General grammatical meaning of a noun: ranks, categories and declensions. The concept of grammatical (morphological) meaning The grammatical meaning of a number in Russian

One or another grammatical category (category of gender, category of number, category of case, etc.) in each specific word has a certain content. Thus, for example, the gender category inherent in nouns is revealed in the word book by the fact that this noun is a feminine noun; or the aspect category, for example, in the verb draw has a certain content - this is an imperfect aspect verb. Similar meanings of words are called grammatical meanings. Therefore, each word can have a number of grammatical meanings, for example, in the verb fled the following grammatical meanings are concluded: the meaning of the past tense, the meaning of the singular, the meaning of the masculine gender, the meaning of the imperfect aspect.

However, it is more clear to show the grammatical meaning in a sentence made up of invented words, since in this case it is “easier” to separate the lexical meaning from the usual grammatical meaning, represented in each word by known forms in the usual way: The glistening kuzdra shteko has bobbed up the beak and curls the beak.(L.V. Shcherba)

Despite the fictitious lexical composition, this sentence is understandable to any native speaker of the Russian language to the extent that it retains the grammatical meanings of words characteristic of the Russian language, thanks to the form of expression of this meaning presented in each word. The meanings of the relation are understandable - the meaning of dependence/independence between words.

Grammatical meaning is recognized through relationships between words. Explaining the abstract nature of the grammatical meaning in contrast to the lexical one, A.I. Smirnitsky drew an analogy between the differences between arithmetic and algebraic expressions: if the lexical generalization is "about such a character as the generalization of the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 as even, and the numbers 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 as numbers divisible by 7", then grammatically similar to "Algebraic A and X, while not being any particular number, they are still a number and nothing else."

The grammatical meanings are not the same. In morphology, at least two types of grammatical semantics are distinguished. The first type includes categorical part-of-speech meaning, the second type combines meanings expressed by morphological forms of words.

The fundamental difference between the types is that part-of-speech semantics, relying on grammatical means in its expression, is closely related to the lexical meanings of words and does not necessarily imply inflection. So, the categorical meaning of nouns has indeclinable words like coat, subway. Taxi etc. To be a noun, it is enough to name the subject and have substantive syntactic features (to express the subject and object, to have an agreed definition with you). Similarly, the categorical semantics of adjectives have indeclinable indicative words: mini, maxi, burgundy etc. Adverbs have partial semantics, despite the fact that most of them do not have inflection forms at all. The same categorical part-of-speech meanings are found in languages ​​with different grammatical structures.

As for the semantics of the second type, it is created by shaping. The grammatical meanings expressed by the modified forms of words characterize languages ​​individually and differentiated. Only such meanings, as a rule, are called morphological grammatical meanings or simply grammatical meanings of modified words.

The specificity of grammatical (morphological) meanings is explained by the peculiarities of morphemes (primarily inflections) by which they are expressed. There are two of these features (therefore, in the grammatical sense, two distinguishing features are most often distinguished recently).

First, these morphemes serve the obligatory formation of forms. As a result, the meanings expressed by them become mandatory for entire digits and classes of words. So, each word form of a modified noun has an ending, and this ending necessarily expresses the number and case; each verb in the Russian language changes in tenses, and in the scope of this change in the verb the temporal meaning must be expressed, the verb form corresponding to the simple predicate necessarily gives an idea of ​​the grammatical person and grammatical mood.

It is important to pay attention to the fact that the obligatory expression of grammatical meaning does not always allow a choice on the part of the speaker, that is, it is extremely formalized. A native speaker is simply obliged to know that one or another form of a word is used in a given language situation. Yes, I must say envy the enemy and hate the enemy and by no means the other way around. If an adjective is attached to a noun pencil, then it should be in the form like red(but not red, red) if the infinitive is attached to a phase verb, it cannot be perfective if the noun is introduced into the sentence by a preposition to, it is used only in the dative case, and so on. Thus, the syntax contributes to the automatic choice of the morphological form and, consequently, the same realization of the grammatical meaning. The syntactic means of the language are connected to the expression of the meanings of morphological forms.

The second feature of formative morphemes was noted by G. O. Vinokur when characterizing endings. G. O. Vinokur drew attention to the fact that endings cannot be isolated, that is, single, morphemes, they exist only in paradigms.

In connection with this feature, the grammatical meaning cannot be singled out in one word form, it combines at least two word forms. A. A. Zaliznyak called this feature of grammatical meaning regularity.

The grammatical meanings are the same for a number of words. So, for example, the meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case combine the words country, matrix, night, room, thought, youth. As you can see, the listed words have nothing in common in their lexical meanings, absolutely coinciding in grammatical ones. Love, teach, walk, shoot - united by the meanings of the singular imperative.

Some grammatical meanings are included in the nominative aspect of the statement (gender, number of nouns). These are the so-called reflective (nominative) values. They are used to denote the objective properties of objects and features introduced into the statement.

Other grammatical meanings are related to the expression of actualization meanings, i.e., the orientation of the statement to the speech situation, its temporal characteristics, and connection with the subject of speech. These are the grammatical meanings of the conjugated forms of the verb.

The third grammatical meanings reflect the interpretative and evaluative participation of the speaker in speech communication. Interpretative meaning is associated with the possibility of using morphological forms to say the same thing in different ways. Interpretive meaning is usually distinguished in voice and form of the verb. The choice of the voice form is related to which semantic component of the sentence, subject or object, is placed in the center of information: brother wrote a letter(message about brother) letter written by brother(letter message). With the help of the view, the same action is depicted from different angles. From the offer Masha ate porridge we will find out what Masha was doing at some time, and in the sentence Masha ate porridge it is reported that Masha ate porridge, and there is no more porridge.

Interpretive meaning in morphological forms is presented more widely than it is customary to talk about in descriptive grammars of the Russian language. So, it is in the verbal mood, since by means of the forms of the mood one and the same situation is designated as a real, possible or desirable fact. The interpretive component is in the short form of adjectives, which in modern language is a sign that the adjective is not included in the name of the subject.

Many grammatical meanings are non-elementary and refer to different sides of the utterance. For example, aspect is both nominative and interpretive meaning, face is nominative and actualization, mood is nominative, actualization and interpretative, case is nominative and interpretative.

A distinctive feature of the morphological structure of the Russian language is that different parts of speech have the same grammatical meanings. So, gender and number have nouns, adjectives, a verb; nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns have case. As a result, the same grammatical meaning can be expressed several times at the same time, for example, in the syntagma new coat fell off the singular and feminine are indicated three times: by the ending of an adjective, a noun, and a verb. The Russian language is characterized by redundancy in the expression of grammatical semantics.

One grammatical meaning necessarily implies the presence of another (or others). Thus, the meaning of the singular presupposes the existence of the plural (as opposed to it); river- rivers, hand- arms; the meaning of the perfect aspect is contrasted with the meaning of the imperfect aspect: wrote- wrote, taught - learned; the meaning of the nominative case is opposed to all other (indirect) cases. Real (according to A.A. Shakhmatov), ​​i.e. lexical, the meaning of a word connects the word directly with the external world, the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words. GZ express the attitude of the speaker to the thought expressed by him or the intralinguistic connections and relationships of words.

Therefore, we can conclude that grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.

In addition, the lexical meaning is expressed by the basis of the word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators.

But GCs are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to "layer", rely on them.

It only seems at first glance that a noun is a very simple part of speech. In fact, it has many variants of spelling, pronunciation and use. The general grammatical meaning of the noun and all the most important points will be noted in this article. Everything you need to know about this part of speech will be outlined here so as not to make stupid mistakes in pronunciation and writing. Some do not know what is the role of a noun in a sentence. We will understand in more detail in our article.

What is this part of speech

First of all, you should analyze the general grammatical meaning of the noun. There shouldn't be any problems here. Since everyone knows that a noun refers to independent parts of speech and denotes an object. You can ask him only two questions: who? or what?

It should be remembered that a noun can mean:

• things (for example, a computer, wardrobe, telephone);
• people (woman, man, child, youth);
• substances (tea, borscht, milk);
• all living beings (dog, horse, tiger, microbe);
• various events and natural phenomena (hurricane, rain, war);
• various actions, properties of substances, features (beauty, jump, anger).

Thus, the general grammatical meaning of the noun will not cause difficulties in learning. The rule is easy to remember. All elementary school children know him.

Discharges

If the general grammatical meaning of the noun is clear, then you can proceed to the next section, which will tell you more about this part of speech. The noun is divided into four categories:

• Own.
• Common nouns.
• Animated.
• Inanimate.

First of all, you should consider your own and common nouns.

From the first name, we can conclude that proper nouns are specific names that can only denote one thing or person and nothing else.

This includes not only the names of people, but also the names of animals, as well as the names of the ancient gods, which students often forget about. Also included in this list are the names of cities and countries, as well as other geographical objects. Further names of planets, galaxies and all other astronomical names. Also, proper nouns include the names of all holidays, the names of enterprises and organizations, public services, etc.

It is important not to lose the boundaries between the names Since the Russian language allows the transition of a common noun into a proper one and vice versa.

Next come animate and inanimate nouns. Here the situation is a little simpler. In this section, the main thing to remember is that only people and animals can be animated. All other nouns are inanimate.

It is also worth remembering that when an animate noun is pluralized, the accusative and genitive forms are the same. And for inanimate in the plural, the form of accusative and nominative is the same.

Case category

This section provides for the division of a noun into inflected and indeclinable. The second group includes a small number of words that have the same form in any case. All other words are declined by cases and change their word form.

Number category

The noun has three groups of numbers:

• words that have two forms: both singular and plural: finger - fingers;
• words that appear only in the singular: cereals, peas, carrots;
• noun only in the plural: day, perfume, rake.

Genus category

The category of gender has nouns that can be put in the singular form. They can be divided into masculine, feminine and neuter. There is a separate group of nouns that belong to the common gender, but there are not so many of them.

To determine the gender of a noun, it is necessary to coordinate it with an adjective, verb, or participle.

An interesting category is the common gender. This includes about 200 words of the Russian language. All of them are in most cases related to colloquial speech. These are words that are in the nominative singular and end in -a. Usually they characterize an object or person on some basis. They give speech some colors and emotions. To make it clearer, these words include: drunkard, glutton, crybaby and others.

In Russian, there are some words, the gender of which is problematic to determine. It is recommended to simply remember such words so as not to make mistakes. One such word is coffee. Many refer to it as neuter, but no. "My coffee" is always masculine.

declination

In Russian, there are three nouns into which nouns are divided. Determining the declension of a noun is quite simple, you just need to remember the gender category and the ending.

So, the first declension includes masculine and feminine nouns, which in the nominative case have the ending -a, -я. The second declension is masculine nouns that do not have endings, or, as Russian language teachers say, they have a zero ending and a neuter gender with the ending -o, -e. And the third declension is nouns of the female gender, which do not have an ending.

The use of nouns in artistic speech

The use of nouns in artistic speech is a very important point. Unfortunately, the school curriculum does not provide for the consideration of such a topic, but it is extremely necessary for students. Often in high school, students begin to make mistakes in essays and find it difficult when the teacher asks to find a metaphor in the text that is expressed by a noun.

In general, in a literary text a noun can be not only a metaphor. It can give the text certain colors, emotions, expression. Teachers need to focus on this to make it easier for children to compose essays and analyze literary texts.

Conclusion

The article described in detail the general grammatical meaning of the noun, its categories, declensions and usage options.

You should pay attention to nouns only in the plural, such words need to be known by heart. Pay special attention to gender and declensions.

If you take the process of learning the language with all responsibility, then you will not have serious problems.

MORPHOLOGY

A section of the science of language that studies the ways of expressing grammatical expressions, patterns of word changes, grammatical classes of words and their inherent grammatical categories.

The concept of grammatical meaning

A generic value that is regularly expressed in a language by typed means - Gloky kuzdra shteko boked bokra and curls bokra

Signs of grammatical meanings

Abstraction

Regularity

obligatory

Distribution to the whole class

List closed

Languages ​​differ in what meanings they choose as grammatical

Types of grammatical meanings

1) Nominative - reflect extralinguistic reality (reflects reality)

2) Syntactic - are not related to extralinguistic reality, they reflect only the ability of a given word form to be combined with other word forms (reflect features of compatibility (gender of nouns))

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

1) Synthetic — grammatical meaning with the help of affixes. ( walked- past tense, masculine)

suppletivism — expression of grammatical knowledge by changing bases ( person people )

2) Analytical — use of service words ( if- subjunctive mood)

Both methods are characteristic of the Russian language.

Grammatical form and word form

Grammatical form - the language character in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular expression. In speech in specific utterances, the word is in one of its grammatical forms.

word form - a word in a grammatical form.

Morphological paradigm

Morphological paradigm of the word - system of grammatical forms of one word

wooden ― 24, table― 12 components

Complete paradigm - includes the entire set of forms characteristic of this part of speech.

Redundant paradigm - contains redundant components ( waving)

The youth- 6, incomplete, trousers- 6, incomplete.

The concept of a grammatical category

Grammatical forms are grouped into grammatical categories.

Singular + Plural = Grammar category of number

Types of grammar categories

Binary/non-binary

Inflectional / non-inflectional

The problem of parts of speech in PR

The study of the question of the number of parts of speech in a particular language goes back to ancient grammars.

Different approaches can be used to identify parts of speech. In the Russian grammar of the 21st and 20th centuries, several approaches have been formed:

1) Formal - the main classification criteria are the features of inflection, a set of grammatical characteristics.

2) Synthetic function of the word

3) Logical, lexical-semantic (general categorical meaning of the word

In modern Russian studies, the classification of parts of speech takes into account several approaches at once:

A part of speech is a class of words that is characterized by:

2) General set of grammatical categories

3) General syntactic functions

4) Word-formation features.

Several variants of the modern classification of parts of speech

1) School grammar - 10 parts of speech

1. Grammar 80 also presents a classification of 10 parts of speech. Significant parts of speech - noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, adverb, verb

Service - preposition, union, particle, interjection

2) A.N. Tikhonov

Significant - noun, adjective, participle, numeral, pronoun, verb, gerund, adverb, category of state.

Service - preposition, union, particle,

Interjection

Onomatopoeia

Modal (obviously, of course, probably)

Any classification of parts of speech is always the result of compromises between different approaches.

SIGNIFICANT PARTS OF SPEECH IN RJ

NOUN

A part of speech that designates an object and fulfills this meaning in the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, animateness / inanimateness

Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns.

A group of words that show originality in the expression of certain grammatical categories.

First level of division

At the first level of division, all nouns can be divided into 2 groups:

1) Own - name individual items

Names "Bolshevich"

Have either only the form st or only pl

2) common nouns - name an object according to belonging to a particular class.

The next level of division

- Real

1) Special values ​​- denote a homogeneous mass of a substance that can be divided into parts, but cannot be counted ( milk)

2) Grammar features: only one number form

3) Word formation - most of it - not derivatives

In speech, real nouns that have only the form of the middle number, in some cases can form the plural form ( dry wines)

The meaning of the noun changes (sort, quantity)

- Collective

a set of persons or objects, as one indivisible whole (youth , students). All collective nouns have only singular forms. Collective nouns are usually derivatives. Must be distinguished from specific nouns of type people, class, group, detachment, herd.

Real and collective are closely related. Sometimes it is difficult to answer the question real or collective. Sometimes they even talk about real-collective (dust)

- Distracted (abstract)

They only have the singular form. A lot of derivatives. In some cases, nouns can be pluralized ( joys of life, happy dreams, annual readings) because the meaning of nouns changes.

- Common nouns

Show originality in the expression of the grammatical category. Boredom, sweet tooth. The main feature is that in different contexts it is either feminine or masculine. There are nouns with inflection and, most often colloquial style, abbreviated names - Sasha, Zhenya, Valya. Sometimes some indeclinable nouns are referred to as counterpart. Not to be confused with generic nouns doctor, teacher, officer, which can name feminine persons, but the words themselves remain masculine.

- Specific nouns

words naming countable objects that can be presented separately and subjected to counting. They have two forms of number, they are the standard of a noun as a part of speech. However, a small group of specific nouns only have a plural form. ( sled)

Animation

Animation/Inanimateness

The main rule - In the plural V.p. = R.p - animated, V.p. = I.p. - inanimate.

The rule is formed for the plural, since the grammatical category of number is most clearly expressed in the plural. For two groups of masculine nouns ( student, sentry) the rule works in the singular.

In Russian, lexical and grammatical animation may not coincide. There are also nouns that experience fluctuations in the expression of animateness - inanimateness. I see dolls - I see dolls. There are nouns that are animate in one sense and not in another. Stars. The youth- outside the grammatical category, since there is no plural.

In school grammar, they talk about masculine, feminine, neuter.

Zaliznyak proposed a fourth gender - paired, words with only the plural form. ( gate, clock). He suggested talking about 7 concordant classes:

1 - m.s. neod.

2 - m.s. one.

3) f.r. neod.

4) female one.

5 - cf. neod.

6 - cf.

7 - paired genus.

Gender in the RL is expressed in a morphological, syntactic and lexico-semantic way.

Morphological — expression of the grammatical meaning of gender by means of inflections. This method is usually called inconsistent, since amonymous endings can have the meaning of different genders. Table, daughter

Syntactic is an expression of gender through the form of a word that agrees with the noun. In addition to agreed words, such a function can be performed by the forms of the predicate in the past tense or in the subjunctive mood

Lexico-semantic - is based on the ratio of the grammatical meaning of gender and the lexical meaning of gender. This method is relevant only for a small number of nouns that name people. For these nouns, the meaning of gender is nominative. For everyone else, syntactic.

Sometimes the meaning of gender is determined by the lexical meaning of gender, also in some zoonyms.

Singular

1) The main value is the value of singularity, that is, an indication of one object

2) A generalized collective meaning - the singular form indicates a set of objects understood as a set. During the session, the student rests

3) Distributive / distributive - the singular form indicates an object that several people have at the same time. Open the textbook to ... page.

Plural

1) Main value - The value of a separate set. From 2 to many.

2) Collective set - the plural form indicates a set of people, united on some basis. He lived for a long time among the English

3) Hyperbolic set - indicates a deliberate elimination from a specific singularity; this can be observed in two cases.

Indicates the importance of the subject The guests came to us - daughter

To express reproach, censure We didn't go to university

4) Continuous set - has the meaning of duration, special length, intensity. Snow and ice all around

Question about case meaning.

Case meaning is the meaning associated with the expression of the meaning of a noun to other words in a phrase or sentence.

Currently, types of case values ​​are distinguished:

1) Subjective meaning

2) Object value

3) Definitive

4) circumstantial

5) Some scientists highlight the complementary/additive value.

These meanings are not assigned to the form of a particular case.

1) subjective meaning is the meaning of a real actor, a carrier of an attribute or a state. People are walking down the street. Students are cold

2) object value - the value of the relation of the object to the action that applies to this object. We are drinking tea

An object value can be of different types:

The value of the direct object. Real object. To fish

Internal object. The object of speech, thought, feeling. Reminisce about the trip.

Destination object. I am giving a lecture to students.

Tool object. Glue with glue

mediator object. Send the parcel through the conductor

There are other types of objects.

3) Defining value — the meaning of nouns that characterizes an object on some basis:

Self-defining Girl in a hat. Brick house.

Predicative-attributive My brother is handsome

4) Circumstantial meaning - the meaning of a noun that characterizes actions or a sign in terms of measure, time, and so on.

1) Temporary - back in May

2) The value of the place - have a walk in the forest

3) Causal - cry over a mistake

4) Conditional - be careful when flying

5) The value of the goal - send for a doctor

6) Measures and degrees - tied up in the throat

7) Concessions - against the advice, he left

8) Image and mode of action - sing bass

5) Complementary value is the value of completing informatively incomplete units in a sentence. He was known as a talker (he was known— incomplete). His name was Vanya (his name was- incomplete)

Several factors influence the meaning of the case: this is the form of the noun itself, and its meaning, and the form and meaning of the word with which the noun is associated, and the presence / absence of a preposition, and the nature of the preposition.

ADJECTIVE

- a part of speech that denotes a non-procedural attribute of an object and expresses this meaning in the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, as well as the categories of degrees of comparison and completeness of brevity

Comparative form

Indicates a greater or lesser degree of a feature compared to something.

FSS can be synthetic and analytical.

Synthetic - is formed with the help of three suffixes: e, her, she ( louder, whiter, more) Productive - hers. The simple form of the comparative degree is not formed from an adjective with suffixes sk, suffixes of subjective evaluation ( weak), from an adjective with suffixes yush, yush (transmitted), l ( experienced), from compound adjectives ( long-armed), with the prefix not ( difficult). There are other restrictions as well.

Analytical - is formed with the help of auxiliary words more and less. In gr.80 is absent.

The value of the form of the degrees of comparison.

Comparative degree (comparative) - has two main meanings.

1) a feature is inherent in one subject to a greater or lesser extent than another. A cat is smarter than a dog

2) a sign of the same object in one situation is presented to a greater or lesser extent than in another. Winter is colder this year

The analytical form has fewer educational restrictions.

The form of a simple comparative degree, as a rule, is part of the predicate. Analytical can be both a predicate and a definition.

Superlatives

Traditionally, the meaning of superlatives is defined as the ultimate degree of manifestation of a trait.

The superlative form is also formed in a synthetic and analytical way.

Simple - eysh, aysh. Composite - most, most, least, all (total) + synth. Comparative form ( most beautiful, most important).

The superlative form, which has the highest degree of manifestation of a feature, is called a superlative.

However, superlatives can mean just a great degree. (elative) most beautiful building. (not the prettiest building in town)

Most modern linguists do not consider adjectives to have superlatives.

For the formation of synthetic forms, the same restrictions apply as for the formation of forms of the comparative degree. The form of the superlative degree, formed with the help of the word most, has an adjective in its composition in a positive degree. The shortest way, the closest way, the best option- exception.

NUMERAL

In language, the idea of ​​quantity can be conveyed by various means: by the grammatical category of number, by means of nouns ( hundred, dozen), also with the help of special words, which are called numerals.

Whether the numeral is a part of speech is an ambiguous question. In school practice, numerals include quantitative, ordinal, collective, and fractional numerals. In grammar 80, numerals include only cardinal numerals and collective numerals. Ordinal ones are adjectives, and fractional ones are considered as a combination of words belonging to different parts of speech. Numerals also include words such as many and few. Tikhonov's concept excludes many and few, but relates fractional numerals, quantitative and collective numerals. Panov's concept is ordinal, and cardinal and ordinal numbers are forms of the same word.

A concept that distinguishes quantitative, ordinal and collective numbers as part of numerals.

Numeral is a part of speech denoting the number and order of objects in counting and expressing these meanings in the grammatical categories of case (consistently) and in the grammatical categories of gender and number (not sequentially). As part of the numerals, three lexical and grammatical categories are distinguished:

1) quantitative

2) ordinal

3) collective

Some linguists single out only quantitative and ordinal, and collective ones are classified as quantitative.

According to the structure, all numerals are divided into simple ones that have one root ( forty, fifth, five), complex, having two roots ( fifty) and compound, consisting of two or more words ( thirty five three thousand thirty)

Lexico-grammatical categories of cardinal numbers:

Quantitative numbers mean:

1) abstract quantity ( to 8 + 3 will be 11)

2) quantity as a sign of an object ( two years, five books)

3) the place of the object when counting ( house six)

Grammar features:

NEVER change by number (outside the grammatical category of number)

They change according to cases, but the case of the numeral does not express either the subjective or the objective meaning, but only indicates the syntactic connection of the numeral with the noun.

Do not change by gender except for words one-one-one, two-two.

Synthetic features:

From 1 to 4 in the nominative and accusative cases are combined with a noun in the singular

In the nominative and accusative cases, they govern the noun ( three cups, five tables), in other cases they agree with nouns

Features of some cardinal numbers:

One is considered differently by linguists, sometimes it is not classified as a numeral and is called a pronominal adjective, or a counting-quantitative adjective (grammar 70), some believe that this numeral is only in compound numerals. Differences in opinion are explained by the fact that the word one behaves differently from other numerals: it changes by gender and number, and always agrees with the noun. Moreover, in addition to the quantitative meaning, the word one has the meaning of some, separate, etc. Thus, the word one behaves like a numeral really only in compound numerals. In all other cases, it is a pronominal adjective.

A thousand, a million, a billion in school grammar are numerals, and grammar 80 unequivocally refers to nouns, as they change by numbers. There is a point of view according to which it makes sense to call these words nouns only in those cases when they either do not name the exact number (a million problems), or are used in the plural form.

Rule of use with a preposition for:

- Two, one and a half, three, four, ninety, one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred are used in the form of the accusative case, coinciding with the nominative. They took two hundred rubles.

The rest have variant forms ( took five rubles each or took five rubles each)

Odin is always in the dative form ( handed out one pencil)

Lexico-grammatical category of collective numerals:

They are formed from quantitative ones using the suffixes o, j, ( two, two) and er, er ( hell, four)

The norm limits the number of collective numerals in a row from two to ten, but there are others. It is traditionally believed that the meaning of collective numerals is the designation of quantity as an aggregate. But many linguists do not agree with this statement and believe that collective numbers are no different in meaning from quantitative ones.

Grammar features:

Outside the grammatical category of number

Outside the grammatical category of gender

The case does not express meaning, but indicates compatibility with a noun

Synthetic features:

Combination with nouns: collective nouns can be combined with masculine nouns or with words of a common gender ( two friends, three onlookers), but cannot be combined with feminine nouns.

Can be combined with nouns pluralia tantum ( two hours, three days)

Collective nouns combine with nouns children, guys, people, faces.

Can be combined with nouns with the meaning of not adulthood ( seven kids)

Can be combined with substantiated adjectives ( two patients)

Can be combined with personal pronouns ( there are three of us)

Some attribute both, both to collective numbers, but they do not have a numerical value, so it is advisable to consider pronouns. In addition, these words have different rules for matching with nouns.

Lexico-grammatical category of ordinal numbers:

Call the serial number of the item when counting.

Grammar features:

May vary by case, number, gender

Always agree with nouns

Declension of numerals:

Ordinal inflected as relative adjectives (adjective type)

The rest, according to the nature of the endings, are distinguished by 6 types of declension:

3) 50, 60, 70, 80

4) 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900

5) 40, 90, 100, one and a half, one and a half hundred

6) collective

PRONOUN

On the one hand, they are used as independent words, on the other hand, they do not name phenomena, objects, but only point to them. Many linguists believe that pronouns appeared before names.

Distinguishing features:

1) Pronouns are characterized by the correlation of the same word with a wide range of objects of the surrounding reality. The direction in each case can mean different persons and different objects.

2) Functions:

dietic is an indication of the condition of the speech act. Correlation of what is being said with the conditions of the speech act and its participants. I write (the speaker writes), I am the speaker, you are the listener, he is the third person.

First and second person pronouns referring to the speaker (I, we) or the listener (you, you). Also demonstrative pronouns referring to the object at which the speaker's pointing gesture is directed (that, this, this, that ..)

Anaphoric — correlation of this message with other messages. It is a function of reference to something known. They can replace the names of objects, actions, and even entire sentences in the text. My brother came and said he was leaving. H Ikolay got up and left. Petya did the same. I will write letters to him if necessary.

Performed by:

Third person personal pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Returnable (themselves, each other)

Relative pronouns

Emotional-evaluative function ― Your Olga (at the end of the letter)

effimism - taboo function - one hundred and one questions about "it"

Classification of pronouns.

1) Traditional.

- Personal - indicate the participants in the speech act.

- Refundable - myself. This pronoun has no nominative case, which indicates that the object or addressee of the action is the same as the subject of the action.

- Possessive - belonging of the object to the first, second or third person. ( mine, yours, his, mine(belonging to what is called subject) him, her, them― personal pronouns with possessive function

- pointing (that, this, such, this, this) - allocate objects or features associated with participants in a speech act or speech space.

- Determinants — point to generalizing signs ( everyone, everyone, any, all) or excretory ( himself, most)

- Interrogative (who, what, which, which, whose)

- relative coincide with interrogative ones, but fundamentally differ from them in their syntactic function, acting as allied words - The boy broke a vase that was on the table.

- Undefined - affixes not, postfixes -something, -either, -something, affixoid something- Indicates something unknown to the speaker

- Negative - not and neither. Absence of objects, signs, circumstances.

The traditional classification does not take into account the pronoun each other. This pronoun is often distinguished into a special category called reciprocal.

2) Functional-semantic classification:

Personal, possessive, reflexive + each other, excretory-indicative ( this, that, such, such) , excretory amplifying ( himself, most), interrogative, relative, indefinite, generalized distributive ( each, any, all, everyone), are negative.

3) Formal-grammatical classification:

1) noun pronouns - indicate a person or object, the case is expressed sequentially, gender and number are not sequential (personal, reflexive, some interrogative ( who what), some negative ( nobody, nothing), some undefined ( someone, somebody)

2) pronouns adjectives - indicate a sign, express the meaning in dependent grammatical categories of gender, number, case. ( yours, mine, yours, ours, any, some)

3) pronouns numerals - indicate an indefinite quantity, outside the grammatical category of number and have the same compatibility features with nouns. ( how much, how much)

4) adverb pronouns — invariable pronouns ( here, there, from there, somewhere, sometime...) Some linguists refer to adverbs.

Declension Features

The declension of personal pronouns is characterized by a change in the stem in indirect cases. I, me, me, we, us.

Pronouns he she it when combined with a preposition, they have forms with the initial phoneme n. With him, with her, about them

The pronoun self does not have a nominative form

The grammatical features of other pronouns, namely adjectives, adverbs, numerals, completely repeat the features of the corresponding part of speech.

VERB

The verb in Russian is opposed to names, as it has its own set of grammatical categories. It also denotes a sign of an object, but this is a special sign - a sign as a process.

Verb - a part of speech denoting a procedural feature and expressing this meaning in the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, mood, time, etc. The main function is the predicate.

Verb paradigm

Also more complex than the naming paradigm.

3 groups of verb forms.

1) The infinitive is the initial form of the verb, but this is very conditional.

2) Conjugated forms (predicative)

3) Non-conjugated forms (attributive) participles and participles. Not all scientists refer to the verb.

Each of these groups is characterized by a special set of grammatical categories.

Verb conjugations

Conjugation is usually used in the following situations:

1) Verb conjugation - changing the verb in the narrow sense by persons and numbers in the present or future simple tense, in the broad sense changing the verb by tenses, moods, persons, numbers, and so on.

2) Conjugation is also understood as a system of verb inflections in the present or future simple tense.

Depending on which inflections are presented, all verbs can be divided into two large classes: the first and second conjugations.

Verb 1st conjugation - carry

I carry, you carry, he, she, it carries,

We carry, you carry, they carry

2nd conjugation verb - decide

I will decide, you will decide, he will decide

We decide, you decide, they decide

In addition to inflections, the verbs of the first and second conjugations differ from each other in the features of alternation: in verbs of the second conjugation, alternation appears only in the form of the first person singular ( love - love), in verbs of the first conjugation, alternation appears in four forms - the second and third person singular, and the first and second person plural ( bake - bake, bake, bake).

Verbs 1 and 2 of conjugation differ from each other in the final stem (ending), for verbs of the 1st conjugation, the stem of the present or future simple tense can end in hissing - they jump, in j - they blush, in a paired hard consonant - they carry, the verbs of the second conjugation in this case may also end in sibilants, in j, and in a paired soft consonant.

What is needed to determine conjugation?

1) put the verb in the form of the 3rd person unit. numbers

2) We look at whether the ending is shocking

3) If the ending is stressed, then we conjugate the verb in persons and numbers

4) If the ending is unstressed, we return to the infinitive

5) If the final of the infinitive is hit, then the 2nd, if not hit, the 1st

6) We remember, is this not an exception? ( shave, lay, drive, hold, breathe, offend)

The language also has differently conjugated verbs - want, run, honor (honor, honor),

Verb inflections

The system of verbal inflection is characterized by greater complexity compared to the inflection of names. For each Russian verb, it is necessary to establish its belonging: a) to the inflectional class and b) to the type of conjugation

Maslov's criterion

An aspect pair takes place if and only if the verbs have the same meaning.

Special diagnostic contexts:

1) For perfective verbs. He returned from a business trip, climbed the stairs, opened the door...

2) For imperfective verbs. Description of recurring events. Every year at this time, he returns from a business trip, climbs the stairs, opens the door ...

3) For imperfective verbs. Narrative in the present historical. He returns yesterday from a business trip, climbs the stairs, opens the door ...

Thus, we can conclude that these pairs of verbs are aspective verb pairs, since the verbs in each pair denote the same event. In contexts two and three, the use of perfective verbs is excluded, so the speaker must use a verb with the same meaning, but in an imperfective form.

Two aspect verbs

Look, knock, teach and so on. It is either perfect or not perfect, but they do not have pairs - unpaired verbs. Perfective tantum - perfective form, imperfective tantum - imperfective form

Among unpaired verbs, there are also two-part verbs.

Bispective verbs - in different contexts they can be both perfective and imperfective verbs.

When Alexey got married, he immediately left for Paris. When Alexei got married, there were 100 guests.

There are few native Russian verbs among two-species verbs ( telegraph, pave, hospitalize)

The form of two-part verbs can only be determined by context.

The formation of forms of the passive voice in Russian.

They are formed differently in perfect and imperfect verbs.

In perfective verbs, the passive form is formed, as a rule, with the help of the formative postfix -sya.

In perfective verbs, the forms of the passive voice are formed, as a rule, in an analytical way with the help of the auxiliary verb to be, in the appropriate personal form and a short passive participle.

Exceptions: He was loved everyone. This book was very easy to read.

Passive verbs can change in tense, person, number, and so on.

The house was built by workers last year.

Present tenses

Form only imperfective verbs! The forms of the present tense do not have special suffixes in Russian, the endings of verbs with the meaning of a particular person and number ( I say you say) also serve as a formal expression of the meaning of the present tense if they are attached to stems of the same kind.

The present tense form can express several meanings.

The first value of this form is called present actual .

The present tense form in this case indicates an action that coincides with the moment of speech. I am lecturing now.

The second main meaning of the present tense form is present irrelevant . In these cases, indicates that the action is not related to the moment of speech. I am a good swimmer. It has several subtypes: extended present - he has loved her for a long time; constant continuous - Moscow stands on 7 hills; etc.

PARTICIPLE AND GERMAN PARTICIPLE

They occupy a special place in the morphological paradigm of the verb, since they combine the properties of the verb and other parts of speech - adjectives and adverbs, respectively.

On this basis, participles are sometimes derived from the verbal paradigm and included in adjectives, and participles in adverbs (Peshkovsky) or are treated as independent parts of speech (Tikhonov).

Participle - "hybrid" form of the verb, which has the features of a verb and an adjective.

As a verb, participle manifests itself due to the categories of voice, aspect and tense, lexical and grammatical signs of transitivity and reflexivity, in addition, participles fully retain the features of verb control: love children - loving children, run a factory - manager of a factory.

Grammatical meanings grammatical form.

simple(synthetic) and complex(analytical):

Simple (synthetic) was reading

I will write.

word paradigm

.

inflectional;

Classification.

historical changes standard options: ; modern and outdated(or deprecated):

Grammatical means and methods (synthetic and analytical).

Grammar ways (synthetic)

· method of affixing. It consists in attaching various affixes to the roots. Example: book, book, book (kn-e case expressed in affix).

- a method of internal flexion (alternation).

Alternations:

-phonetic

- non-phonetic: 1) historical (traditional) - they are not determined by the phonetic position of the sound. There is no modern explanation for them. They are explained historically: forehead-forehead, day-of-day, sleep-sleep. They are not internal inflection .2) Grammatical. This is internal inflection - this is also the sound: changes in the root, at which a change occurs. Grammar meanings of a word, i.e. these are not any alternations of sounds, but only those that express grammatical meanings. For the first time, the phenomenon of internal inflection was discovered on the material of the Germanic (English and German) languages .In a narrow sense, a classic.understanding in german languages. Example: sing-singen,sang-sang,sung-gesungen,song-gesang. In a broad sense, internal inflection refers to any grammatical alternations in any language. controversial issue.

Reduplication (method of repetitions. This is a partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, with the help of a cat. Gram value is expressed. Example: orang (Malay language) - person, orang orang - people, talon - field (Philip. Islands ),taltalon-fields.

In Latin, the method of reduplication is used as one of the ways to describe the basics of the perfect: tango mordeo cado, tetigi momordi cecidi. In Russian, this method is very rarely used. Only to express the superlative degree (red, red) or to express the duration of the action (ask, petitioner).

· Method of stress. This is a change in gram.zn-I with the help of stress. In some languages ​​where neon accents exist, the accent mode will always be the gram mode.

Subpletivism is a combination of a pair of different bases in one gram. In Indo-Europe, this method is widely represented. I-me (ego-mei), man-people, speak-say.

Analytical methods-

a way of function words. Lexical meaning is expressed by a meaningful word, and gram. by a service word. Example: I will read, I would do, the best. French: le chat-cat, du(de)chat-cat, an chat-cat(definitive case).

a way of word order. There are languages ​​where gram does not depend on word order (they have a free word order) - Russian and Latin languages: Example: The father loves to be full, the father loves the son, the father loves the son, the father loves the son, the father loves the son- the logical form can change, but not the grammatical (father-case). Pater filium amat,. Filium pater amat, Amat filium pater. For English, you cannot change the word order. Therefore, in English, the word order method operates, but in Russian and Latin, no.

The way of intonation. The gram structure of the sentence changes due to intonation. Example: I hear an unfamiliar voice, I hear: an unfamiliar voice.

grammatical meaning. The main features of grammatical meaning.

Grammatical meaning is the abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a standard expression and acts as an additional meaning to the lexical one. For example, the words smoke and house have different lexical meanings: a house is a residential building, as well as (collectively) people living in it; smoke - an aerosol formed by the products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence. Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence. Material expression of grammatical meaning ia is a grammatical device. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation. Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.

The grammatical forms of a word can be simple(synthetic) and complex(analytical):

Simple (synthetic)) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meanings in the same word, inside the word (consists of one word): was reading- the verb is in the past tense.

When the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, complex (analytical) form(a combination of a significant word with a service word): I will read, let's read! In Russian, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.

Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values ​​are combined into a system of number values. In such cases, we are talking about grammatical category of number. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.

Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called word paradigm. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, for adjectives - of 24.

12. Grammatical categories, their originality in the languages ​​of the world. Historical changes in grammatical categories .

inflectional;

Classification.

Inflectional expressions through a change in the forms of one word (number and case of substantives, gender, number, case, adjective).

Classification-shows the belonging of a word to a certain grammatical class. The classification refers to the genus of nouns (not translatability of verbs).

The nominative-semantic meaning of the category indicates certain properties of the object: the number of nouns, the time of verbs.

Syntactic-number, formal categories, not indicating the real properties of the object, perform the function of linking words in a sentence: gender, number, case of appendices.

However, grammatical categories are subject to historical changes, which lead to shifts in norms, their instability, the emergence of various grammatical variants. These are equivalent standard options: shutter - shutter, shops - shops; normative options, stylistically unequal: five - five grams, sum up - sum up (the first - book, the second - colloquial); normative, semantically unequal options: home - home, (train) moves - moves; modern and outdated(or deprecated): sanatorium - sanatorium, professors - professors, TASS reported - TASS reported; literary and colloquial or dialectal: purrs - purrs, lie down, lie down, drivers - drivers. Under the conditions of Belarusian-Russian bilingualism, the use of vernacular or dialect variants in Russian speech can be supported by the influence of the Belarusian language.

GRAMMATIC NUMBER, a grammatical category used to express quantity. Along with indicators of number, the means of expressing quantity in the language can be numerals, as well as such nouns, adjectives and adverbs, such as, for example, couple, hundred, single, several, many and others. Languages ​​that have lexical means of expressing quantity, but no grammatical means (i.e., the grammatical category of number), are very rare. These are primarily the languages ​​of Southeast Asia (Vietnamese, Lao, etc.) and some languages ​​of the Indians of North America. Note also that languages ​​without the grammatical category of number are much rarer than languages ​​without the category of gender, case, and definiteness/indefiniteness.

A distinction is made between the semantic grammatical category of the number of nouns and personal pronouns (the so-called "substantive number"), on the one hand, and the syntactic (consensual) grammatical category of the number of adjectives and verbs, on the other. So, in the example There are big balls plural form. the number of the noun directly reflects the number of designated objects ("several balls"), and the plural form. the number of the adjective, like the form of the verb, only agrees with the form of the noun balls. It is extremely rare for adverbs to agree in number. So, for example, in the Tsakhur language, which is spoken in Dagestan, the form of adverbs of mode of action is chosen depending on the form of the verb, which, in turn, depends on the number of the subject.

In the case when number forms have their own meaning (i.e., for nouns and pronouns), they denote either the number of objects, people and animals - everything that a person sees in the world around him, or the number of some events, actions, etc. .p., for example, two battles, several performances, complaints, waving hands etc. However, not everything that is said can be counted. For example, in Russian one cannot count many abstract qualities, properties, states, processes, such as kindness, freshness, peace, trade and others. Of the objects of the objective world, substances cannot be counted, first of all: water, sand, snow etc. No matter how much such a substance is, it is still denoted by a single number. Although in many substances, such as sand, salt, snow, the human eye can distinguish individual particles (special words called singulatives are used to designate them in the language: grain of sand, snowflake etc.), yet they seem to be so unimportant and inconspicuous that a person imagines sand, etc. objects precisely as a mass, and not as a set of particles. The difference between uncountable and countable objects is that any part (portion) of water, sand, etc. still called water or sand; on the contrary, part of the table will no longer be a table.

A similar mechanism for representing a set of objects as an indivisible mass can be used in other cases, when the components are larger than the particles of matter. For example, in Russian, strawberries, consisting of rather large berries, are presented as uncountable: well, I ate strawberries! (singular); It is interesting that in Polish, close to Russian, this berry, on the contrary, is designated as a set: truskawki- letters. "strawberries". Especially as indivisible (uncountable) aggregates, even groups can be represented - people ( humanity, aristocracy, professorship), and in addition, animals ( cattle, game) and items ( parquet, furniture, rubbish, ruins and etc.). Such designations are also called collective nouns, especially if they are formed from the names of objects or people with the help of special collective suffixes.

The property of uncountability in Russian is possessed by the names of berries ( currant, grape), shrubs and grasses (unlike trees, cf. elderberry, sedge, but birches). But different vegetables and fruits behave differently in this regard. So, apples, cucumbers and tomatoes are countable, cabbage, on the contrary, cannot be counted (you cannot say “two cabbages”), and vegetables such as carrots, turnips, beets, radishes are in some cases presented as countable ( need to peel a few carrots), and in others - as uncountable ( I peeled all the carrots). Some other nouns also fall into the same transitional class between countable and uncountable, cf. street paved with cobblestones and I lifted two stones; selling cloves on the street and white carnations in a vase. Some names become uncountable if their meaning changes, cf. chickens walking around the yard("animals") and all guests were fed chicken("meat").

In the languages ​​of the world, several types of number systems are distinguished - depending on the composition of the meanings of a given grammatical category: singular, plural, dual ("two objects"), trinity ("three objects"), quadruple ("four objects") and paucal ("small number of objects") numbers. Naturally, all these grammatical meanings can express only countable names.

The most common system is one in which singular and plural are contrasted, cf. table~ tables. It is characteristic of most Indo-European languages, the Ural-Altaic, Kartvelian and Nakh-Dagestan languages ​​of the Caucasus, African Bantu languages, etc.

A system based on the opposition of 3 meanings: singular ~ dual ~ plural, is found in Semitic languages, Indo-European (especially in ancient ones - in Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Old Church Slavonic, Old Russian, from modern ones - in Slovenian and Lusatian), in Nenets , Koryak, Alyutor and some others. So, in old Russian they said wife(singular number), wives(plural), but (dual). Some modern Russian forms used with numbers from two to four also go back to the old Russian form of the dual number, cf. two neighbors, but pl. number neighbors, neighbors etc. In addition, modern plurals eyes, shoulders, ears and some others are actually old forms of the dual number (of course, it is no coincidence that these are precisely the words that denote "paired" objects).

Very rarely there is a system with opposition of 4 numbers: singular ~ dual ~ triple ~ plural. It is attested in a number of Papuan languages. An even more complex system, including a quadruple number, takes place, for example, in the Sursurunga language (one of the Austronesian languages), in which personal pronouns are contrasted by five numbers: "you" ~ "you two" ~ "you three" ~ "you are four "~"you (more than four)".

Paucal number (from the Latin word paucus "small"), denoting a small number (up to 5–7) of objects, is opposed to singular, plural, and sometimes dual numbers in some Polynesian, Dagestan and a number of other languages, for example, "lion" ~ "a few/few lions" ~ "many lions".

Finally, in individual languages ​​there are special indicators of “many sets”, for example, in the Breton language, the noun “eye” has the form of a dual number, and if you need to say “several pairs of eyes”, then the ending of the dual number is added to the end of the plural.

In addition to the basic meanings of singularity, multiplicity, duality, etc. number forms can also express some additional meanings. So, in a distributive context, singular forms denote a set of objects, but not a simple one, but correlated with another set under consideration (for example, saying Everyone raised their hand, we mean that there were several hands, and each person raised only one hand). In the same context, the plural form can be used in Russian. It also denotes a set distributed with respect to the second set under consideration, but in a slightly different way: by saying Everyone raised their hands, we mean that everyone raised both hands.

Many languages ​​use hyperbolic or expressive plurals, cf. travel around Europe; What people came! The exaggeration is that one object is really designated here.

Plural forms are also used in the sense of a quantity known to the speaker based on general knowledge of the world, cf. eyes meaning "two eyes" car wheel"four wheels" cards"a set of (playing) cards".

The so-called representative set, expressed in plural forms, denotes a group of persons according to one of its representatives, cf. spanish los padres"father and mother", lit. "fathers", cf. also Russian. Ivanovs Ivanov family. A similar mechanism underlies the designation of an approximate set, for example, in the Russian expression sixties the plural form of the first year of the decade is used, while in Tatar the phrase around the middle of June literally sounds like "in the middle of June".

For nouns denoting substances and therefore not having a meaningful reading of "ordinary" plurality, plural forms are used in the sense of "several sorts or varieties" (cf. wine~ guilt), as well as in the meaning of a large amount and intensity (cf. sands of the Sahara).

In personal pronouns, there is a special plural of grandeur or politeness, cf. Russian polite You, German Sie, pronoun we denoting kings ( we, Nicholas II).

A variety of means can be used to express the grammatical meanings of a number. These are affixes (cf. English. book"book"~ books"books"), and the so-called internal inflection, i.e. changing vowels within a root (for example, in Arabic madona(t) "city" ~ mudun"cities (more than two)", cf. also English. foot "foot" ~ feet "legs"), and reduplication, i.e. doubling the root (for example, in Indonesian, the form "people" literally translates as "man-man"). In some languages, such as Hungarian, a number is expressed optionally if the meaning of plurality is clear from the context, for example, in combination with the designations for the number "many", "ten", etc. the singular form is used.

In many languages, there are nouns that have only a plural form (the so-called pluralia tantum). Usually, objects consisting of two parts are designated in this way (cf. glasses, trousers) or complex ( rake, abacus), as well as some substances and other uncountable objects ( whitewash, firewood, name days, beatings). If a noun denotes countable objects, then its plural form is homonymous, i.e. is used both to refer to one thing and to refer to many: for example, the phrase Pants hung in the closet may refer to one or more pairs of trousers.

The number is often expressed in conjunction with other grammatical categories - such as case, gender (nominal class), certainty / indefiniteness (for example, in Russian and other Slavic languages, Latin, ancient Greek, Norwegian, Bantu languages). In languages ​​with a broken declension system, such as French or German, the article can become an indicator of number (along with certainty / indefiniteness and other grammatical meanings). Thus, in German, for many nouns, only the form of the article distinguishes the singular from the plural in oblique cases, cf. der Bar"bear" (nominative singular) ~ die Baren"bears" (nominative plural), but: des Baren"bear" (gen. singular) ~ der Baren(genus case plural), dem Baren"bear" (Danish singular) ~ den Baren(Date plural) .