy bond in a gram-molecule of a substance contains up to 16,000 calories. ATP and ADP are formed during respiration due to the energy released during the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, etc. The reverse process, i.e. the transition from ATP to ADP, is accompanied by the release of energy, which is directly used in certain life processes - in synthesis substances, in the movement of the basic substance of the cytoplasm, in the conduction of excitations, etc. ATP is a single and universal source of energy supplying the cell. As it has become known in recent years, ATP, and ADP, AMP are the starting material for the formation of nucleic acids.

Regulatory and signaling substances.

Proteins have a number of remarkable properties.

Enzymes. Most of the reactions of assimilation and dissimilation in the body occur with the participation of enzymes - proteins that are biological catalysts. Currently, the existence of about 700 enzymes is known. All of them are simple or complex proteins. The latter are composed of protein and coenzyme. Coenzymes are various physiologically active substances or their derivatives - nucleotides, flavins, etc.

Enzymes are characterized by extremely high activity, which largely depends on the pH of the medium. For enzymes, their specificity is most characteristic. Each enzyme is able to regulate only a strictly defined type of reaction.

Thus, enzymes act as accelerators and regulators of almost all biochemical processes in the cell and in the body.

Hormones are the secrets of the endocrine glands. Hormones ensure the synthesis of certain enzymes in the cell, activate or inhibit their work. Thus, they accelerate the growth of the body and cell division, enhance muscle function, regulate the absorption and excretion of water and salts. The hormonal system, together with the nervous system, ensures the activity of the body as a whole, through the special action of hormones.

Vitamins. Their biological role.

Vitamins are organic substances produced in the animal body or supplied with food in very small quantities, but absolutely necessary for normal metabolism. The lack of vitamins leads to the disease of hypo- and avitaminosis.

Currently, more than 20 vitamins are known. These are vitamins of group B, vitamins E, A, K, C, PP, etc.

The biological role of vitamins lies in the fact that in their absence or deficiency, the work of certain enzymes is disrupted, biochemical reactions and normal cell activity are disrupted.

Biosynthesis of proteins. Genetic code.

The biosynthesis of proteins, or rather polypeptide chains, is carried out on ribosomes, but this is only the final stage of a complex process.

Information about the structure of the polypeptide chain is contained in DNA. A segment of DNA that carries information about a polypeptide chain is a gene. When this became known, it became clear that the nucleotide sequence of DNA must determine the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain. This relationship between bases and amino acids is known as the genetic code. As you know, the DNA molecule is built from four types of nucleotides, which include one of the four bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), cytosine (C). Nucleotides are connected in a polynucleotide chain. With this four-letter alphabet, instructions are written for the synthesis of a potentially infinite number of protein molecules. If one base determined the position of one amino acid, then the chain would contain only four amino acids. If each amino acid were encoded by two bases, then 16 amino acids could be encoded using such a code. Only a code consisting of base triplets (a triplet code) can ensure that all 20 amino acids are included in the polypeptide chain. This code includes 64 different triplets. Currently, the genetic code is known for all 20 amino acids.

The main features of the genetic code can be formulated as follows.

The code that determines the inclusion of an amino acid in a polypeptide chain is a triplet of bases in the DNA polypeptide chain.

The code is universal: the same triplets encode the same amino acids in different microorganisms.

The code is degenerate: a given amino acid can be coded for by more than one triplet. For example, the amino acid leucine is encoded by the triplets GAA, GAG, GAT, GAC.

Overlapping code: for example, the nucleotide sequence AAACAATTA is read only as AAA/CAA/TTA. It should be noted that there are triplets that do not code for an amino acid. The function of some of these triplets has been established. These are start codons, reset codons, etc. The functions of others require decoding.

The base sequence in one gene, which carries information about the polypeptide chain, “is rewritten in its complementary base sequence of informational or messenger RNA. This process is called transcription. The I-RNA molecule is formed as a result of free ribonucleotides binding to each other under the action of RNA polymerase in accordance with the rules of DNA and RNA base pairing (A-U, G-C, T-A, C-G). Synthesized I-RNA molecules carrying genetic information leave the nucleus and go to the ribosomes. Here a process called translation takes place - the sequence of triplets of bases in the I-RNA molecule is translated into a specific sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

Several ribosomes are attached to the end of the DNA molecule, forming a polysome. This entire structure is a series of connected ribosomes. At the same time, on one I-RNA molecule, the synthesis of several polypeptide chains can be carried out. Each ribosome is made up of two subunits, a small and a large one. I-RNA Attaches to the surface of the small subunit in the presence of magnesium ions. In this case, its first two translated codons turn out to be facing the large subunit of the ribosome. The first codon binds a t_RNA molecule containing a complementary anticodon and carrying the first amino acid of the synthesized polypeptide. The second anticodon then attaches an amino acid-tRNA complex containing an anticodon complementary to this codon.

The function of the ribosome is to hold the i-RNA, t-RNA and protein factors involved in the translation process in the right position until a peptide bond is formed between adjacent amino acids.

As soon as a new amino acid has joined the growing polypeptide chain, the ribosome moves along the mRNA strand in order to put the next codon in its proper place. The t-RNA molecule, which was previously associated with the polypeptide chain, now freed from the amino acid, leaves the ribosome and returns to the main substance of the cytoplasm to form a new amino acid-t-RNA complex. This sequential "reading" by the ribosome of the "text" contained in the mRNA continues until the process reaches one of the stop codons. Such codons are triplets UAA, UAG or UGA. At this stage, the polypeptide chain, the primary structure of which was encoded in the DNA region - the gene, leaves the ribosome and translation is completed.

After the polypeptide chains have separated from the ribosome, they can acquire their own secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the entire process of protein synthesis in the cell occurs with the participation of enzymes. They provide the synthesis of i-RNA, the "capture" of t-RNA amino acids, the connection of amino acids into a polypeptide chain, the formation of a secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure. It is because of the participation of enzymes that protein synthesis is called biosynthesis. To ensure all stages of protein synthesis, the energy released during the breakdown of ATP is used.

Regulation of transcription and translation (protein synthesis) in bacteria and higher organisms.

Each cell contains a complete set of DNA molecules. With information about the structure of all polypeptide chains that can only be synthesized in a given organism. However, only a part of this information is realized in a certain cell. How is the regulation of this process carried out?

Currently, only individual mechanisms of protein synthesis have been elucidated. Most enzyme proteins are formed only in the presence of substrate substances on which they act. The structure of the enzyme protein is encoded in the corresponding gene (structural gene). Next to the structural gene is another operator gene. In addition, a special substance is present in the cell - a repressor that can interact both with the operator gene and with the substrate substance. Synthesis of the repressor is regulated by a regulator gene.

By joining the operator gene, the repressor interferes with the normal functioning of the adjacent structural gene. However, after binding to a substrate, the repressor loses its ability to bind to the operator gene and prevent mRNA synthesis. The formation of the repressors themselves is controlled by special regulatory genes, the functioning of which is controlled by second-order repressors. That is why not all, but only specific cells react to a given substrate by synthesizing the corresponding enzyme.

However, the hierarchy of repressor mechanisms does not stop there, there are repressors of higher orders, which indicates the amazing complexity of the gene in the cell associated with the launch.

The reading of the “text” contained in the i-RNA stops when this process reaches the stop codon.

Autotrophic (autotrophic) and heterotrophic organisms.

Autotrophic organisms synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances using the energy of the Sun or the energy released during chemical reactions. The first are called heliotrophs, the second - chemotrophs. Autotrophic organisms include plants and some bacteria.

In nature, there is also a mixed type of nutrition, which is characteristic of some bacteria, algae and protozoa. Such organisms can synthesize the organic substances of their body from ready-made organic substances and from inorganic ones.

The volume of substances in the cell.

The volume of substances is a process of consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation, loss of substances and energy that allows the cell to self-preserve, grow, develop and multiply. Metabolism consists of continuous processes of assimilation and dissimilation.

Plastic exchange in the cell.

Plastic metabolism in a cell is a set of assimilation reactions, i.e., the transformation of certain substances inside the cell from the moment they enter to the formation of final products - proteins, glucose, fats, etc. Each group of living organisms is characterized by a special, genetically fixed type of plastic metabolism.

Plastic metabolism in animals. Animals are heterotrophic organisms, that is, they feed on food containing ready-made organic substances. In the intestinal tract or intestinal cavity, they are broken down: proteins to amino acids, carbohydrates to monoses, fats to fatty acids and glycerol. The cleavage products penetrate into the bloodstream and directly into the cells of the body. In the first case, the cleavage products again end up in the cells of the body. In cells, substances are synthesized that are already characteristic of a given cell, i.e., a specific set of substances is formed. Of the reactions of plastic exchange, the simplest are the reactions that provide the synthesis of proteins. Protein synthesis occurs on ribosomes, according to information about the structure of the protein contained in DNA, from amino acids that enter the cell. The synthesis of di-, polysaccharides comes from monoses in the Golgi apparatus. Fats are synthesized from glycerol and fatty acids. All synthesis reactions take place with the participation of enzymes and require the expenditure of energy; ATP provides energy for assimilation reactions.

Plastic metabolism in plant cells has much in common with plastic metabolism in animal cells, but has a certain specificity associated with the method of plant nutrition. Plants are autotrophic organisms. Plant cells containing chloroplasts are able to synthesize organic substances from simple inorganic compounds using light energy. This process, known as photosynthesis, allows plants to produce one molecule of glucose and six molecules of oxygen using chlorophyll from six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water. In the future, the conversion of glucose follows the path known to us.

Metabolites arising in plants in the process of metabolism give rise to the constituent elements of proteins - amino acids and fats - glycerol and fatty acids. Protein synthesis in plants goes like animals on ribosomes, and fat synthesis on the cytoplasm. All reactions of plastic metabolism in plants take place with the participation of enzymes and ATP. As a result of plastic metabolism, substances are formed that ensure the growth and development of the cell.

Energy metabolism in the cell and its essence.

The set of dissimilation reactions accompanied by the release of energy is called energy metabolism. The most energy substances are proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

Energy metabolism begins with the manufacturing stage, when proteins break down into amino acids, fats into glycerol and fatty acids, polysaccharides into monosaccharides. The energy generated at this stage is negligible and is dissipated in the form of heat. Of the resulting substances, the main supplier of energy is glucose. The breakdown of glucose in the cell, resulting in the synthesis of ATP, occurs in two stages. It all starts with oxygen-free splitting - glycolysis. The second stage is called oxygen splitting.

Glycolysis is the name given to the sequence of reactions in which one molecule of glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvic acid. These reactions take place in the ground substance of the cytoplasm and do not require the presence of oxygen. The process takes place in two stages. At the first stage, glucose is converted into fructose -1,6,-bisphosphate, and at the second stage, the latter is split into two three-carbon sugars, which are later converted into pyruvic acid. At the same time, two ATP molecules are consumed in the first stage in phosphorylation reactions. Thus, the net yield of ATP during glycolysis is two ATP molecules. In addition, four hydrogen atoms are released during glycolysis .. The total reaction of glycolysis can be written as follows:

CHO 2CHO + 4H + 2 ATP

Later, in the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid passes into mitochondria for complete oxidation to CO and water (aerobic respiration). If there is no oxygen, then it turns into either ethanol or lactic acid (anaerobic respiration).

Oxygen breakdown (aerobic respiration) occurs in mitochondria, where, under the action of enzymes, pyruvic acid reacts with water and completely decomposes to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms. Carbon dioxide is removed from the cell. Hydrogen atoms enter the mitochondrial membrane, where they are oxidized as a result of the enzymatic process. Electrons and hydrogen cations are transported to opposite sides of the membrane with the help of carrier molecules: electrons to the inside, protons to the outside. Electrons combine with oxygen. As a result of these rearrangements, the membrane is charged positively from the outside, and negatively from the inside. When a critical level of potential difference across the membrane is reached, positively charged particles are pushed through a channel in the enzyme molecule built into the membrane to the inner side of the membrane, where they combine with oxygen to form water.

The process of oxygen respiration can be represented as the following level:

2CHO + 6O + 36ADP + 36HPO 36ATP + 6CO + 42NO.

And the total equation of glycolysis and the oxygen process looks like this:

CHO + 6O + 38ADP + 38HPO 38ATP + 6CO + 44HO

Thus, the breakdown of one molecule of glucose in the cell to carbon dioxide and water ensures the synthesis of 38 ATP molecules.

This means that in the process of energy metabolism, ATP is formed - the universal source of energy in the cell.

Chemosynthesis.

Each organism needs a constant supply of energy to maintain life and carry out the processes that make up the metabolism.

The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from carbon dioxide due to the energy obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (ammonia, hydrogen, sulfur compounds, ferrous iron) is called chemosynthesis.

Depending on the mineral compounds, as a result of the oxidation of which microorganisms, and these are mainly bacteria, are able to obtain energy, chemoautotrophs are divided into nitrifying, hydrogen, sulfur bacteria, and iron bacteria.

Nitrophytic bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitric acid. This process takes place in two phases. First, ammonia is oxidized to nitric acid:

2NH + 3O = 2HNO + 2HO + 660 kJ.

Nitrous acid is then converted to nitric acid:

2HNO + O = 2HNO + 158 kJ.

In total, 818 kJ are released, which are used to utilize carbon dioxide.

In iron bacteria, the oxidation of ferrous iron occurs according to the equation

Since the reaction is accompanied by a low energy yield (46.2*10 J/g of oxidized iron), bacteria have to oxidize a large amount of iron in order to maintain growth.

During the oxidation of one molecule of hydrogen sulfide, 17.2 * 10 J is released, one molecule of sulfur - 49.8 * 10 J., and one molecule - 88.6 * 10 J.

The process of chemosynthesis was discovered in 1887 by S.N. Vinogradsky. This discovery not only shed light on the peculiarities of metabolism in bacteria, but also made it possible to determine the significance of bacteria - chemoautotrophs. This is especially true of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which convert nitrogen inaccessible to plants into ammonia, thereby increasing soil fertility. The process of participation of bacteria in the cycle of substances in nature has also become clear.

reproduction of organisms.

Forms of reproduction of organisms.

The ability to reproduce, i.e. produce a new generation of the same species, one of the main features of living organisms.

There are two main types of reproduction - asexual and sexual.

Asexual reproduction.

In asexual reproduction, offspring come from a single organism. Identical offspring from the same parent is called a clone. Members of the same clone can be genetically different only if random mutations occur. Asexual reproduction does not occur only in higher animals. However, it is known that cloning has been successfully carried out for some species and higher animals - frogs, sheep, cows.

In the scientific literature, several forms of asexual reproduction are distinguished.

Division. Single-celled organisms reproduce by division: each individual divides into two or more daughter cells, identical to the parent cell. This is how bacteria, amoeba, euglena, chlamydomonas, etc.

Dispute formation. A spore is a single-celled reproductive structure. The formation of spores is characteristic of all plants and fungi.

Budding. Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual is formed as an outgrowth on the body of the parent individual, and then separates from the non and turns into an independent organism. Budding occurs in coelenterates and in yeasts.

Reproduction by fragments. Fragmentation is the division of an individual into several parts, which grows and forms a new individual. This is how spirogyra, lichens and some types of worms reproduce.

vegetative reproduction. This is a form of asexual reproduction in which a relatively large, usually differentiated part is separated from the plant and develops into an independent plant. This is propagation by bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, etc. Vegetative propagation is described in detail in the Botany section. (Botany. A guide for applicants to universities. Compiled by M. A. Galkin).

Sexual reproduction.

During sexual reproduction, the offspring is obtained as a result of sexual reproduction - the fusion of the genetic material of the haploid nuclei. The nuclei are located in specialized sex cells - gametes. Gametes are haploid - they contain one set of chromosomes obtained as a result of meiosis; they serve as a link between this generation and the next. Gametes can be the same in size and shape, with or without flagella, but more often male gametes differ from female ones. Female gametes - eggs are usually larger than male, have a rounded shape and usually do not have locomotor organs. In eggs, elements of the protoplast are also clearly distinguished, as well as the nucleus. The main substance of the cytoplasm accumulates a large amount of nutrients. Male gametes have a much simplified structure. They are mobile, i.e. have flagella. These are spermatozoa. There are also sperm without flagella.

Sexual reproduction is of great biological importance. During meiosis, when gametes are formed, as a result of random divergence of chromosomes and the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, new combinations of genes that fall into one gamete arise, which increases genetic diversity.

During fertilization, the gametes merge, forming a diploid zygote - a cell containing one chromosome set from each gamete. This association of two sets of chromosomes is the genetic basis of intraspecific variability.

Parthenogenesis.

One of the forms of sexual reproduction is parthenogenesis - in which the development of the embryo occurs from an unfertilized egg. Parthenogenesis is common among insects (aphids, bees), various rotifers, protozoa, as an exception, it occurs in some lizards.

There are two types of parthenogenesis - haploid and diploid. In ants, as a result of haploid parthenogenesis within the community, various castes of organisms arise - soldiers, cleaners, etc. In bees, drones appear from an unfertilized egg, in which spermatozoa are formed by mitosis. Aphids undergo diploid parthenogenesis. In them, during the period of cell formation in anaphase, homologous chromosomes do not diverge - and the egg itself turns out to be diploid with three "sterile" polar bodies. In plants, parthenogenesis is a rather typical phenomenon. Here it is called apomixis. As a result of "stimulation" in the egg, chromosome doubling occurs. A normal embryo develops from a diploid cell.

Systematics of plants.

Systematics studies the diversity of plants. The object of study of systematics are systematic categories. The main systematic categories are: species, genus, family, class, department, kingdom.

A species is a set of populations of individuals capable of interbreeding under natural conditions and forming fertile offspring. A genus is a collection of closely related species. A family is a collection of closely related genera. The class unites closely related families, the department - closely related classes. In this case, plants act as a kingdom.

The scientific names of all systematic categories are given in Latin. The names of systematic categories above the species consist of one word. Since 1753, thanks to C. Linnaeus, binary names have been adopted for species. The first word denotes the species, the second is the species epithet. The names of systematic categories in Russian are rarely translated from Latin, more often these are original names born among the people.

The formation of germ cells in humans. The structure of human germ cells. Fertilization in humans. The biological significance of fertilization.

Spermatozoa - male sex cells are formed as a result of a series of successive cell divisions - spermatogenesis, followed by a complex process of differentiation called spermiogenesis.

First, cell division of the embryonic epithelium, which is located in the seminiferous tubules, gives rise to spermatogonia, which increase in size and become spermatocytes of the first order. As a result of the first division of meiosis, they form diploid spermatocytes of the second order; after the second division of meiosis, they give rise to spermatozoa. An adult spermatozoon consists of a head, an intermediate section and a flagellum (tail). The head consists of an acrosome and a nucleus surrounded by a membrane. The neck has a centriole. Mitochondria are located in the intermediate section.

The formation of an egg in humans - oogenesis proceeds in several stages. At the first stage, as a result of metotic division, oogonia are formed from the cells of the rudimentary epithelium. Oogonia divide according to the type of mitosis and give rise to first-order oocytes. Oocytes and polar bodies are formed from first-order oocytes as a result of mitotic division.

Fertilization in humans is internal. As a result of the penetration of the sperm into the egg, the nuclei of the germ cells merge. A zygote is formed.

As a result of fertilization, the diploid set of chromosomes is restored, a new organism is formed, bearing the signs of mother and father. During the formation of germ cells, gene recombination occurs, so the new organism combines the best features of the parents.

Individual development of the organism - ontogeny.

Ontogeny is the period of development of the organism from the first division of the zygote to natural death.

The development of the embryo (on the example of animals).

Regardless of where the development of the embryo occurs, the beginning of its development is associated with the first mitotic division. Following nuclear division, cytokinesis leads to the formation of two diploid daughter cells, which are called blastomeres. Blastomeres continue to divide according to the type of mitosis, with longitudinal division alternating with transverse division. The division of the blastomere is called crushing, because during this process no cell growth occurs, and the resulting lump of cells - the morula is equal in volume to two primary blastomeres. Further development of the embryo is associated with the formation of the blastula. In this case, blastomeres form a single-layer wall around the central cavity filled with liquid. The cells of the blastula wall in one of the areas begin to divide and form an inner cell mass. Subsequently, the inner layer of the wall is formed from this cell mass, thus the ectoderm is separated - the outer layer and the endoderm - the inner layer of cells. This two-layer stage of development is called the gastrula. At a later stage of development of the embryo, the mesoderm is formed - the third germ layer. The ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm give rise to all tissues of the developing embryo. The ectoderm cells give rise to the first lamina, the first ridge, and the ectoblast. Along the edge of the first plate, folds directed upwards appear, and in the central part there is a neural groove, which deepens and turns into a neural tube - the rudiment of the central nervous system. From the anterior part of the neural tube, the brain and the rudiments of the eyes form. In the anterior part of the embryo, the rudiments of the organs of hearing and smell are formed from the ectoblast. The epiblast gives rise to the epidermis, hair, feathers, and scales. The neural crest is transformed into the rudiments of the nervous substance of the spine, jaws. From the ectoderm, the primary intestine, internal epithelium, rudiments of glands, etc. The mesoderm gives rise to the notochord, somites, mezechyme and nephrotomes. From the somites, the rudiments of the dermis, muscles of the body walls, vertebrae, and skeletal muscles develop. From the mesenchyme, the rudiments of the heart, smooth muscles, blood vessels and blood itself. Nephrotomes give rise to the uterus, adrenal cortex, ureters, etc.

During the development of derivative germ layers, the appearance of the embryo changes. It acquires a certain shape, reaches a certain size. The development of the embryo ends with hatching from the egg or the birth of a cub.

Postembryonic development.

From the moment the embryo hatches from the egg or the birth of the cub, post-embryonic development begins. It can be direct, when the born organism is similar in structure to an adult, and indirect, when embryonic development leads to the development of a larva, which has morphological, anatomical and physiological differences from an adult. Direct development is characteristic of most vertebrates, which include reptiles, birds, and mammals. The postembryonic development of these organisms is associated with simple growth, which already leads to qualitative changes - development.

Animals with indirect development include coelenterates, flukes, tapeworms, crustaceans, insects, molluscs, echinoderms, tunicates, amphibians.

Indirect development is also called development with metamorphosis. The term "metamorphosis" refers to the rapid changes that occur from the larval stage to the adult form. Larvae usually serve as a dispersal stage, i.e., they ensure the spread of the species.

The larvae differ from the adult in their habitat, feeding biology, mode of locomotion, and behavioral features; due to this, the species can use the opportunities presented by two ecological types during ontogeny, which increases its chances of survival. Many species, such as dragonflies, feed and grow only in the larval stage. The larvae play the role of a kind of transitional stage, during which the species can adapt to new living conditions. In addition, the larvae sometimes have physiological endurance, due to which they act as a resting stage under unfavorable conditions. For example, the May beetle overwinters in the soil in the form of a larva. But in most cases, in insects, this occurs at another stage of metamorphosis - at the pupal stage.

Finally, the larval stages sometimes have the advantage that an increase in the number of larvae is possible at these stages. As it happens in some flatworms.

It should be noted that in many cases the larvae reach a very high organization, as, for example, insect larvae, in which only the reproductive organs remain underdeveloped.

Thus, the structural and functional changes that occur during metamorphosis prepare an organism for adult life in a new habitat.

The biological clock. Self-regulation. The influence of various factors on the development of the organism. Adaptation of the body to changing conditions, Anabiosis.

At all stages of development - the stage of the embryo, the stage of postembryonic development, the body is influenced by environmental factors - temperature, humidity, light, food resources, etc.

The body is especially susceptible to the influence of environmental factors at the stage of the embryo and at the stage of postembryonic development. In the fetal stage, when the organism develops in the mother's body and is connected to her by the circulatory system, the behavior of the mother is decisive in its normal development. The mother smokes, the fetus “smokes” too. The mother drinks alcohol, "drinks alcohol" and the fetus. The embryo is especially susceptible to the influence in 1-3 months of its development. A normal lifestyle in postembryonic development allows the organism to exist normally until natural death. An organism is genotypically adapted to exist in a certain range of temperatures, humidity, salinity, and illumination. He needs a certain diet.

Walrusism, hiking through the Antarctic, space flights, starvation, gluttony will certainly lead to the development of a number of diseases.

A healthy lifestyle is the key to longevity.

All biological systems are characterized by a greater or lesser capacity for self-regulation. Self-regulation - the state of dynamic constancy of the natural system is aimed at the maximum limitation of the effects of the external and internal environment, maintaining the relative constancy of the structure and functions of the body.

In addition, the influence of various factors on the body is smoothed out as a result of the formation of a complex system of physiological reactions in organisms to temporary - seasonal and, in particular, short-term - daily changes in environmental factors, which are displayed in the biological clock. An example is the clear preservation of flowering in plants at certain times of the day.

A special type of adaptation of the body to changing conditions is anabiosis - a temporary state of the body, in which life processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are practically absent. The ability to fall into anabiosis contributes to the survival of organisms in sharply unfavorable conditions. Anabiosis is common in fungi, microorganisms, plants, and animals. When favorable conditions occur, organisms that have fallen into anabiosis return to active life. Let us recall dried rotifers, cysts, spores, etc.

All adaptations of organisms to changing conditions are the product of natural selection. Natural selection also determined the amplitude of the action of environmental factors, which allows the organism to exist normally.

Evolutionary process and its regularities.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin.

The emergence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, set out in his book "The Origin of Species", was preceded by a long development of biology, its functional and applied disciplines. Long before Charles Darwin, attempts were made to explain the apparent diversity of organisms. Various evolutionary hypotheses were put forward that could explain the similarities between animal organisms. Here we should mention Aristotle, who in the 4th century BC. e. He formulated the theory of the continuous and gradual development of living things from inanimate matter, created an idea of ​​the ladder of nature. In the late 18th century, John Ray created the concept of species. And in 1771-78. K. Linnaeus has already proposed a system of plant species. Biology owes its further development to this scientist.

Works of K. Linnaeus.

During the heyday of K. Linnaeus, which falls in the middle of the 18th century, biology was dominated by a metaphysical concept of nature, based on immutability and primordial expediency.

C. Linnaeus had huge collections of plants at hand and began to systematize them. Based on the teachings of D. Ray about the species, he began to group plants in the volume of this category. During this period of activity, K. Linnaeus creates the language of botany: he defines the essence of a trait and groups the traits into properties, creating end-to-end diagnoses - a description of species. K. Linnaeus legalized the binary nomenclature of the species. Each species began to be called by two words in Latin. The first denotes a generic affiliation, the second is a species epithet. Descriptions of species were also written in Latin. This made it possible to make available all descriptions for scientists of all countries, since the Latin language was studied at all universities. An outstanding achievement of K. Linnaeus was the creation of a system of plants and the development of systematic categories. Based on the structure of the reproductive organs, K. Linnaeus combined all known plants into classes. The first 12 classes were distinguished by the number of stamens: class 1 - single stamens, class 2 - two stamens, etc. Plants without flowers were included in class 14. These plants he called mystogamous. K. Linnaeus divided the classes into families, based on the structure of the flower and other organs. From K. Linnaeus come families like Compositae, Umbelliferae, Cruciferae, etc. K. Linnaeus divided the families into genera. K. Linnaeus considered the genus to be a real-life category created separately by the creator. He considered species to be variants of genera that developed from the original ancestor. Thus, at the lower levels, K. Linnaeus recognized the existence of an evolutionary process, which at present remains unnoticed by some authors of textbooks and popular science publications.

The significance of the works of K. Linnaeus is enormous: He legitimized the binary nomenclature, introduced standard descriptions of species, proposed a system of taxonomic units: species, genus, family, class, order. And most importantly, he created systems of plants and animals, in their scientific validity, surpassing all systems that existed before him. They are called artificial, because of the small number of features used, but it was the systems of K. Linnaeus that made it possible to talk about the diversity of species and their similarities. The simplicity of the systems attracted many researchers to biology, gave impetus to the description of new species, and brought biology to a new stage of development. Biology began to explain the living, but not only to describe it.

The theory of evolution of J. B. Lamarck.

In 1809, the French biologist J.B. Lamarck published the book Philosophy of Zoology, which outlines the mechanism of evolution of the organic world. Lamarck's evolutionary theory was based on two laws, which are known as the law of exercise and non-exercise of organs and the law of inheritance of acquired characteristics. For Lamarck, these laws sound like this. First law. “In every animal that has not reached the limit of its development, the more frequent and unimpaired use of some organ strengthens this organ, develops it, increases and imparts strength to it, in proportion to the duration of the use itself, while the constant non-use of the organ imperceptibly weakens it, leads to decline, progressively diminishes his abilities, and finally causes his disappearance." Second law. “Everything that nature has forced to gain or lose, it preserves by breeding on other individuals.” Thus, the essence of Lamarck's theory is that under the influence of the environment, organisms experience changes that are inherited. Since changes are individual in nature, the process of evolution leads to a variety of organisms. A classic example of Lamarck's mechanism of evolution is the emergence of a long neck in a giraffe. Many generations of his short-necked ancestors fed on the leaves of trees, for which they had to reach higher and higher. The slight elongation of the neck that occurred in each generation was passed on to the next generation until that part of the body reached its current length.

Lamarck's theory played a significant role in the development of Charles Darwin's views. In fact, the link "environment - variability - heredity" Darwin took from Lamarck. Lamarck found the cause of variability. The reason is the environment. He also tried to combine the transmission of changes to offspring, that is, the mechanisms of heredity. His theory of "germ plasm continuity" persisted until the end of the 19th century.

With its enormous significance and ease of perception, Lamarck's theory of evolution has not received wide recognition. What is the reason for this. Lamarck suggested that man descended from some kind of four-armed. For this he was under Napoleon, who ordered the destruction of his book. Lamarck denied the real existence of the species, which turned against himself the admirers of Linnaeus, which included most of the biologists of the early 19th century. And finally, his main methodological error: "all acquired traits are inherited." Verification of this provision did not give 100% confirmation, and hence the whole theory was questioned. And yet, the significance of the theory of J.B. Lamarck is huge. It was he who coined the term - "factors of evolution". And these factors had a material basis.

An undoubted imprint on the worldview of C. Darwin was made by the works of J. Cuvier on fossil remains and C. Lyell, who demonstrated progressive changes in fossil remains.

Traveling around the world on the ship "Bill", Charles Darwin himself was able to see and appreciate the diversity of plants and animals living on different continents in different conditions. And living in England - a country with a well-developed agriculture, a country that brought to the island everything that was in the world, Charles Darwin could see the results of "evolutionary" human activity.

And of course, the most important prerequisite for the emergence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin was Charles Darwin himself, whose genius was able to embrace, analyze all the vast material and create a theory that laid the foundations of Darwinism - the doctrine of the evolution of living organisms.

The main provisions of the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin.

The theory of evolution by natural selection was formulated by Charles Darwin in 1839. Ch. Darwin's evolutionary views are presented in full in the book "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life".

The very title of the book suggests that Darwin did not set himself the goal of proving the existence of evolution, the existence of which Confucius also pointed out. At the time the book was written, no one doubted the existence of evolution. The main merit of Charles Darwin is that he explained how evolution can occur.

The voyage on the Beagle allowed Darwin to collect a lot of data on the variability of organisms, which convinced him that species cannot be considered unchanged. Returning to England, Charles Darwin took up the practice of breeding pigeons and other domestic animals, which led him to the concept of artificial selection as a method of breeding domestic animal breeds and varieties of cultivated plants. Selecting the deviations he needs, man, bringing these deviations to the necessary requirements, created the necessary breeds and varieties for him.

According to Charles Darwin, the driving forces of this process were hereditary variability and human selection.

However, C. Darwin had to solve the problem of selection in natural conditions. The mechanism of action of the selection of Charles Darwin was prompted by the ideas set forth in 1778 by T. Malthus in his work “Treatise on Population.” Malthus vividly described the situation to which population growth could lead if it were not restrained by anything. Darwin transferred Malthus's reasoning to other organisms and drew attention to such factors: despite the high reproductive potential, the population remains constant. Comparing a huge amount of information, he came to the conclusion that in conditions of fierce competition between members of the population, any changes that are favorable under these conditions would increase the ability of an individual to reproduce and leave behind fertile offspring, and unfavorable changes are obviously unfavorable, and for those who have them organisms, the chances of successful reproduction are reduced. All this served as the basis for determining the driving forces (factors of evolution, which, according to Darwin, are variability, heredity, the struggle for existence, natural selection.

In essence, the main meaning of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin is that evolution occurs on the basis of the occurrence of inherited changes, weighing them by the struggle for existence and selecting changes that allow organisms to win in intense competition. The result of evolution according to Charles Darwin is the emergence of new species, which leads to a diversity of flora and fauna.

Moving forces (factors) of evolution.

The driving forces in evolution are: heredity, variability, the struggle for existence, natural selection.

Heredity.

Heredity is the property of all living organisms to preserve and transmit signs and properties from ancestors to offspring. At the time of Charles Darwin, the nature of this phenomenon was not known. Darwin, as well as, assumed the presence of hereditary factors. Criticism of these statements by opponents forced Darwin to abandon his views on the location of factors, but the very idea of ​​​​the presence of material factors of heredity permeates his entire teaching. The essence of the phenomenon became clear after the development of the chromosome theory by T. Morgan. When the structure of the gene was deciphered and understood, the mechanism of heredity became quite clear. It is based on the following factors: the characteristics of the organism (phenotype) are determined by the genotype and environment (reaction rate); the signs of an organism are determined by a set of proteins that are formed from polypeptide chains synthesized on ribosomes, information about the structure of the synthesized polypeptide chain is contained on i-RNA, i-RNA receives this information during the period of matrix synthesis on a DNA section that is a gene; Genes are passed from parents to children and are the material basis of heredity. In interkinesis, the DNA is duplicated, and hence the genes are duplicated. During the formation of germ cells, a reduction in the number of chromosomes occurs, and during fertilization in the zygote, female and male chromosomes are combined. The formation of the embryo and the organism occurs under the influence of the genes of both the maternal and paternal organisms. The inheritance of traits occurs in accordance with the laws of heredity of G. Mendel or according to the principle of the intermediate nature of the inheritance of traits. Both discrete and mutated genes are inherited.

Thus, heredity itself acts, on the one hand, as a factor that preserves already established characteristics, on the other hand, ensures the entry of new elements into the structure of the organism.

Variability.

Variability is a general property of organisms in the process of ontogenesis to acquire new features. C. Darwin noted that there are no two identical individuals in one litter, there are no two identical plants grown from parental seeds. The concept of the forms of variability was developed by Ch. Darwin on the basis of the study of breeds of domestic animals. According to Ch. Darwin, there are the following forms of variability: definite, indefinite, correlative, hereditary, non-hereditary.

A certain variability is associated with the occurrence in a large number of individuals or in all individuals of a given species, variety or breed during ontogenesis. Mass variability according to Darwin can be associated with certain environmental conditions. A well-chosen diet will lead to an increase in milk yield for all members of the herd. The combination of favorable conditions contributes to an increase in the size of grains in all wheat individuals. Thus, changes arising from certain variability can be predicted.

Uncertain variability is associated with the occurrence of traits in individual or several individuals. Such changes cannot be explained by the action of environmental factors.

Relative variability is a very interesting phenomenon. The appearance of one sign leads to the appearance of others. So an increase in the length of the ear of cereals leads to a decrease in the length of the stem. So getting a good harvest, we lose straw. The increase in limbs in insects leads to an increase in muscles. And there are many such examples.

C. Darwin noted that some changes that occur in ontogeny are manifested in offspring, others are not. He attributed the first to hereditary variability, the second to non-hereditary. Darwin also noted such a fact that mainly changes associated with indefinite and relative variability are inherited.

Darwin considered the action of the environment as an example of a certain variability. Causes of indeterminate variability Darwin could not, hence the very name of this form of variability.

By now, the causes and mechanism of variability are more or less clear.

Modern science distinguishes between two forms of variability - mutational or genotypic and codification or phenotypic.

Mutational variability is associated with a change in the genotype. It arises as a result of mutations. Mutations are the result of exposure to the genotype of mutagens. Mutagens themselves are divided into physical, chemical, etc. Mutations are gene, chromosomal, genomic. Mutations are inherited with the genotype.

Modification variability is the interaction of the genotype and the environment. Modification variability is manifested through the reaction rate, i.e., the impact of environmental factors can change the manifestation of a trait within its extreme limits determined by the genotype. Such changes are not passed on to offspring, but may appear in the next generation by repeating the parameters of environmental factors.

Usually Darwinian indeterminate variability is associated with mutational, and definite with modification.

Struggle for existence.

At the heart of Darwin's theory of natural selection is the struggle for existence, which necessarily follows from the boundless desire of organisms to reproduce. This desire is always expressed in geometric progressions.

Darwin refers to Malthus in this. However, long before Malthus, biologists knew about this phenomenon. Yes, and the observations of Darwin himself confirmed the ability of living beings to the potential intensity of reproduction. Even K. Linnaeus pointed out that one blowfly, through its offspring, could have a horse corpse a few days before the bones.

Even slow-breeding elephants, according to Charles Darwin's calculation, could master the whole land, if there were all conditions for this. According to Darwin, from one pair of elephants in 740 years, about 19 million individuals would have turned out.

Why do potential and real birth rates differ so much?

Darwin answers this question as well. He writes that the real significance of the abundance of eggs or seeds is to cover their significant loss caused by extermination in some generation of life, i.e., reproduction encounters environmental resistance. Based on the analysis of this phenomenon, Charles Darwin introduces the concept of "struggle for existence".

“The concept of the struggle for existence” can only make sense and justify in Darwin’s broad “metaphorical” sense: “including here the dependence of one being on another, and also including (more importantly) not only the life of one individual, but also its success in leaving after offspring themselves." Darwin writes: “About two animals from the row of lions, In a period of famine, it can be quite rightly said that they are fighting with each other for food and life. BUT the plant on the outskirts of the desert is also said to be fighting for life against drought, although it would be more correct to say that it depends on moisture. Of a plant that annually produces thousands of seeds, of which on average only one grows, it can even be said more correctly that it fights with plants of the same genus and others already covering the soil ... in all this knowledge ... I, for the sake of convenience, resort to the general term struggle for Existence".

The text "The Origin of Species" confirms the variety of forms of the struggle for existence, but at the same time shows that in all these forms there is an element of competition or competition.

Intraspecific struggle takes place on conditions of fierce competition, since individuals of the same species require the same conditions of existence. In the first place is the role of the organism itself and its individual characteristics. The importance of his means of protection, his activity, his desire for reproduction is noted.

The struggle for existence at the level of the species is clearly active, and its intensity increases with increasing population density.

Organisms compete with each other in the struggle for food, for the female, for the hunting zone, as well as in the means of protection from the adverse effects of climate, in the protection of offspring.

Deterioration of feeding conditions, high population density, etc., allow the most competitive to survive. An example of intraspecific struggle is the situation in a herd of wild deer. An increase in the number of individuals leads to an increase in population density. The number of males in the population is increasing. An increase in population density leads to a lack of food, the emergence of epidemics, the struggle of males for a female, etc. All this leads to the death of individuals and a decrease in the population. The stronger survive.

Thus, intraspecific struggle contributes to the improvement of the species, the emergence of adaptations to the environment, to the factors that cause this struggle.

Often interspecific struggle goes in one direction. A classic example is the relationship between hares and wolves. Two hares run away from a wolf. At one point they scatter and the wolf is left with nothing. Interspecific struggle contributes to the regulation of populations, the culling of diseased or weak organisms.

The fight against the factors of the inorganic environment forces the plants to adapt to new conditions of existence, pushes them to increase their fertility. On the other hand, the confinement of a species or population to certain habitat conditions is determined. Individuals of bluegrass growing in the prairies and on the plains have an upright stem, and individuals growing in mountainous conditions have a rising stem. As a result of the struggle for existence, individuals survived in which, in the early stages of development, the stem is pressed against the ground, i.e., it struggles with night frosts; plants that are strongly lowered are also the most viable in mountainous conditions.

The doctrine of the struggle for existence confirms that this factor is the driving force of evolution. It is the struggle, whatever you call it, competition, competition. Forces organisms to acquire new traits that allow them to win.

The factor of the struggle for existence is also taken into account by the practical activity of man. When planting plants of the same species, it is necessary to observe a certain distance between individuals. When stocking reservoirs with valuable species of fish, predators and low-value species are removed from it. When issuing licenses for shelling wolves, the number of individuals, etc., is taken into account.

Natural selection.

“Natural selection does not proceed through the selection of the most adapted, but through the extermination of forms most adapted to the conditions of the living environment,” says Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species. Natural selection is based on the following assumptions: a) individuals of any species, as a result of variability, are biologically not equal to environmental conditions; some of them correspond to environmental conditions to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent; b) individuals of any species struggle with environmental factors that are unfavorable to them and compete with each other. In the process of this struggle and competition, "as a rule - through the extermination of the unsatisfactory" - the most adapted forms survive. The experience of the fittest is connected with the processes of divergence, during which, under the continuous influence of natural selection, new intraspecific forms are formed. The latter are increasingly isolated and serve as a source of formation of new species and their progressive development. Natural selection - creates new forms of life, creates an amazing adaptability of living forms, provides a process of increasing the organization, diversity of life.

Selection begins at the level where competition between individuals is highest. Let us turn to the classic example, which Charles Darwin himself wrote about. In the birch forest, light-colored butterflies predominate. This suggests that butterflies with light colors have replaced butterflies with dark and variegated colors. This process was under the influence of natural selection for the best protective color. When birch is replaced by rocks with a dark bark color in a given area, butterflies with a light color begin to disappear - they are eaten by birds. The part of the population with a dark color remaining in an insignificant number begins to multiply rapidly. There is a selection of individuals that have a chance to survive and give fertile offspring. In this case, we are talking about intergroup competition, i.e., the selection takes place between already existing forms.

Individuals are also subject to natural selection. Any slight deviation that gives an advantage to the individual in the struggle for existence can be picked up by natural selection. This is the creative role of selection. It always acts against the background of mobile material, which is constantly changing in the processes of mutation and combination.

Natural selection is the main driving force of evolution.

Types (forms) of natural selection.

There are two main selections: stabilizing and directed.

Stabilizing selection occurs in cases where phenotypic traits are maximally consistent with environmental conditions and competition is rather weak. Such selection operates in the entire population, destroying individuals with extreme deviations. For example, there is some optimal wing length for a certain size dragonfly with a certain lifestyle in a given environment. Stabilizing selection acts through differential breeding, will destroy those dragonflies that have a wingspan greater or less than optimal. Stabilizing selection does not promote evolutionary change, but maintains the phenotypic stability of a population from generation to generation.

Directed (moving) selection. This form of selection occurs in response to a gradual change in environmental conditions. Directional selection affects the range of phenotypes that exist in a given population and exerts selective pressure that shifts the average phenotype in one direction or another. After the new phenotype comes into optimal correspondence with the new environmental conditions, stabilizing selection comes into play.

Directed selection leads to evolutionary change. Here is one example.

The discovery of antibiotics in the 1940s created strong selection pressure in favor of bacterial strains that were genetically resistant to antibiotics. Bacteria multiply very strongly, as a result of a random mutation, a resistant cell can appear, the descendants of which will flourish due to the lack of competition from other bacteria that are destroyed by this antibiotic.

artificial selection.

Artificial selection is a method of breeding new breeds of domestic animals or plant varieties.

Man from the earliest times of his civilization uses artificial selection in the breeding of plants and animals. Darwin used data from artificial selection to explain the mechanism of natural selection. The main factors of artificial selection are heredity, variability, the action of a person seeking to bring hereditary deviations to the point of absurdity, and selection. Variability, as the property of all organisms to change, provides material for selection - a different series of deviations. A person, having noticed the deviations he needs, proceeds to the selection. Artificial selection is based on the isolation of natural populations or individuals with the necessary deviations and the selective crossing of organisms that have characteristics that are desirable for humans.

The selection of the Cherneford and Aberdeen-Angus breeds of cattle was carried out for the quantity and quality of meat, the Chernzey and Jersey breeds - for milk production. Sheep of the Champshire and Suffalan breeds mature quickly and produce good meat, but they are less hardy and less active in foraging than, for example, Scottish black-faced sheep. These examples show that it is impossible to combine all the traits necessary for maximum economic effect in one breed.

With artificial selection, a person creates a directed selective action that leads to a change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population. This is an evolutionary mechanism leading to the emergence of new breeds, lines, varieties, races and subspecies. The gene pools of all these groups are isolated, but they retain the basic gene and chromosome structure characteristic of the species to which they still belong. It is not in the power of man to create a new species or restore an extinct one!

Darwin distinguished between methodical or systematic selection and unconscious selection within artificial selection. With methodical selection, the breeder set himself a very definite goal, to produce new breeds that surpass everything that was created in this direction. Unconscious selection is aimed at preserving the already existing qualities.

In modern breeding, there are two forms of artificial selection: inbreeding and outbreeding. Inbreeding is based on the selective crossing of closely related individuals in order to preserve and spread especially desirable traits. Outbreeding is the crossing of individuals from genetically different populations. The offspring of such crosses are usually superior to their parents.

The emergence of devices. The relative nature of fitness.

The result of natural selection is the emergence of signs that allow organisms to adapt to the conditions of existence. This is where the idea of ​​the adaptive nature of evolution came from. Based on the study of the emergence of adaptations (adaptations), a whole direction in biology arose - the doctrine of adaptations. Adaptive signs or adaptations are divided into physiological and morphological.

Physiological adaptations. The abundance and great importance for the vitality of the organism of small physiological mutations contribute to the fact that differentiation begins in populations. This is understandable if mutations by their nature are biological changes that primarily lead to changes in the processes of intracellular metabolism, and only through this to morphological transformations. Examples are such features of an organism as resistance to known temperatures, ability to accumulate nutrients, general activity, etc. They easily give a shift in both directions, and in both cases can be favorable. Studying the germination of red clover seeds at different temperatures showed that the highest % germination is given at + 12C, but some seeds germinate only in the range of + 4-10C. This contributes to the survival of the species at low spring temperatures.

Animal pigmentation in its development and variability approaches physiological features. Higher or lower color intensity may have protective values ​​under appropriate general background and lighting conditions. These are already morphological adaptations.

Harrison's well-known studies showed the mechanism of the very occurrence of differences in the coloration of two populations of butterflies that arose from one continuous population when a forest was divided by a wide clearing. In that part of the forest where pine was replaced by birch, natural selection (predominant eating of darker specimens by birds) led to a significant lightening of the butterfly population.

Even C. Darwin drew attention to the fact that the insects of the islands are either good flyers or have reduced wings. Such a phenomenon as the reduction of organs that have lost their significance is not difficult to explain, since most mutations are associated precisely with the phenomenon of underdevelopment.

An analysis of adaptations has shown that they allow organisms to survive only under certain conditions. This can be understood even by analyzing the examples we have given. When birch trees are cut down, light butterflies become easy prey for birds. The same birds that appeared under the islands destroy insects with reduced wings. These facts already show that fitness is not absolute, but relative.

Evidence for the evolution of the organic world.

Darwinism has long been a generally accepted doctrine. It is from the lowest Darwinian ideas that all the historical transformations of the organic world on Earth can be explained.

At the end of the 19th century, when the number of supporters of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin was less than opponents, the followers of Charles Darwin began to collect evidence for the existence of the evolution of the organic world.

Work in this direction was carried out in the fields of paleontology, comparative morphology, comparative anatomy, embryology, biogeography, biochemistry, etc.

Paleontological finds as evidence of evolution.

During the existence of scientific biology, numerous paleontological finds of extinct plants and animals have accumulated. These finds became especially valuable when scientists learned to determine the age of the deposits in which they were found. It was possible not only to restore the appearance of fossil organisms, but also to indicate the time when they lived on our planet. So the remains of seed ferns were found, which were an intermediate form between ferns and seed plants. A stegocephalus was discovered - an intermediate form between fish and amphibians. From the Permian deposits, the animal-toothed lizard is known, which is an intermediate form between reptiles and mammals. There are many more such examples.

Comparative morphological and embryological evidence of evolution.

Comparative morphological proofs are based on concepts: analogy and homology of organs, on the concept of rudiments and atavisms. Especially valuable in the process of proving evolution are homology, rudiments and atavisms.

Examples of homologous organs include the forelimbs of vertebrates; frog paws, lizards, bird wings, flippers of aquatic mammals, mole paws, human hands. All of them have a single structural plan and constitute an evolutionary-morphological genus. Such clear evidence of evolution includes the presence in the human race of "tailed people" and people whose hairline covers the entire surface of the body.

One of the main evidence of evolution is considered to be information about the embryonic development of organisms, which contributed to the emergence of a new direction in biology - evolutionary biology. In favor of evolution is already the fact that all multicellular animals in their embryonic development have germ layers, from which various organs are formed in different ways. The embryo in its development, as it were, “remembers” the stages that its ancestors went through.

Evidence for evolution from ecology and geography.

Biochemical evidence for evolution.

A striking proof of evolution is the presence of a single hereditary material - DNA and the ability of different groups of organisms to "turn on" different parts of the genome in the process of life!

The main directions of the evolutionary process.

The process of evolution goes on continuously under the sign of the adaptation of organisms to the environment.

The main directions of the evolutionary process should be considered biological progress, biological stabilization, biological regression.

Clear definitions of these phenomena were given by A. N. Severtsov.

Biological progress means an increase in the adaptability of an organism to its environment, leading to an increase in the number and wider distribution of a given species in space. An example of biological progress is the evolution of the respiratory system from gill breathing to pulmonary breathing. It was this process that led to the conquest of land and air space by animals.

According to A.N. Severtsov, biological stabilization means maintaining the body's fitness at a certain level. The body changes according to changes in the environment. Its numbers are not increasing, but they are not decreasing either.

In plants, with a decrease in the average annual temperature, the number of covering hairs of the epidermis increases. This phenomenon allows all individuals to survive, but there is no advantage between other species, because they show the same reaction.

Biological progress is of the greatest importance in evolution, therefore, in biology, much attention is paid to the study of biological progress.

Aromorphoses and ideoadaptation are considered to be the main directions of biological progress; among other directions of biological progress one can also name general degeneration.

Aromorphoses are adaptive changes in which there is an expansion of living conditions associated with a complication of organization and an increase in vital activity. A classic example of aromorphosis should be considered the improvement of the lungs in birds and mammals, the complete separation of arterial and venous blood in the heart of birds and mammals, the separation of functions in plastids of higher plants.

Ideological adaptations are directions in evolution in which some adaptations are replaced by others that are biologically equivalent to them. Ideological adaptations, unlike aromorphoses, are of a private nature. An example of ideological adaptations is the evolution of the oral apparatus of insects, which was formed to suit the environment and co-evolution.

General degeneration - adaptive changes in adult offspring, in which the total energy of vital activity decreases. It refers to the directions of biological progress because the reduction of some organs that occur during degeneration is accompanied by a compensatory development of other organs. Thus, in cave and underground animals, the reduction of the organs of vision is accompanied by the compensatory development of other sense organs.

Human Origins.

In anthropology, there are several points of view on when the human branch became isolated. According to one hypothesis, about 10 million years ago, ape-men were divided into three species. One species - pragorillas - went to the mountain forests, where they were content with vegetarian food. Another species - prochimpanzee - chose a group way of life. The main food for him was monkeys of small species. The third species - the pre-human - preferred hunting in the rich life of the savannah. This was the branch that led to modern man.

According to the modern hypothesis put forward by Tim Vyton, an anthropologist at the University of California at Berkeley, only five million years ago, the branches of the proto-human and the ape split. Timan White believes that Australopithecus ramidus, which appeared at that time, depending on the circumstances, moved either on four or on two limbs. And probably hundreds of thousands of years passed before the mixed movement was replaced by bipedalism.

About three million years ago, the branch of man gave two lines of development. One of them gave rise to a whole galaxy of upright Australopithecus species, the other led to the emergence of a new genus, called Homo.

General biology.

Allowance for entering universities.

Compiled by: Galkin M. A.

The manual presents material on the course of general biology, ranging from the theory of the origin of life on earth to the doctrine of the biosphere.

The manual is designed for applicants, high school students, students of preparatory courses and departments.

Preface.

The manual is compiled in accordance with the program for applicants to universities of the Russian Federation, where biology is a general subject.

The purpose of this manual is to help the applicant prepare for the entrance exams. In this it differs from the school textbook "General Biology", which is cognitive in nature.

When compiling the manual, first of all, the requirements for entrance examinations were taken into account. This applies to both the content and the volume of the material given in the manual.

The allowance is designed for applicants who have completed secondary education or who study general biology at the preparatory departments.

The manual does not include some sections traditionally considered in the course "General Biology". These are “Cell Structure”, “Cell Division”, “Photosynthesis”.

The material on these sections is detailed in the manual for applicants to universities compiled by Galkin M.A.

All comments and suggestions regarding the form and content of the manual will be accepted with gratitude.

Manual compiler.