The end of the Crimean War of 1856. The numerical ratio of the parties

On October 23, 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. By this time, our Danube army (55 thousand) was concentrated in the vicinity of Bucharest, having forward detachments on the Danube, and the Ottomans had up to 120-130 thousand in European Turkey, under the command of Omer Pasha. These troops were located: 30 thousand at Shumla, 30 thousand in Adrianople, and the rest along the Danube from Viddin to the mouth.

Somewhat earlier than the announcement of the Crimean War, the Turks had already begun hostilities by seizing the Oltenitsky quarantine on the night of October 20 on the left bank of the Danube. The arrived Russian detachment of General Dannenberg (6 thousand) attacked the Turks on October 23 and, despite their numerical superiority (14 thousand), almost occupied the Turkish fortifications, but was withdrawn by General Dannenberg, who considered it impossible to keep Oltenitsa under the fire of Turkish batteries on the right bank of the Danube . Then Omer Pasha himself returned the Turks to the right bank of the Danube and disturbed our troops only with separate surprise attacks, which the Russian troops also responded to.

At the same time, the Turkish fleet brought supplies to the Caucasian highlanders, who acted against Russia at the instigation of the Sultan and England. To prevent this, Admiral Nakhimov, with a squadron of 8 ships, overtook the Turkish squadron, which had taken refuge from bad weather in the Sinop Bay. November 18, 1853, after a three-hour battle of Sinop, the enemy fleet, including 11 ships, was destroyed. Five Ottoman ships took off, the Turks lost up to 4,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners; the Russians lost 38 officers and 229 lower ranks.

Meanwhile, Omer Pasha, having abandoned offensive operations from Oltenitsa, gathered up to 40 thousand to Kalafat and decided to defeat the weak forward Malo-Valakh detachment of General Anrep (7.5 thousand). On December 25, 1853, 18 thousand Turks attacked the 2.5 thousand detachment of Colonel Baumgarten near Chetati, but the reinforcements (1.5 thousand) who came up saved our detachment, which had shot all the cartridges, from final death. Having lost up to 2 thousand people, both of our detachments retreated at night to the village of Motsetsei.

After the battle at Chetati, the Small Wallachian detachment, reinforced to 20 thousand, settled in apartments near Calafat and blocked the Turks from entering Wallachia; further operations of the Crimean War in the European theater in January and February 1854 were limited to minor clashes.

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1853

Meanwhile, the actions of the Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater were accompanied by complete success. Here the Turks, having gathered a 40,000-strong army long before the declaration of the Crimean War, opened hostilities in mid-October. The energetic Prince Bebutov was appointed head of the Russian active corps. Having received information about the movement of the Turks to Alexandropol (Gyumri), Prince Bebutov sent a detachment of General Orbeliani on November 2, 1853. This detachment unexpectedly stumbled upon the main forces of the Turkish army near the village of Bayandur and barely escaped to Alexandropol; the Turks, fearing Russian reinforcements, took up a position at Bashkadyklar. Finally, on November 6, a manifesto was received on the beginning of the Crimean War, and on November 14, Prince Bebutov moved to Kars.

Another Turkish detachment (18 thousand) on October 29, 1853 approached the Akhaltsikhe fortress, but the head of the Akhaltsikhe detachment, Prince Andronnikov, with his 7 thousand on November 14, attacked the Turks himself and put them into a disorderly flight; the Turks lost up to 3.5 thousand, while our losses were limited to only 450 people.

Following the victory of the Akhaltsikhe detachment, the Alexandropol detachment under the command of Prince Bebutov (10 thousand) defeated on November 19 the 40 thousandth army of the Turks in the strong Bashkadyklar position, and only extreme fatigue of people and horses did not allow to develop the success achieved by pursuit. Nevertheless, the Turks in this battle lost up to 6 thousand, and our troops - about 2 thousand.

Both of these victories immediately raised the prestige of the Russian power, and the general uprising that was being prepared in Transcaucasia immediately subsided.

Crimean War 1853-1856. Map

Balkan theater of the Crimean War in 1854

Meanwhile, on December 22, 1853, the combined Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea in order to protect Turkey from the sea and help it supply its ports with the necessary supplies. Russian envoys immediately broke off relations with England and France and returned to Russia. Emperor Nicholas turned to Austria and Prussia with a proposal, in the event of his war with England and France, to observe the strictest neutrality. But both of these powers shied away from any obligations, refusing at the same time to join the allies; to ensure their possessions, they concluded a defensive alliance among themselves. Thus, at the beginning of 1854, it became clear that Russia was left in the Crimean War without allies, and therefore the most decisive measures were taken to strengthen our troops.

By the beginning of 1854, up to 150 thousand Russian troops were located in the area along the Danube and the Black Sea up to the Bug. With these forces, it was supposed to move deep into Turkey, raise an uprising of the Balkan Slavs and declare Serbia independent, but the hostile mood of Austria, which was strengthening its troops in Transylvania, forced us to abandon this bold plan and limit ourselves to crossing the Danube, to master only Silistria and Ruschuk.

In the first half of March, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Galats, Brailov and Izmail, and on March 16, 1854, occupied Girsovo. An unstoppable advance towards Silistria would inevitably lead to the occupation of this fortress, the armament of which had not yet been completed. However, the newly appointed commander-in-chief, Prince Paskevich, who had not yet personally arrived at the army, stopped it, and only the insistence of the emperor himself forced him to continue the offensive towards Silistria. The commander-in-chief himself, fearing that the Austrians would cut off the retreat of the Russian army, offered to return to Russia.

The stop of the Russian troops at Girsov gave the Turks time to strengthen both the fortress itself and its garrison (from 12 to 18 thousand). Approaching the fortress on May 4, 1854 with 90 thousand, Prince Paskevich, still fearing for his rear, stationed his army 5 miles from the fortress in a fortified camp to cover the bridge over the Danube. The siege of the fortress was carried out only against its eastern front, and from the western side, the Turks, in full view of the Russians, brought supplies to the fortress. In general, our actions near Silistria bore the imprint of the extreme caution of the commander-in-chief himself, who was also embarrassed by false rumors about the alleged union of the allies with the army of Omer Pasha. On May 29, 1854, Prince Paskevich, shell-shocked during reconnaissance, left the army, handing it over to Prince Gorchakov, who energetically led the siege and on June 8 decided to storm the Arab and Peschanoe forts. All orders for the assault had already been made, as two hours before the assault, an order was received from Prince Paskevich to immediately lift the siege and move to the left bank of the Danube, which was carried out by the evening of June 13. Finally, according to the condition concluded with Austria, which undertook to support our interests in the western courts, from July 15, 1854, the withdrawal of our troops from the Danubian principalities began, which from August 10 were occupied by Austrian troops. The Turks returned to the right bank of the Danube.

During these actions, the Allies launched a series of attacks on our coastal cities on the Black Sea and, by the way, on Holy Saturday, April 8, 1854, severely bombarded Odessa. Then the allied fleet appeared at Sevastopol and headed for the Caucasus. On land, Allied support for the Ottomans was expressed by the landing of a detachment at Gallipoli to defend Constantinople. Then these troops were transferred to Varna in early July and moved to Dobruja. Here, cholera caused great devastation in their ranks (from July 21 to August 8, 8,000 fell ill and 5,000 of them died).

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1854

Military operations in the spring of 1854 in the Caucasus opened on our right flank, where on June 4, Prince Andronnikov, with the Akhaltsykh detachment (11 thousand), defeated the Turks at Cholok. Somewhat later, on the left flank of the Erivan detachment of General Wrangel (5 thousand) on June 17 attacked 16 thousand Turks on the Chingil Heights, overturned them and occupied Bayazet. The main forces of the Caucasian army, i.e., the Alexandropol detachment of Prince Bebutov, moved to Kars on June 14 and stopped at the village of Kyuryuk-Dara, having 15 miles ahead of them the 60,000th Anatolian army of Zarif Pasha.

On July 23, 1854, Zarif Pasha went on the offensive, and on the 24th, the Russian troops also moved forward, having received false information about the retreat of the Turks. Faced with the Turks, Bebutov lined up his troops in battle order. A series of energetic attacks by infantry and cavalry stopped the right wing of the Turks; then Bebutov, after a very stubborn, often hand-to-hand fight, threw back the center of the enemy, having used up almost all his reserves for this. After that, our attacks turned against the Turkish left flank, which had already bypassed our position. The attack was crowned with complete success: the Turks retreated in complete frustration, losing up to 10 thousand; in addition, about 12 thousand bashi-bazouks fled from them. Our losses amounted to 3 thousand people. Despite the brilliant victory, the Russian troops did not dare to begin the siege of Kars without a siege artillery fleet and retreated back to Alexandropol (Gyumri) in the fall.

Defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War

Panorama Defense of Sevastopol (view from Malakhov Kurgan). Artist F. Roubaud, 1901-1904

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1855

In the Transcaucasian theater of war, operations were resumed in the second half of May 1855 by us occupying Ardagan without a fight and advancing towards Kars. Knowing about the lack of food in Kars, the new commander-in-chief, General Ants, was limited to only one blockade, but, having received in September the news of the movement of Omer Pasha's army transported from European Turkey to the rescue of Kars, he decided to take the fortress by storm. The assault on September 17, which was launched on the most important, but at the same time on the strongest, western front (Shorakh and Chakhmakh heights), cost us 7,200 people and ended in failure. The army of Omer Pasha could not advance to Kars due to a lack of means of transportation, and on November 16 the garrison of Kars surrendered to capitulation.

British and French attacks on Sveaborg, the Solovetsky Monastery and Petropavlovsk

To complete the description of the Crimean War, one should also mention some of the secondary actions taken against Russia by the Western allies. On June 14, 1854, an allied squadron of 80 ships, under the command of the English Admiral Nepier, appeared at Kronstadt, then withdrew to the Aland Islands, and returned to their harbors in October. On July 6 of the same year, two English ships bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, unsuccessfully demanding its surrender, and on August 17, an allied squadron also arrived at the port of Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka and, shelling the city, made a landing, which was soon repulsed. In May 1855, a strong allied squadron was sent to the Baltic Sea for the second time, which, after standing for some time near Kronstadt, went back in the autumn; its combat activity was limited only to the bombardment of Sveaborg.

Results of the Crimean War

After the fall of Sevastopol on August 30, hostilities in the Crimea were suspended, and on March 18, 1856, Parisian world, who ended the long and difficult war of Russia against 4 states of Europe (Turkey, England, France and Sardinia, which joined the allies at the beginning of 1855).

The consequences of the Crimean War were enormous. Russia after it lost its predominance in Europe, which it had enjoyed since the end of the war with Napoleon in 1812-1815. It has now passed to France for 15 years. The shortcomings and disorganizations discovered by the Crimean War opened in Russian history the era of reforms of Alexander II, which updated all aspects of national life.

the aggravation of the "Eastern Question", i.e., the struggle of the leading countries for the division of the "Turkish heritage";
the growth of the national liberation movement in the Balkans, the acute internal crisis in Turkey and the conviction of Nicholas I of the inevitability of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire;
the miscalculations of the diplomacy of Nicholas 1, which manifested itself in the hope that Austria, in gratitude for its salvation in 1848-1849, would support Russia, it would be possible to agree with England on the division of Turkey; as well as disbelief in the possibility of an agreement between the eternal enemies - England and France, directed against Russia, "
the desire of England, France, Austria and Prussia to oust Russia from the East, the desire to prevent its penetration into the Balkans

The reason for the Crimean war of 1853-1856:

The dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic churches for the right to control Christian shrines in Palestine. Russia was behind the Orthodox Church, and France was behind the Catholic Church.

Stages of military operations of the Crimean War:

1. Russian-Turkish war (May - December 1853). After the Turkish sultan rejected the ultimatum on granting the Russian Tsar the right to patronize the Orthodox citizens of the Ottoman Empire, the Russian army occupied Moldavia, Wallachia and all the way to the Danube. The Caucasian Corps went on the offensive. The Black Sea squadron achieved great success, which in November 1853 under the command of Pavel Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop.

2. The beginning of the war between Russia and a coalition of European countries (spring - summer 1854). the threat of defeat looming over Turkey prompted European countries to take active anti-Russian actions, which led from a local war to a pan-European war.

March. England and France took the side of Turkey (Sardinian). Allied squadrons fired on Russian troops; fortification on the Alan Islands in the Baltic, on the Solovki, in the White Sea, on the Kola Peninsula, in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Odessa, Nikolaev, Kerch. Austria, threatening Russia with war, moved troops to the borders of the Danubian principalities, which forced the Russian armies to leave Moldavia and Wallachia.

3. Defense of Sevastopol and the end of the war. In September 1854, the Anglo-French The army landed in the Crimea, which turned into the main "theater" of the war. This is the last stage of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The Russian army led by Menshikov was defeated on the river. Alma left Sevastopol defenseless. The defense of the sea fortress, after the flooding of the sailing fleet in the Sevastopol bay, was taken over by sailors led by Admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov Istomin (all died). In the first days of October 1854, the defense of the city began and was taken only on August 27, 1855.

In the Caucasus, successful actions in November 1855, the capture of the fortress of Kars. However, with the fall of Sevastopol, the outcome of the war was predetermined: March 1856. peace talks in Paris.

Terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856)

Russia was losing Southern Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, and Kars was returning to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol.

Russia was deprived of the right to protect the Christians of the Ottoman Empire
The Black Sea was declared neutral and Russia lost the right to have a navy and fortifications there.
Established freedom of navigation on the Danube, which opened the Baltic Peninsula for Western powers

Causes of Russia's defeat in the Crimean War.

Economic and technical backwardness (weapons and transport support of the Russian armies)
The mediocrity of the Russian high ground command, which achieved ranks and titles through intrigue, flattery
Diplomatic miscalculations that led Russia to isolation in the war with the coalition of England, France, Turkey, with the hostile attitude of Austria, Prussia.
The apparent disparity of forces

Thus, the Crimean War of 1853-1856,

1) at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia managed to acquire a number of territories in the East and expand its spheres of influence

2) the suppression of the revolutionary movement in the West brought Russia the title of "gendarme of Europe", but did not meet its nat. interests

3) the defeat in the Crimean War revealed the backwardness of Russia; the rottenness of its autocratic-serf system. Revealed errors in foreign policy, the goals of which did not correspond to the capabilities of the country

4) this defeat became a decisive and direct factor in the preparation and implementation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia

5) the heroism and selflessness of Russian soldiers during the Crimean War remained in the memory of the people and influenced the development of the spiritual life of the country.

Causes of the Crimean War

The Eastern question has always been topical for Russia. After the capture of Byzantium by the Turks and the establishment of Ottoman rule, Russia remained the most powerful Orthodox state in the world. Nicholas 1, the Russian emperor, sought to strengthen Russian influence in the Middle East and the Balkans by supporting the national liberation struggle of the peoples of the Balkans for liberation from Muslim rule. But these plans threatened Great Britain and France, which also sought to increase their influence in the Middle East region. Among other things, Napoleon 3, the then Emperor of France, simply needed to switch the attention of his people from his own unpopular person to the more popular war with Russia at that time.

The reason was found quite easily. In 1853, another dispute arose between Catholics and Orthodox for the right to repair the dome of the Bethlehem Church on the site of the Nativity of Christ. The decision was to be made by the Sultan, who, at the instigation of France, decided the issue in favor of the Catholics. Requirements of Prince A.S. Menshikov, the Russian ambassador extraordinary about the right of the Russian emperor to patronize the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish sultan were rejected, after which the Russian troops occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, and the protest of the Turks refused to leave these principalities, motivating their actions as a protectorate over them in accordance with the Adrianople Treaty.

After some political manipulations by European states in alliance with Turkey, the latter declared war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853.

At the first stage, while Russia was dealing with only the Ottoman Empire, it was winning: in the Caucasus (the battle of Bashkadiklyar), Turkish troops suffered a crushing defeat, and the destruction of 14 ships of the Turkish fleet near Sinop was one of the brightest victories of the Russian fleet.

Entry of England and France into the Crimean War

And then “Christian” France and England intervened, declaring war on Russia on March 15 (27), 1854 and capturing Evpatoria in early September. The Parisian Cardinal Sibur described their seemingly impossible alliance as follows: “The war that France entered into with Russia is not a political war, but a sacred, ... religious war. ... the need to drive away the heresy of Photius ... Such is the recognized goal of this new crusade ... ”Russia could not resist the combined forces of such powers. Both internal contradictions and insufficient technical equipment of the army played a role. In addition, the Crimean War moved to other areas. Turkey's allies in the North Caucasus - Shamil's detachments - hit in the back, Kokand opposed the Russians in Central Asia (however, they were not lucky here - the battle for Fort Perovsky, where there were 10 enemies or more for each Russian, led to the defeat of the Kokand troops) .

There were also battles in the Baltic Sea - on the Alan Islands and the Finnish coast, and in the White Sea - for Kola, the Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk, there was an attempt to take Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. However, all these battles were won by the Russians, which forced England and France to see Russia as a more serious enemy and take the most decisive action.

Defense of Sevastopol in 1854-1855

The outcome of the war was decided by the defeat of the Russian troops in the defense of Sevastopol, the siege of which by the coalition forces lasted almost a year (349 days). During this time, too many unfavorable events for Russia took place: the talented military leaders Kornilov, Istomin, Totleben, Nakhimov died, and on February 18 (March 2), 1855, the Emperor of All Russia, the Tsar of Poland and the Grand Duke of Finland Nikolai 1 died in St. Petersburg. August 27 (8 September) 1855 Malakhov Kurgan was taken, the defense of Sevastopol became meaningless, the next day the Russians left the city.

Defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856

After the capture of Kinburn by the French in October and the note of Austria, which up to now had observed armed neutrality together with Prussia, further waging the war by a weakened Russia did not make sense.

On March 18 (30), 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which imposed on Russia the will of the European states and Turkey, forbade the Russian state to have a navy, seized the Black Sea bases, forbade the strengthening of the Aland Islands, abolished the protectorate over Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia, forced to exchange Kars to Sevastopol and Balaklava, and caused the transfer of South Bessarabia to the Moldavian principality (pushed the Russian borders along the Danube). Russia was exhausted by the Crimean war, its economy is greatly upset.

The Crimean War of 1853-1856, also the Eastern War, is a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. They reached the greatest tension in the Crimea.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, and only direct military assistance from Russia, England, France and Austria allowed the Sultan to twice prevent the capture of Constantinople by the rebellious vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt. In addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued (see the Eastern question). These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

During a diplomatic conflict with France over control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Russia under the terms of the Adrianople peace treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Allies succeeded, using the technical backwardness of the Russian troops and the indecision of the Russian command, to concentrate quantitatively and qualitatively superior forces of the army and navy on the Black Sea, which allowed them to successfully land an airborne corps in the Crimea, inflict a number of defeats on the Russian army, and after a year siege to capture the southern part of Sevastopol - the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol Bay, the location of the Russian fleet, remained under Russian control. On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Turkish army and capture Kars. However, the threat of Austria and Prussia joining the war forced the Russians to accept the terms of peace imposed by the allies. The humiliating Treaty of Paris, signed in 1856, demanded that Russia return to the Ottoman Empire everything captured in southern Bessarabia, at the mouth of the Danube River and in the Caucasus; the empire was forbidden to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, proclaimed neutral waters; Russia stopped military construction in the Baltic Sea, and much more.

The results of the war

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.

The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.

Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.

Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774, and the exclusive patronage of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

Introduction

For my essay, I chose the topic "The Crimean War of 1853-1856: goals and results." This topic seemed to me the most interesting. "The Crimean War is one of the turning points in the history of international relations and especially in the history of Russia's domestic and foreign policy" (EV Tarle). It was an armed resolution of the historical confrontation between Russia and Europe.

Crimean War 1853-1856 considered one of the largest and most dramatic international conflicts. To one degree or another, all the leading powers of the world of that time took part in it, and in terms of its geographical scope, until the middle of the 19th century, it had no equal. All this allows us to consider it a kind of "proto-world" war.

She claimed the lives of more than 1 million people. The Crimean War can in some way be called a rehearsal for the world wars of the 20th century. It was the first war when the leading world powers, having suffered gigantic losses, came together in a fierce confrontation.

I wanted to work on this topic and evaluate in general terms the goals and results of the Crimean War. The main tasks of the work include:

1. Determination of the main causes of the Crimean War

2. Overview of the course of the Crimean War

3. Evaluation of the results of the Crimean War

1. Literature review

In historiography, the topic of the Crimean War was dealt with by E.V. Tarle (in the book "The Crimean War"), K.M. Bazili, A.M., Zaionchkovsky and others.

Evgeny Viktorovich Tarle (1874 - 1955) - Russian Soviet historian, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

Bazili Konstantin Mikhailovich (1809 - 1884) - an outstanding Russian orientalist, diplomat, writer and historian.

Andrei Medardovich Zayonchkovsky (1862 - 1926) - Russian and Soviet military leader, military historian.

For the preparation of this work, I used books:

"Russian Imperial House" - for information about the significance of the Crimean War for Russia

"Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" - a description of the Crimean War and some general information on this issue are taken from this book

Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - I used this literature to describe the general history of the war of 1853-1856.

Tarle E.V. "Crimean War" - information about military operations and the significance of the Crimean War

Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War 1853-1856" - to obtain information about the events that preceded the war and the beginning of hostilities against Turkey.

2. Causes of the Crimean War

The Crimean War was the result of many years of rivalry between the Western powers in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire was going through a period of decline and the European powers that had plans for its possessions carefully watched each other's actions.

Russia sought to secure its southern borders (to create friendly, independent Orthodox states in Southeastern Europe, whose territory could not be swallowed up and used by other powers), to expand political influence in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East, to establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles - an important for Russia the way to the Mediterranean. This was significant both from the military and from the economic side. The Russian emperor, recognizing himself as a great Orthodox monarch, sought to liberate the Orthodox peoples under the influence of Turkey. Nicholas I decided to strengthen his position in the Balkans and the Middle East with the help of hard pressure on Turkey.

By the time the war broke out, Sultan Abdulmejid was pursuing a reform policy - the tanzimat, caused by the crisis of the Ottoman feudal society, socio-economic problems and increased rivalry between European powers in the Middle East and the Balkans. For this, borrowed funds from Western states (French and English) were used, which were spent on the purchase of industrial products and weapons, and not on strengthening the Turkish economy. It can be said that Turkey gradually fell under the influence of European powers peacefully.

The possibility of forming an anti-Russian coalition and weakening Russia's influence in the Balkans opened up before Great Britain. The French emperor Napoleon III, who had attained the throne through a coup d'état, was looking for an opportunity to intervene in European affairs and take part in some serious war in order to support his power with the splendor and glory of the victory of French arms. Therefore, he immediately joined England in its eastern policy against Russia. Turkey decided to use this chance to restore its positions and seize the territories of Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia.

Thus, the causes of the Crimean War were rooted in the clash of the colonial interests of the countries, i.e. (all countries that participated in the Crimean War pursued serious geopolitical interests).

Nicholas I was sure that Austria and Prussia, Russia's partners in the Holy Alliance, would remain at least neutral in the Russian-French conflict, and France would not dare to fight Russia one on one. In addition, he believed that Great Britain and France were rivals in the Middle East and would not conclude an alliance between themselves. Nicholas I, speaking out against Turkey, hoped for an agreement with England and for the isolation of France (in any case, the Russian emperor was sure that France would not come closer to England).

The formal reason for the intervention was the dispute over the holy places in Jerusalem, where the Turkish sultan gave some advantages to the Catholics, infringing on the rights of the Orthodox. Relying on the support of France, the Turkish government not only handed over the keys to the Bethlehem Church to the Catholics, but also began to restrict the Orthodox in the Holy Land, did not allow the restoration of the dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and did not allow the construction of a hospital and an almshouse for Russian pilgrims. All this provoked the participation in the dispute of Russia (on the side of the Orthodox Church) and France (on the side of the Catholic Church), who were looking for a reason to put pressure on Turkey.

Defending fellow believers, Emperor Nicholas I demanded that the Sultan comply with the treaties on the rights of Russia in Palestine. To do this, in February 1853, by the highest order, Prince A.S. sailed to Constantinople with emergency powers. Menshikov. He was instructed to demand that the Sultan not only resolve the dispute over the holy places in favor of the Orthodox Church, but also give the Russian Tsar a special right to be the patron of all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. When this was refused, Prince Menshikov notified the Sultan of the break in Russian-Turkish relations (although the Sultan agreed to give the holy places under the control of Russia) and departed from Constantinople. After that, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, and England and France, in order to support Turkey, brought their fleets into the Dardanelles. The Sultan, having declared to Russia the demand for the cleansing of the Danube principalities in 15 days, did not wait for the end of this period and began hostile actions against Russia. On October 4 (16), 1853, Turkey, counting on the help of the European powers, declared war on Russia. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), 1853, Nicholas I published a manifesto on the war with Turkey. Turkey willingly went to unleash a war, wanting the return of the northern coast of the Black Sea, Crimea, Kuban.

The Crimean War began as a Russian-Turkish war, but then turned into a coalition war between England, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. The Crimean War got its name because the Crimea became the main theater of military operations.

The active policy of Nicholas I in the Middle East and Europe rallied interested countries against Russia, which led to its military confrontation with a strong bloc of European powers. England and France sought to prevent Russia from accessing the Mediterranean, establish their control over the straits and carry out colonial conquests in the Middle East at the expense of the Turkish Empire. They sought to take control of the Turkish economy and public finances.

In my opinion, the main reasons for hostilities can be formulated as follows:

firstly, England, France and Austria sought to consolidate their influence in the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire, oust Russia from the Black Sea region, thereby limiting its advance to the Middle East;

secondly, Turkey, encouraged by England and France, hatched plans to seize the Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia;

thirdly, Russia sought to defeat the Ottoman Empire, seize the Black Sea straits and expand its influence in the Middle East.

3. The course of the Crimean War

The Crimean War can be divided into two major stages. On the first (from 1853 to the beginning of 1854), Russia fought one on one with Turkey. This period can be called a classic Russian-Turkish war with the Danube, Caucasian and Black Sea theaters of military operations. At the second stage (from 1854 to February 1856), England, France, and then Sardinia took the side of Turkey. The small Sardinian kingdom sought to achieve recognition of the status of a "power" by the European capitals. This was promised to her by England and France if Sardinia entered the war against Russia. This turn of events had a great influence on the course of the war. Russia had to fight a powerful coalition of states that surpassed Russia in the scale and quality of weapons, especially in the field of navies, small arms and means of communication. In this regard, it can be considered that the Crimean War opened a new era of wars of the industrial era, when the importance of military equipment and the military-economic potential of states sharply increased.

The Turkish sultan, supported by England and France, on September 27 (October 4), 1853, demanded that Russia clear the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) and, without waiting for the 15 days allotted for them to respond, began hostilities. October 4 (16), 1853 Turkey declared war on Russia. Under the command of Omar Pasha, the Turkish army crossed the Danube.

The day before the declaration of war on October 3 (15), 1853, the Ottomans fired on Russian pickets on the left bank of the Danube. October 11 (23), 1853. shelling by the Ottomans of Russian military ships passing along the Danube. On October 15 (27), 1853, hostilities began on the Caucasian front with an attack by Ottoman troops on Russian fortifications. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), Nicholas I issued a manifesto on Russia's entry into the war with the Ottoman Empire, and in November opened hostilities.

On November 18 (30) in the Sinop Bay, the Russian Black Sea squadron, under the command of Nakhimov, attacked the Turkish fleet and, after a stubborn battle, destroyed it all.

On November 11 (23), the commander Nakhimov approached Sinop with small forces and blocked the entrance to the port. A ship was sent to Sevastopol with a request for reinforcements. On November 17 (29), the first part of the expected reinforcements arrived. At that moment, Nakhimov's squadron included 6 battleships and two frigates. The Turkish squadron, which arrived in Sinop from Istanbul, stood in the roadstead and prepared for the landing of a large landing of troops in the region of Sukhumi and Poti. On the morning of November 18 (30), without waiting for the arrival of Kornilov's detachment, Nakhimov led his squadron to Sinop. By the evening of the same day, the Turkish squadron was killed almost completely along with the entire team. Of the entire Turkish squadron, only one ship survived, which fled to Constantinople and brought there the news of the death of the fleet. The defeat of the Turkish squadron significantly weakened the Turkish naval forces.

Alarmed by Russia's victory at Sinop, on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), England and France entered their fleet into the Black Sea, and demanded that Russia withdraw Russian troops from the Danubian principalities. Nicholas I refused. Then on March 15 (27) England and March 16 (28) France declared war on Russia.

England is trying to draw Austria and Prussia into the war with Russia. However, she did not succeed, although they took a position hostile to Russia. On April 8 (20), 1854, Austria and Prussia demand that Russia clear the Danubian principalities from its troops. Russia is forced to fulfill the requirements.

On August 4 (16), French troops captured and destroyed the fortress of Bomarzund on the Aland Islands, and after that a brutal bombardment was carried out in Sveaborg. As a result, the Russian Baltic Fleet was blocked at its bases. But the confrontation continued, and the attack of the allied forces on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky at the end of August 1854 ended in complete failure.

Meanwhile, in the summer of 1854, a 50,000-strong expeditionary force of allied troops was concentrated in Varna. This unit was provided with the latest weapons, which the Russian army did not have (rifled guns, etc.).

England and France tried to organize a broad coalition against Russia, but managed to involve only the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was dependent on France, into it. At the beginning of hostilities, the Allied fleets bombarded Odessa, but without success. Then the British squadrons made demonstrations in the Baltic Sea, in the White Sea, near the Solovetsky Monastery, even off the coast of Kamchatka, but they did not take serious action anywhere. After a meeting of French and British commanders, it was decided to strike Russia on the Black Sea and besiege Sevastopol as an important military port. If this operation was successful, Britain and France expected to simultaneously destroy both the entire Russian Black Sea Fleet and its main base.

On September 2-6 (14-18), 1854, a 62,000-strong Allied army landed near Evpatoria, more numerous, better equipped and armed than the Russian army. Due to a lack of forces, the Russian troops were unable to stop the landing of the Allied forces, but nevertheless tried to stop the enemy on the Alma River, where on September 8 (20), 1854, Prince Menshikov met the Allied army with only 35 thousand people and, after an unsuccessful battle, retreated to the south, to Sevastopol - the main stronghold of Russia in the Crimea.

The heroic defense of Sevastopol began on September 13 (25), 1854. The defense of the city was in the hands of V.A. Kornilov and Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. The garrison of Sevastopol consisted of only 11 thousand people, and there were fortifications only on one seaside side, and from the north and south the fortress was almost unprotected. Allied troops, supported by a strong fleet, stormed the northern part of Sevastopol. In order to prevent the enemy fleet from reaching the south side, Menshikov ordered the ships of the Black Sea squadron to be flooded, and their guns and crews to be transferred to the shore to reinforce the garrison. At the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, the Russians sank several sailing ships, thus blocking access to the bay for the Anglo-French fleet. In addition, the strengthening of the southern side began.

On October 5 (12), the allied shelling of the city began. One of the main defenders, Kornilov, was mortally wounded by a cannonball at the moment when he was descending from Malakhov Kurgan, after inspecting the positions. The defense of Sevastopol was headed by P.S. Nakhimov, E.I. Totleben and V.I. Istomin. The besieged garrison responded to the enemy, and the first bombardment did not bring much results to the allies. They abandoned the assault and led a reinforced siege.

A.S. Menshikov, trying to divert the enemy's wax from the city, undertook a series of offensive operations. As a result of which the Turks were successfully driven out of their positions at Kadikioy, but he failed to win the battle with the British near Balaklava on October 13 (25). The battle of Balaklava was one of the largest battles of the Crimean War between Great Britain, France and Turkey on the one hand, and Russia on the other. The city of Balaklava was the base of the British Expeditionary Force in the Crimea. The blow of the Russian troops on the positions of the allies at Balaklava could, if successful, lead to a disruption in the supply of the British. On October 13 (25), the battle took place in the valleys north of Balaklava. It was the only battle in the entire Crimean War in which the Russian troops significantly outnumbered the forces.

The Russian detachment consisted of 16 thousand people. Allied forces were represented mainly by British troops. French and Turkish units also participated in the battle, but their role was insignificant. The number of allied troops was about two thousand people.

The battle began early in the morning. In order to cover the too wide front of the attack of the Russian cavalry, the Scottish commander Campbell ordered his soldiers to line up in twos. The first Russian attack was repulsed.

Lord Raglan ordered an attack on the Russian positions, which led to tragic consequences. During this attack, two-thirds of the attackers were killed.

By the end of the battle, the opposing sides remained in their morning positions. The number of dead allies ranged from 400 to 1000 people, Russians - about 600.

On October 24 (November 5), Russian troops under the command of General Soymonov attacked the positions of the British. The enemy was taken by surprise. As a result, the Russians captured the fortifications, but could not hold them and retreated. With the help of the detachment of General Pavlov, who approached from Inkerman, the Russian troops managed to achieve a significant advantage, and the British troops were in a critical situation. In the heat of battle, the British lost a large number of their soldiers and were ready to admit defeat, but were saved by the intervention of the French, led by General Bosquet. The entry into the battle of the French troops turned the tide of the battle. The outcome of the battle was decided by the advantage in their weapons, which were more long-range than the Russians.

Russian troops were defeated and forced to retreat with heavy losses (11,800 people), the Allies lost 5,700 people. General Soymonov was among those who died in the battle. The battle also had a positive outcome: the general assault on Sevastopol, scheduled by the allies for the next day, did not take place.

The Russians were defeated at Inkerman, and Menshikov's detachment was forced to withdraw from the city deep into the peninsula.

The war continued. On January 14 (26), 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the allied anti-Russian coalition.

The conditions for the defense of Sevastopol were incredibly difficult. There were not enough people, ammunition, food, medicines.

With the onset of winter, hostilities subsided. Nicholas I gathered a militia and sent it to help the defenders of Sevastopol. For moral support, Grand Dukes Mikhail and Nikolai Nikolaevich arrived in the Russian army.

In February, hostilities resumed, and, by order of the emperor, Russian troops went on the offensive near the highest point in Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan. From the hills closest to him, several enemy detachments were knocked down, the occupied hills were immediately fortified.

On February 18, 1855, among these events, Emperor Nicholas I died. But the war continued under the successor of the sovereign, Alexander II. Siege and defensive work on both sides went on until the end of March; On the 28th of this month, the Allies began the bombardment from land and continued it until April 1, then soon resumed it again, and only on April 7 did the besieged breathe more freely. There have been big changes in their lineup. In place of Prince Menshikov, Emperor Alexander II appointed Prince Gorchakov. In turn, among the Allies, the French commander-in-chief Canrobert was replaced by General Pélissier.

Realizing that Malakhov Kurgan is the key to the defense of Sevastopol, Pelissier directed all his efforts to seizing it. On May 26, after a terrible bombardment, the French took hostilities to the fortifications closest to Malakhov Kurgan. It remained to take possession of the mound itself, but it turned out to be more difficult than the attackers expected. On June 5 (17), a cannonade began, on June 6 (18) an assault was made, but unsuccessfully: General Khrulev repelled all attacks, the enemy had to retreat and continued for 3 whole months fight over the mound, near which all the forces of both sides are now concentrated. On June 8 (20), the wounded leader of the defense Totleben dropped out from the defenders of the fortress, and on June 27 (July 9) they were struck by a new heavy loss: Nakhimov was mortally wounded in the temple and through died for three days.

On August 4, Gorchakov launched an offensive against the enemy positions near the Black River, and the next day he fought there, which ended unsuccessfully for the Russian army. After that, from August 6 (18), Pelissier began the bombardment of the city and continued it continuously for 20 days. Gorchakov was convinced that it was unthinkable to defend Sevastopol for longer, and in the event of a new assault, the fortress would be taken. To prevent the enemy from getting anything, they began to lay mines under all the fortifications, and a floating bridge was built to transfer troops.

On August 27 (September 8), at 12 noon, the enemy moved to Malakhov Kurgan and, after a terrible battle, took possession of it, and General Khrulev, the main defender, was wounded and almost captured. Russian troops immediately began to leave along the bridge to the north side, the remaining ships were flooded, and the fortifications were blown up. After 349 days of stubborn struggle and many bloody battles, the enemy captured the fortress, which was a heap of ruins.

After the occupation of Sevastopol, the allies suspended military operations: they could not launch an offensive into Russia without wagons, and Prince Gorchakov, who fortified with an army near the captured fortress, did not accept battles in the open. Winter completely stopped the military operations of the allies in the Crimea, as illnesses began in their army.

Sevastopol defense 1854 - 1855 showed everyone the strength of the patriotic feeling of the Russian people and the steadfastness of their national character.

Not counting on the imminent end of the war, both sides started talking about peace. France did not want to continue the war, not wanting to either strengthen England or weaken Russia beyond measure. Russia also wanted an end to the war.

4. Results of the Crimean War

On March 18 (30), 1856, peace was signed in Paris with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The Russian delegation was headed by Count A.F. Orlov. He managed to achieve conditions that were less difficult and humiliating for Russia than expected after such an unfortunate war.

Under the Paris Peace Treaty, Russia received back Sevastopol, Evpatoria and other Russian cities, but returned the Kars fortress taken in the Caucasus to Turkey, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and southern Bessarabia, the Black Sea was declared neutral, and Russia was deprived of the right to keep a navy on it, pledging also not to build fortifications along the coast. Thus, the Russian Black Sea coast became defenseless against possible aggression. Eastern Christians came under the patronage of European powers, i.e. Russia was deprived of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population in the territory of the Ottoman Empire, which weakened Russia's influence on Middle Eastern affairs.

The Crimean War had unfavorable consequences for Russia. Its result was a significant weakening of the influence of Russia, both in Europe and in the Middle East. The destruction of the remnants of the military fleet on the Black Sea and the elimination of fortifications on the coast made the southern border of the country open to any enemy invasion. Although, under the terms of the Paris Treaty, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea Fleet, it always had the opportunity to bring its squadrons there from the Mediterranean through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The positions of France and Great Britain and their influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, on the contrary, were seriously strengthened, and France became one of the leading powers in Europe.

Crimean War in the period 1853-1856. claimed the lives of more than 1 million people (522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British).

In terms of its enormous scale (the size of the theater of operations and the number of mobilized troops), the Crimean War can be compared with the world war. Russia fought alone in this war, defending itself on several fronts. She was opposed by an international coalition consisting of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia (since 1855), which inflicted a crushing defeat on Russia.

The Crimean War frankly demonstrated the fact that the West is ready to combine its power with the Muslim East in order to achieve its global goals. In the event of this war, to crush the third center of power - Orthodox Russia.

In addition, the Crimean War showed the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic lagging behind Europe threatened with more serious consequences. As a result, the main task of Russia's foreign policy in 1856 - 1871. there was a struggle for the abolition of some articles of the Paris Treaty, tk. Russia could not tolerate the fact that its Black Sea border remained undefended and open to military attack. The security interests of the state, as well as economic and political ones, demanded the abolition of the neutral status of the Black Sea.

Conclusion

Crimean War 1853-1856 was originally fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires for dominance in the Middle East. On the eve of the war, Nicholas I misjudged the international situation (regarding England, France and Austria). Nicholas I took into account neither the advantage for Napoleon III of diverting the attention of the French broad strata of the people from internal affairs to foreign policy, nor the economic interests of the French bourgeoisie in Turkey. The victories of the Russian troops at the beginning of the war, namely the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop, prompted England and France to intervene in the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the warring coalition, which wanted to receive the status of a world power. Sweden and Austria, which were bound by the bonds of the "Holy Alliance" with Russia, were ready to join the allies. Military operations were conducted in the Baltic Sea, in Kamchatka, in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities. The main actions unfolded in the Crimea during the defense of Sevastopol from the Allied troops.

As a result, by common efforts, the united coalition won the war. Russia signed the Treaty of Paris with unfavorable conditions.

The defeat of Russia can be explained by several groups of reasons: political, socio-economic and technical.

The political cause of Russia's defeat in the Crimean War was the unification of the leading European powers (England and France) against it. The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serf labor, which hindered the economic development of the country and caused its technical backwardness. From which the limited industrial development followed. The technical reason for the defeat was the obsolete weapons of the Russian army.

Military factories, which existed in small numbers, worked poorly due to primitive technology and unproductive serf labor. The main engines were water and horse traction. Before the Crimean War, Russia annually produced only 50-70 thousand guns and pistols, 100-120 guns and 60-80 thousand pounds of gunpowder.

The Russian army suffered from a lack of weapons and ammunition. The armament was outdated, and new types of weapons were hardly introduced.

The military training of the Russian troops was also low. The Military Ministry of Russia before the Crimean War was headed by Prince A.I. Chernyshev, who prepared the army not for war, but for parades. For shooting training, 10 live rounds per soldier per year were allocated.

Transport and communications were also in poor condition, which negatively affected the combat capability of the Russian army. There was not a single railway from the center to the south of the country. The troops marched on foot, carrying weapons and ammunition on oxen. It was easier to deliver soldiers to the Crimea from England or France than from the center of Russia.

The Russian Navy was the third in the world, but inferior to the British and French. England and France had 454 warships, including 258 ships, and Russia 115 ships with 24 ships.

I believe that the main reasons for the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War can be called:

an incorrect assessment of the international situation, which led to the diplomatic isolation of Russia and the war with not one, but several strong opponents

backward military industry (based mainly on serf labor)

obsolete weapons

lack of a developed road transport system

The defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated that the country could finally lose the status of a great power.

The Crimean War was the strongest impetus for the aggravation of the social crisis within the country, contributed to the development of mass peasant uprisings, accelerated the fall of serfdom and the implementation of bourgeois reforms.

The world-historical significance of the Crimean War lies in the fact that it clearly and convincingly drew a line of civilizational division between Russia and Europe.

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War led to the loss of its leading role in Europe, which it had played for forty years. A so-called "Crimean system" has taken shape in Europe, based on the Anglo-French bloc directed against Russia. The articles of the Paris Peace Treaty dealt a tangible blow to the Russian Empire. The most severe of them was the one that forbade her to have a navy on the Black Sea and build coastal fortifications. However, by and large, Russia paid a much lower price for the defeat than it could have, subject to more successful military actions on the part of the allies.

List of used literature

1. "Russian Imperial House". - Moscow, publishing house "OLMA Media Group", 2006

2. "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary". - Moscow, publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1981, p.669

3. Tarle E.V. "Crimean War". - Moscow, publishing house "AST", 2005 - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/evgeniy-tarle-krimskaya-voyna.html

4. Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/a-andreev-istoriya-krima.html

5. Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War, 1853-1856". - St. Petersburg, publishing house "Polygon", 2002 - http://www.adjudant.ru/crimea/zai00. htm

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The spirit in the troops is beyond description. In the days of ancient Greece, there was not so much heroism. I have not been able to be in business a single time, but I thank God that I have seen these people and live in this glorious time.
Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common occurrence in the international politics of the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended with the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of the role of Russia in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic politics, which led to many problems. Despite victories at the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical significance in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of the aggravation of the Eastern question

Under the eastern question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the main one for the future war, are as follows:

The loss of the Crimea and the northern Black Sea region by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result of them, Turkey lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further strengthened the desire for revenge.
Belonging to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from the countries of Western Europe) ignored these demands of Russia.
The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia supported them, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russia's interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of the countries of Western Europe (Britain, France, and Austria) not to let Russia into the Balkans, as well as close its access to the straits. For the sake of this, the countries were ready to support Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These troubled moments brewed throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan transferred the Bethlehem Temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the control of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation of the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a pretext for attacking Turkey. Russia demanded that the temple be handed over to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits for the Black Sea Fleet. Turkey refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danubian principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and that Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work, European countries called the Ottoman Empire to action, promising her financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called Eastern.

The course of the war and the main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. Here are the steps:

October 1853 - April 1854. During these six months the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without the direct intervention of other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations, as well as a turning point in the course of the war. The allied troops were superior to the Russian ones from the technical side, which was the reason for the changes in the course of the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be distinguished: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but those listed above are the main ones. Let's consider them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in the Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and gave hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

In early April 1854, the Ottoman Empire launched a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which swiftly headed for Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of the Crimea. However, the city withstood several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver accurate strikes against the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The allies were forced to retreat towards the Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fights on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After the success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry into the war of England and France complicated the offensive of Russia. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted and the Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, on this front, Austria also entered the war against Russia, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria), a huge landing of the British and French armies landed (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, ousting Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the leadership of the army first strike at the Black Sea fleet in the Crimea.

Fights in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuruk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June-November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the fortress of Karsu, so that the allies would send part of the troops to this region, thereby slightly easing the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little effect on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the "peace" signed later, the fortress of Kars returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace talks showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, Franco-British troops captured the last point of the city's defense - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived 11 months of siege, however, as a result, it was surrendered to the allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat became a key one and served as an impetus for the end of the war. From the end of 1855, intensified negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in the Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, several more battles took place, which were aimed at "unblocking" Sevastopol:

Battle of the Alma (September 1854).
Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
An attempt to liberate Evpatoria (February 1855).
Battle on the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

Peter and Paul Defense. The battle that took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on the one hand and Russian on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was the result of the victory of Britain over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in the east of Asia, ousting Russia from here. In total, the Allied troops made two assaults, both ended in failure for them. Russia withstood the Peter and Paul defense.
Arctic Company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. The British also undertook the bombardment of the Solovetsky fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

In February 1855, Nicholas 1 died. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented by Alexei Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, already on March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:

Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
Russia was forbidden to have a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
The Bosporus and Dardanelles were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Moldavian Principality, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
On the Allada Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was forbidden to build military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, the Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand soldiers. Austrian casualties are unknown, possibly because Austria was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia, compared with the states of Europe, especially in terms of the economy (the completion of the industrial revolution, the construction of railways, the use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, a desire for revenge was brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.