Orator in ancient greece definition. Greek speakers

ANTIQUE ORATORY

ABSTRACT on cultural studies
1st year students of the 1st group of the Faculty of National Economics Rozhdestvenskaya D. D.

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT

Institute of National and World Economy

Introduction

Public speech was the most widespread genre among the educated people of antiquity. The knowledge that gives people the command of oral speech, which occupies the minds and hearts of people, was called rhetoric. In terms of the place occupied in the art of the artistic word of ancient Hellas, rhetoric was comparable to such genres of art as the heroic epic or classical Greek drama. Of course, such a comparison is valid only for the era in which these genres coexisted. Subsequently, in terms of the degree of influence on the development of later European literature, rhetoric, which still played a significant role in the Middle Ages, in modern times gave way to other genres of literature that determined the nature of the national cultures of Europe for many centuries. It should be especially noted that of all types of artistic expression in the ancient world, public speech was most closely connected with its contemporary political life, the social system, the level of people's education, way of life, way of thinking, and finally, with the peculiarities of the development of the culture of the people who created this genre.

Oratory in ancient Greece

Love for a beautiful word, a lengthy and magnificent speech, replete with various epithets, metaphors, comparisons, is already noticeable in the earliest works of Greek literature - in the Iliad and the Odyssey. In the speeches uttered by the heroes of Homer, admiration for the word, its magical power is noticeable - so, it is always “winged” there and can strike like a “feathered arrow”. Homer's poems make extensive use of direct speech in its most dramatic form, dialogue. In terms of volume, the dialogic parts of the poems far exceed the narrative ones. Therefore, the heroes of Homer seem unusually talkative, the abundance and fullness of their speeches is sometimes perceived by the modern reader as prolixity and excess.

The very nature of Greek literature favored the development of oratory. It was much more "oral", so to speak, more designed for direct perception by listeners, admirers of the author's literary talent. Having become accustomed to the printed word, we do not always realize what great advantages the living word, sounding in the mouth of the author or reader, has over the written word. Direct contact with the audience, the richness of intonation and facial expressions, the plasticity of gesture and movement, and finally, the very charm of the speaker's personality make it possible to achieve a high emotional upsurge in the audience and, as a rule, the desired effect. Public speaking is always an art.

In Greece of the classical era, for the social system of which the form of a city-state, a polis, in its most developed form - a slave-owning democracy, is typical, especially favorable conditions were created for the flourishing of oratory. The supreme body in the state - at least nominally - was the People's Assembly, to which the politician addressed directly. In order to attract the attention of the masses (demos), the orator had to present his ideas in the most attractive way, while convincingly refuting the arguments of his opponents. In such a situation, the form of speech and the skill of the speaker played, perhaps, no less important role than the content of the speech itself. “The power that iron has in war, the word has in political life,” said Demetrius of Phaler.

The theory of eloquence was born from the practical needs of Greek society, and the teaching of rhetoric became the highest level of ancient education. The created textbooks and manuals answered the tasks of this training. They began to appear from the 5th century BC. e., but almost did not reach us. In the IV century BC. e. Aristotle is already trying to generalize the theoretical achievements of rhetoric from a philosophical point of view. According to Aristotle, rhetoric explores the system of evidence used in speech, its style and composition: rhetoric is conceived by Aristotle as a science closely related to dialectics (i.e., logic). Aristotle defines rhetoric as “the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject. He divides all speeches into three types: deliberative, judicial, and epidictic (solemn). The matter of deliberative speeches is to persuade or reject, judicial speeches are to accuse or justify, epidictic speeches are to praise or blame. The topics of deliberative speeches are also determined here - these are finances, war and peace, defense of the country, import and export of products, legislation.

Of the three genres of public speech mentioned in classical antiquity, the deliberative genre, or, in other words, political eloquence, was the most important.

In epidictic speeches, the content often receded before the form, and some of the examples that have come down to us turn out to be a striking example of art for art's sake. However, not all epidictic speeches were empty. The historian Thucydides included in his work a funeral word over the bodies of the fallen Athenian soldiers, put into the mouth of Pericles. This speech, which Thucydides wove with such skill into the fabric of his vast historical canvas, is the political program of Athenian democracy in its heyday, presented in highly artistic form. It is an invaluable historical document, not to mention its aesthetic value as a monument of art.

Judicial speeches were a particularly common genre in antiquity. In the life of the ancient Greek, the court occupied a very large place, but very little resembled the modern one. There was no institution of prosecutors; anyone could act as an accuser. The accused defended himself: speaking before the judges, he sought not so much to convince them of his innocence as to pity them, to attract their sympathy to his side. For this purpose, the most unexpected methods were used. If the accused was burdened with a family, he brought his children, and they begged the judges to spare their father. If he was a warrior, he bared his chest, showing scars from wounds received in battles for his homeland. If he was a poet, he read his poems, demonstrating his art (such cases are known in the biography of Sophocles). In front of a huge panel of judges from our point of view (in Athens the normal number of judges was 500, and in total the jury, helium, numbered 6,000 people!) It was almost hopeless to bring to everyone the essence of logical arguments: it was much more profitable to influence feelings in any way. “When judges and accusers are the same person, it is necessary to shed copious tears and utter thousands of complaints in order to be listened to with benevolence,” wrote Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an experienced master and expert on the problems of rhetoric.

In the conditions of intricate judicial law, it was not easy to sue in ancient Athens, and besides, not everyone had the gift of words to win over listeners. Therefore, the litigants resorted to the services of experienced persons, and most importantly, those who had oratorical talent. These people, having familiarized themselves with the essence of the case, compiled for a fee the speeches of their clients, which they memorized by heart and pronounced in court. Such writers of speeches were called logographers. There were cases when the logographer made up a speech for both the plaintiff and the defendant at the same time - that is, in one speech he refuted what he claimed in another (Plutarch reports that even Demosthenes once did this).

1. Gorgias

The largest theoretician and teacher of eloquence in the 5th century BC. e. was Gorgias from the Sicilian city of Leontina. In 427, he arrived in Athens, and his skillful speeches attracted everyone's attention. Later, he traveled all over Greece, speaking to audiences everywhere. At the meeting of the Greeks in Olympia, he addressed the audience with a call for unanimity in the struggle against the barbarians. The Olympic speech of Gorgias glorified his name for a long time (a statue was erected to him in Olympia, the base of which was found in the last century during archaeological excavations).

Tradition has preserved little of the creative heritage of Gorgias. For example, the following advice to the speaker has been preserved: "Refut the serious arguments of the opponent with a joke, jokes with seriousness." Only two speeches attributed to Gorgias have survived in their entirety - “Praise to Helen” and “Justification of Palamedes”, written on the plots of myths about the Trojan War. The oratory of Gorgias contained many innovations: symmetrically constructed phrases, sentences with the same endings, metaphors and comparisons; the rhythmic articulation of speech and even rhyme brought his speech closer to poetry. Some of these techniques have retained the name "Gorgian figures" for a long time. Gorgias wrote his speeches in the Attic dialect, which is a clear evidence of the increased role of Athens in the literary life of ancient Hellas.

Gorgias was one of the first speakers of a new type - not only a practitioner, but also a theorist of eloquence, who taught young men from wealthy families to speak and think logically for a fee. Such teachers were called sophists, "experts in wisdom." Their "wisdom" was skeptical: they believed that absolute truth does not exist, the true is that which can be proved in a sufficiently convincing way. Hence their concern for the persuasiveness of the proof and the expressiveness of the word: they made the word the object of a special study. Especially a lot they were engaged in the origin of the meaning of the word (etymology), as well as synonymy. The main field of activity of the sophists was Athens, where all genres of eloquence flourished - deliberative, epidictic and judicial.

2. Foxy

The most outstanding Athenian orator of the classical era in the field of judicial eloquence was undoubtedly Lysias (c. 415-380 BC). His father was a metek (a free man, but without civil rights) and owned a workshop in which shields were made. The future speaker, together with his brother, studied in the southern Italian city of Furii, where he listened to a course in rhetoric from famous sophists. Around 412, Lysias returned to Athens. The Athenian state at that time was in a difficult position - the Peloponnesian War was going on, unsuccessful for Athens. In 405, Athens suffered a crushing defeat. After the conclusion of a humiliating peace, proteges of the victorious Sparta, the “30 tyrants”, came to power, pursuing a policy of cruel terror in relation to the democratic and simply powerless elements of Athenian society. The large fortune owned by Lysias and his brother was the reason for the massacre of them. Brother Lysias was executed, the orator himself had to flee to neighboring Megara. After the victory of democracy, Lysias returned to Athens, but he did not succeed in obtaining civil rights. The first judicial speech delivered by Lysias was against one of the thirty tyrants responsible for the death of his brother. In the future, he wrote speeches for other people, making this his main profession. In total, up to 400 speeches were attributed to him in antiquity, but only 34 have come down to us, and not all of them are genuine. The vast majority of those that have survived belong to the judicial genre, but in the collection we find both political and even solemn speeches - for example, a funeral word over the bodies of soldiers who fell in the Corinthian war of 395-386. The characteristic features of the Lysias style are clearly noted by the ancient critics. His presentation is simple, logical and expressive, the phrases are short and symmetrical, the oratorical techniques are refined and elegant. Lysias laid the foundation for the genre of judicial speech, creating a kind of standard of style, composition and argumentation itself - subsequent generations of orators followed him in many respects. Especially great are his merits in the creation of the literary language of Attic prose. We will not find in him either archaisms or confusing turns, and subsequent critics (Dionysius of Halicarnassus) admitted that no one subsequently surpassed Lysias in the purity of Attic speech. The speaker’s story is made alive and clear by the character description (etopea) - and not only the characters of the persons depicted, but also the character of the speaking person (for example, the stern and simple-hearted Euphilet, in whose mouth the speech “On the murder of Eratosthenes” is put).

3. Isocrates

What Lysias did in the genre of judicial eloquence, Isocrates (c. 436-338), who came from a wealthy but ruined Athenian family, did in the genre of solemn eloquence. From a young age, he was also forced to choose the profession of a logographer, subsequently opened an oratorical school with high tuition fees, from which many politicians, orators and writers came out. The school of Isocrates was at the same time something like a political circle with ideas and moods hostile to Athenian democracy (which was greatly facilitated by the aristocratic composition of the students), so the head of the school was repeatedly accused of "corrupting the youth."

The literary activity of Isocrates coincided in time with the political crisis of Greek society and the fierce class struggle in the Greek cities, where either democratic or oligarchic elements alternately took over. Its consequence was an increase in the number of unemployed and ruined people. Endless internecine wars did not lead to a stable hegemony of any one of the Greek states and only depleted their economic and political potential. Taking advantage of the situation, the Macedonian king Philip managed in 338 to inflict a crushing defeat on the policies that united against him and establish political control over Greece.

In such a complex intertwining of political and social contradictions, Isocrates put forward in his speeches, which were distributed in writing, a political program for the salvation of Hellas. For the first time he spoke with her in his speech "Penegy") in 380; its essence was to unite the forces of the Greeks to fight against the barbarians - that is, to conquer Persia. Subsequently, he addressed this idea to various monarchs and tyrants of Greece. The last one he turned to, Philip II, really began to prepare this campaign, which he failed to complete (this was done by his son, Alexander the Great). Isocrates practically became the ideologist of the pro-Macedonian party in Athens, around which citizens from wealthy circles were grouped mainly.

The methods of oratory of Isocrates develop the principles put forward by Gorgias. A feature of the style of Isocrates are complex periods, which, however, have a clear and precise construction and therefore are easily accessible for understanding. His style is also characterized by the rhythmic articulation of speech, the smoothness of which was achieved by carefully avoiding the so-called gaping - the junction of vowels at the end of a word and at the beginning of another.

The school of Isocrates developed the basic principles for the composition of an oratorical work, which should have contained the following parts: 1) an introduction, the purpose of which was to attract the attention and benevolence of the audience; 2) presentation of the subject of the speech, made with the possible persuasiveness; 3) refutation of the opponent's arguments with arguments in favor of their own; 4) a conclusion summing up everything that has been said.

As a master of eloquence, Isocrates was considered in antiquity the highest authority - the popularity of his work is evidenced by a large number of passages from his speeches found on papyri. His literary heritage is closest to what we now call journalism. The indisputable merit of Isocrates is the improvement of the style of written speech, the differences from oral speech are emphasized by Aristotle: “One syllable for written speech, the other for speech in a dispute, one for speech in an assembly, the other for speech in court. You have to own both." But the greatest Roman theoretician of eloquence, Quintilian, was aware of the shortcomings inherent in the literary work of Isocrates, as evidenced by his assessment: “The style of Isocrates is full of numerous ornaments and is distinguished by great smoothness in various genres of oratory ... He is trained more for the arena than for the battlefield .. .". To some extent, the speaker himself understood this when he wrote in the speech “Philip”: “It has not remained hidden for me how much more persuasive power speeches have in comparison with speeches intended for reading ...”.

4. Demosthenes

The greatest master of oral, predominantly political, speech was the great Athenian orator Demosthenes (385-322). He came from a wealthy family - his father owned workshops in which weapons and furniture were made. Very early, Demosthenes was orphaned, his fortune fell into the hands of his guardians, who turned out to be dishonest people. He began his independent life with a process in which he spoke out against the robbers (the speeches he made in connection with this have been preserved). Even before that, he began to prepare for the activity of an orator and studied with the famous Athenian master of eloquence, Isei. The simplicity of the style, the conciseness and significance of the content, the strict logic of the proof, the rhetorical questions - all this was borrowed by Demosthenes from Iseus.

From childhood, Demosthenes had a weak voice, besides, he burr. These shortcomings, as well as the indecision with which he kept himself on the podium, led to the failure of his first performances. However, through hard work (there is a legend that, standing on the seashore, he recited poetry for hours, drowning out the noise of coastal waves with the sounds of his voice), he managed to overcome the shortcomings of his pronunciation. The speaker attached particular importance to the intonation coloring of the voice, and Plutarch in the biography of the speaker gives a characteristic anecdote: “They say that someone came to him with a request to make a speech in court in his defense, complaining that he was beaten. “No, nothing like that happened to you,” Demosthenes said. Raising his voice, the visitor shouted: “How, Demosthenes, this didn’t happen to me ?!” “Oh, now I clearly hear the voice of the offended and injured,” said the speaker.

At the beginning of his career, Demosthenes delivered court speeches, but later he became more and more involved in the turbulent political life of Athens. He soon became a leading political figure, often speaking from the podium of the People's Assembly. He led a patriotic party that fought against the Macedonian king Philip, tirelessly calling on all Greeks for unity in the fight against the "northern barbarian." But, like the mythical prophetess Cassandra, he was destined to proclaim the truth without meeting understanding or even sympathy.

Philip began his onslaught on Greece from the north - he gradually subjugated the cities of Thrace, took possession of Thessaly, then established himself in Phokis (Central Greece), sending his agents even to the island of Euboea, in the immediate vicinity of Athens. The first war of Athens with Philip (357-340) ended in a Philocratic peace unfavorable for Athens, the second (340-338) ended in a crushing defeat of the Greeks at Chaeronea, where Demosthenes fought as an ordinary fighter. The two most famous speeches of Demosthenes are associated with these events. After the Peace of Philocrates, he denounced his perpetrators in the speech “On the Criminal Embassy” (343), and after Chaeronea, when it was proposed to reward the orator with a golden wreath for services to the fatherland, he had to defend his right to this award in the speech “On the Wreath” ( 330). The great orator was destined to survive another defeat of his homeland, in the Lamian War of 322, when the Greeks, taking advantage of the confusion after the death of Alexander the Great, opposed his successors.

This time the Macedonian troops captured Athens. Demosthenes, along with other leaders of the patriotic party, had to flee. He took refuge in the temple of Poseidon on the island of Kalavria. The Macedonian soldiers who overtook him there wanted to take Demosthenes out by force, so he asked for time to write a letter to his friends, took a papyrus, thoughtfully raised a reed pen to his lips and bit it. In a few seconds, he fell dead - a fast-acting poison was hidden in the reed.

In the literary heritage of Demosthenes (61 speeches have come down to us, but not all, apparently, are genuine), it is precisely political speeches that determine his place in the history of Greek oratory. They are very different from the speeches of Isocrates. So, for example, the introduction in the speeches of Isocrates is usually drawn out; on the contrary, since Demosthenes' speeches were delivered on burning topics and the speaker was supposed to immediately attract attention, the introduction to his speeches was for the most part short and energetic. Usually it contained some kind of maxim (gnome), which was then developed on a specific example. The main part of Demosthenes' speech is a story - a presentation of the essence of the matter. It is built unusually skillfully, everything in it is full of expression and dynamics. There are also ardent appeals to the gods, to listeners, to the very nature of Attica, and colorful descriptions, and even an imaginary dialogue with the enemy. The flow of speech is suspended by the so-called rhetorical questions: “What is the reason?”, “What does this really mean?” etc., which gives the speech a tone of extraordinary sincerity, which is based on genuine concern for the matter.

Demosthenes made extensive use of tropes, in particular metaphor. The source of the metaphor is often the language of the palestra, the gymnastic stadium. Opposition, antithesis is used very elegantly - for example, when “the current century and the past century” are compared. The method of personification used by Demosthenes seems unusual to the modern reader: it consists in the fact that inanimate objects or abstract concepts act as persons defending or refuting the arguments of the orator. The combination of synonyms in pairs: “look and observe”, “know and understand” - contributed to the rhythm and elevation of the syllable. A spectacular technique found in Demosthenes is the “silence figure”: the speaker deliberately keeps silent about what he would certainly have to say in the course of the presentation, and the listeners inevitably supplement it themselves. Thanks to this technique, the listeners themselves will draw the conclusion necessary for the speaker, and he will thereby significantly gain in persuasiveness.

5. Aeschines

The political antipode of Demosthenes was the orator Aeschines (389-314), who stood on opposite political positions. Of the three speeches of Aeschines that have come down to us, two are delivered in the same processes as the speeches of Demosthenes - “On the criminal embassy” and “On the wreath”. Thus, we can compare two points of view on the same events, accompanied by appropriate arguments. Aeschines in 346 participated in that embassy to Tsar Philip, which concluded Phlocratic peace. He was accused of betraying Athenian interests by acting in favor of Philip, but he managed to ward off his chief accuser, Timarchus, as a man of immorality. After the defeat at Chaeronea, when the speaker Ctesiphon suggested that Demosthenes be awarded a wreath, Aeschines opposed this, accusing Demosthenes in a lengthy speech that his political activities were detrimental to the state. But the rebuff of Demosthenes was crushing, and Aeschines failed to collect even a fifth of the votes of the judges. Having lost the process, he lost the right to speak in the National Assembly and was forced to go into exile on the island of Rhodes, where he opened an oratorical school. It was said that the Rhodians once asked the orator to repeat his last speech. Aeschines repeated before them the speech "On the wreath." The admiring listeners asked: “How did you end up in exile after such a speech?” Aeschines replied: "If you had heard what Demosthenes was saying, you would not have asked about it."

Hellenistic era

The time that came after the fall of free polis Greece is commonly called the era of Hellenism. Political eloquence had less and less place in public life, interest in the content of speeches gave way to an interest in form. The rhetoric schools studied the speeches of former masters and tried to slavishly imitate their style. Fakes of the speeches of Demosthenes, Lysias and other great orators of the past are spreading (such fakes have come down to us, for example, as part of the collection of speeches of Demosthenes). The names of Athenian orators who lived in the period of early Hellenism and consciously composed speeches in the spirit of old models are known: for example, Charisius composed court speeches in the style of Lysias, while his contemporary Democharus was known as an imitator of Demosthenes. This tradition of imitation was then called "atticism". At the same time, a one-sided interest in the verbal form of eloquence, which became especially noticeable in the new Greek cultural centers in the East - Antioch, Pergamum and others, gave rise to the opposite extreme, a passion for deliberate mannerism: this style of eloquence was called "Asiatic". Its most famous representative was Hegesias from Asia Minor Magnesia (mid-III century BC). Trying to outdo the speakers of the classical era, he chopped periods into short phrases, used words in the most unusual and unnatural sequence, emphasized rhythm, heaped up paths. The flowery, pompous and pathetic style brought his speech closer to melodic declamation. Unfortunately, the oratory of this era can only be judged by a few surviving quotations - almost no whole works have come down to us. However, the works of orators of the Roman time have come down to us in large numbers, mainly continuing the traditions of eloquence of the Hellenistic era.

After the defeat of the troops of the Achaean Union in 146 BC. e., which the Roman commander Mummius inflicted on him, Greece becomes a province of the Roman Mediterranean power: from 27 BC. e. this province is called Achaia. Greece becomes a place where the Roman youth goes for education, plays the role of a university and a museum of fine arts. Athens, as well as the island of Rhodes and the cities of Asia Minor are especially popular. From the 1st century A.D. e. the work of leading teachers in rhetorical schools is paid by the state.

The profession of an itinerant rhetorician, performing in Greek cities with a demonstration of his art, becomes so widespread that the 2nd century AD. e. usually called the age of the "second sophistry" (as a reminder of the sophists of the 5th century BC, who also traveled around the cities with speeches and lectures). In the conditions of the loss of political freedom by the Greeks, oratory turned to the only genre possible in those conditions, namely, to epidictic, solemn. The orator was given the task - impromptu, without preparation, to glorify the heroic past of Hellas or the hero of an ancient myth, to utter a laudatory word to the great orator, politician of the past, or even Homer himself. The sophist and the rhetor in this era supplant the poet, prose becomes dominant, but, pretentious and refined, imbued with rhythm and adorned with complex rhetorical figures and tropes, it acquires the features of poetry.

The eloquence of the new era continues the traditions of both Atticism and Asianism. In the field of language, Atticism remained the norm. The famous orator of the II century AD. e. Aelius Aristides declared: "I do not use words that are not attested among the ancients." At the same time, in the field of style, the traditions of Asianism were steadily maintained - grandiloquent pathos, an abundance of refined speech turns. Thanks to voice modulations and skillful gestures, the speeches of the rhetoricians of this direction turned into theatrical performances that gathered crowds of listeners.

Two periods of flourishing of eloquence in the era of the Roman Empire can be noted. The first period took place in the 2nd century AD. e. the former time of stabilization and the associated economic and cultural upsurge. The second period refers to the 4th century and coincides with the time of the last struggle between the "pagan" culture and the advancing Christianity. The first period is represented (to name the most striking names) by Dio Chrysostom and Elius Aristides, the second is characterized by the names of Libania, Himeria and Themistia.

1. Dio Chrysostom

Dion Chrysostom ("Chrysostom" - c. 40-120 AD) was a native of Asia Minor, but spent his young and mature years in Rome. Under the suspicious emperor Domitian (81-96), the orator was accused of malice and went into exile. He spent a long time wandering, earning his livelihood by physical labor. When Domitian fell victim to a conspiracy, Dion again became respected, rich and famous, still continuing his travels throughout the vast Roman Empire, never stopping in one place for a long time.

Dion belonged to the type of orators who combined the talent of an artist with the erudition of a thinker, philosopher, connoisseur of science. Deeply engaged in the liberal arts, especially literature, he scorned the pompous chatter of street speakers, ready to talk about anything and glorify anyone (“Damned sophists,” as Dion calls them in one of the speeches). In philosophical views, he was an eclecticist, gravitating towards the Stoics and Cynics. Some of his speeches even resemble cynic diatribes, the protagonist in them is the philosopher Diogenes, famous for his eccentric antics. Here there is a resemblance to Plato, in whose dialogues his teacher Socrates is a constant character. The hero of Dion's speeches subjects the foundations of social, political and cultural life to devastating criticism, shows the vanity and futility of human aspirations, demonstrating the complete ignorance of people about what is evil and what is good. Many of Dion's speeches are devoted to literature and art - among them the "Olympic Speech", glorifying the sculptor who created the famous statue of Zeus, and the paradoxical "Trojan Speech", as if jokingly turning inside out the myth of the Trojan War, sung by Homer, Dion's favorite writer.

In Dion's speeches there is also a lot of autobiographical material. He willingly and a lot talks about himself, while trying to emphasize how favorable the emperors of Rome were to him. It becomes clear why Dion in his works paid so much attention to the theory of an enlightened monarchy as a form of government, which he develops in four speeches "On royal power".

As for the style of Dion, already ancient critics especially praised him for having cleansed the literary language of vulgarisms, paving the way for pure Atticism, in which Aelius Aristides followed him.

2. Aelius Aristides

Aelius Aristides (c. 117-189) was also a native of Asia Minor and also wandered, visited Egypt, delivered speeches at the Isthmian Games and in Rome itself. Of his literary heritage, 55 speeches have been preserved. Some approach epistles in type (such is the speech in which he asks the emperor to help the city of Smyrna after the earthquake). Other speeches are exercises on historical topics, such as what might have been said in the People's Assembly at such and such a critical moment in Athenian history in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. Some of them are written on the themes of the speeches of Isocrates and Demosthenes. Among the speeches associated with modernity, the “Praise of Rome” (about 160) should be attributed: it exalts the Roman state system to the skies, combining the advantages of democracy, aristocracy and monarchy. Finally, among the surviving speeches, we also find "Sacred speeches", that is, speeches addressed to the gods - Zeus, Poseidon, Athena, Dionysus, Asclepius and others. They give allegorical interpretations of ancient myths, along with echoes of new religious trends associated with the penetration of foreign cults into Hellas. The content of some speeches was affected by the disease that the speaker suffered - she made him a regular visitor to the temples of Asclepius, the god of healing. In honor of this god, the orator even composed poems: in the Asclepeion of Pergamon, a fragment of a marble slab was found with the text of a hymn, the author of which turned out to be Aelius Aristides.

Aristide's speeches were not improvisations; he prepared for them long and carefully. He was able to reproduce with great accuracy the manner of speech of the Attic orators of the 4th century BC. e., however, in some of his works he also uses the techniques of Asianists.

Aelius Aristides had a high opinion of his literary work and sincerely believed that he combined Plato and Demosthenes. But time proved to be a stricter judge, and it is now clear to us that he was only a shadow of the greatest orator of antiquity.

In the last period of its history, Hellenic eloquence gradually grew decrepit and degenerated. Its sunset, which took place in the full of dramatic events of the struggle of ancient ideology and religion with the advancing Christianity, was nevertheless majestic and glorious, and in many respects instructive. It is inextricably linked with the historical events of the 4th century AD. e. Thus, one of the most remarkable figures of late Greek rhetoric was none other than the emperor-philosopher Julian (322-363), who for his struggle against Christianity received the nickname of the Apostate. He is the author of talented polemical and satirical works, among which there are speeches (for example, the prose hymns "To the Mother of the Gods", "To the King of the Sun").

3. Libanius

A contemporary and partly a model for Julian was the famous rhetorician and grammarian of the 4th century, Libanius (314-393), who left us a detailed speech-autobiography “Life, or about his fate”, which especially vividly captures the memories of childhood and youth. Libanius was from Antioch, the capital of Syria, and studied first at home, then in Athens. In his autobiography, he vividly draws the scene of how he was met in Athens by a crowd of sophists, each of whom literally dragged him to him; only a year later he managed to get to the orator with whom he wanted to study. Possessing a well-trained voice and an excellent memory, Libanius soon reached the heights of skill and became the most respected and famous rhetorician in his native Antioch. Julian used the recordings of his speeches and lectures, but they met in person only in 362, when Julian arrived in Antioch, already being emperor. The number of students in the school of Libanius reached eighty people. Homer and the masters of Attic prose were read here, and the students had to compose a summary of what they read.

Libanius adhered to the traditional pagan religion, his favorite and hero was Julian, to whom Libanius dedicated several speeches during his lifetime and a touching eulogy after his death. However, the speaker knew how to maintain good relations with the Christian authorities: the speeches addressed to the Christian emperor Theodosius in connection with the fact that an uprising had occurred in Antioch, which could bring severe punishment on the city, show that Libanius could count on the attention of the emperor, despite his commitment to paganism.

Libanius left a large number of writings that were widely circulated during the author's lifetime. He himself did a lot for this, keeping a whole staff of scribes. The surviving legacy can be divided into several groups, of which the most interesting are recitations, rhetorical exercises (progymnasms), speeches and letters (over 1500). Progymnasms give us an idea of ​​the methods of training future rhetors. They are the initial exercises in eloquence, with the help of which students acquired the skills to find elements that enliven speech, learned to compose separate parts. Among these exercises, a special place is occupied by a fable (of the Aesopian type), diegema (a story on a historical theme), hriya (development of a moral principle by some famous person), maxim (development of a philosophical position), refutation (or, conversely, defense) of the veracity of a story about gods or heroes, praise (or, conversely, censure) of a person or object, comparison (of two people or things), ekphrase (description of a monument of fine art or a place of interest).

The most integral impression in the legacy of Libanius is produced by recitations - a kind of rhetorical "recipe", samples that were memorized by students by heart. Such a declamation is the speech of Menelaus, who appeared as an ambassador to Troy and demanded the extradition of Helen, or the speech of Odysseus on the same topic. Another type of recitation is the so-called ethology (drawing the characters of people in the lengthy speech that these people pronounce). An example is the 26th recitation of Libanius - "A gloomy man who marries a talkative woman sues himself and asks for death." The speaker tells the judges how fate decided to plunge him into trouble by marrying a talkative woman. The stream of words and questions spouted by his wife drove her husband to a frenzy, and he decided to ask the judges for death. One thought confuses him at the same time: “I’m afraid that I, who had run away from my wife here, would not meet her a little later, in the underworld, so that I would not have to listen to her chatter there again ... If a dying person is allowed to say a word, let my wife live to the deepest old age, so that I can taste peace as long as possible.

Of the seventy speeches of Libanius that have come down to us, the speeches dedicated to Julian are interesting, especially the "Epitaph" written with great feeling; Julian's death had such an effect on the rhetorician that he refrained from public speaking for two years. Speech "To Emperor Theodosius about the temples" - A kind of open letter containing a request to protect the temples of the Olympic gods from the devastation that Christian monks inflict on them. The speaker speaks with heartache about the destruction of beautiful works of art that have brought high aesthetic pleasure to many generations of people.

Libanius was sympathetic to Stoicism, this is especially noticeable in his speech "On Slavery", the main idea of ​​​​which is that, in fact, every person is a slave. “Two words - “slave” and “free” - are heard all over the earth, and in houses, and in squares, and in fields, in meadows, and in mountains, and now on ships and boats. One of them - “free” - is allegedly associated with the concept of happiness, and the other - “slave” - with its opposite ... ”According to Libanius, one of these words - namely,“ free ”- should be abolished, since all people , in varying degrees, slaves - their passions, illnesses, living conditions and above all the inexorable fate, Moira.

Libanius is one of the most characteristic figures of late sophistry. As an artist of the word, he is first of all a stylist, cultivating sophisticated craftsmanship in the spirit of classical Atticism (his idol was the great Demosthenes), convinced that only this skill can ennoble a person, educate his taste. The world of Libania is the world of Greek ideas and images, inhabited by great thinkers, orators, writers and poets of ancient Hellas, the world of the Hellenic gods and beautiful temples dedicated to them, keeping the images of the Olympians embodied in marble and precious metal ... Christianity remained for him a gloomy force, detrimental to everything beautiful that was created by the Hellenic culture.

4. Themistius and Hymerius

Libanius' contemporaries were two famous rhetoricians - Themistius (320-390) and Gimerius (315-350). Themistius was as famous in Constantinople as Libanius was in Antioch, but, unlike Libanius, Themistius was seriously engaged in philosophy and compiled a number of popular expositions (paraphrases) of the works of Aristotle. In addition to literary work and teaching, he was engaged in state activities and was close to Emperor Theodosius, who awarded him with the following: the highest honors.

Thirty-four speeches by Themistius have been preserved, touching on the problems of philosophy, state law, and the theory of rhetoric. His favorite term, which we constantly come across in his speeches, was "philanthropy" (philanthropy) - this makes his religious tolerance understandable for us. Themistius never accepted Christianity, but he was nonetheless favored by such famous figures of the church as Gregory of Nazianzus, who highly valued him (he even called Themistius "the king of speeches").

Hymerius, who came from Bithynia, spent his life mainly in Athens, leaving it only for a short time during the reign of Julian (who called the orator to his court in Constantinople). Unlike Themistius, Hymerius was a pure rhetorician with no interest in philosophy. He was especially popular as a mentor; prominent figures of the Christian church, Basil the Great and the already mentioned Gregory of Nazianzus, received rhetorical training from him. In his work, Gimerius followed the traditions of Atticism, although in his speeches (not distinguished by great depth of content), the influence of the Asian style is also noticeable. They are richly decorated with rhetorical figures and poetic tropes. His work is characterized by a fictitious speech by Hyperides in defense of the policy of Demosthenes, a speech by Demosthenes proposing to return Aeschines from exile (an obviously far-fetched plot), and others of the same kind. Philosophical issues are touched upon in only one speech - against the philosopher Epicurus, who was accused by a rhetorician of godlessness. The lamentation (monodia) for the early deceased son Rufin (23rd speech) sounds touching, but the congestion with mythological figures here also weakens the impression.

Gimerius was a connoisseur of ancient poetry, especially lyric poetry. In his speeches, retellings of works of classical Greek poetry have come down to us, and this makes them a valuable source for the history of Greek literature.

Oratory of ancient Rome

The development of eloquence in Rome was largely facilitated by brilliant examples of Greek oratory, which from the 2nd century. BC e. becomes the subject of careful study in special schools.

Passionate speeches were made by politicians, such as the reformers, the Gracchi brothers, especially Gaius Gracchus, who was an orator of exceptional power. Captivating the masses with the gift of words, he also used some theatrical techniques in his speeches. Among Roman speakers, for example, such a technique as showing scars from wounds received in the struggle for freedom was widespread.

Like the Greeks, the Romans distinguished two directions in eloquence: Asian and Attic. The Asian style, as you know, was characterized by pathos and an abundance of refined speech turns. Atticism was characterized by a concise, simple language, which was written by the Greek orator Lysias and the historian Thucydides. The Attic direction in Rome was followed by Julius Caesar, the poet Lipinius Calv, the republican Mark Julius Brutus, to whom Cicero dedicated his treatise Brutus.

But, for example, such an orator as Cicero developed his own, middle style, which combined the features of the Asian and Attic directions.

Biography, political and literary activity of Cicero.

Mark Tullius Cicero, the famous orator of antiquity, embodies, along with Demosthenes, the highest level of oratory.

Cicero lived from 106 to 43 BC. e. He was born in Arpin, southeast of Rome, descended from the equestrian class. Cicero received an excellent education, studied Greek poets, and was interested in Greek literature. In Rome, he studied eloquence with the famous orators Antony and Crassus, listened to and commented on the well-known tribune Sulpicius speaking at the forum, and studied the theory of eloquence. The orator needed to know Roman law, and Cicero studied it with the then popular lawyer Scaevola. Knowing the Greek language well, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy through closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus, the Stoic Diodorus, and the head of the new academic school, Philo. He also learned dialectics from him - the art of argument and argumentation.

Although Cicero did not adhere to a specific philosophical system, in many of his works he expounds views close to Stoicism. From this point of view, in the second part of the treatise "On the State", he considers the best statesman, who must have all the qualities of a highly moral person. Only he could improve morals and prevent the death of the state. Cicero's views on the best political system are set forth in the first part of this treatise. The author comes to the conclusion that the best state system existed in the Roman Republic before the Gracchi reform, when the monarchy was carried out in the person of two consuls, the power of the aristocracy was in the person of the senate, and democracy - in the person of the people's assembly.

For a better state, Cicero considers it right to establish ancient laws, to revive the "custom of the ancestors" (treatise "On Laws").

Cicero also expresses his protest against tyranny in a number of works in which questions of ethics predominate: such are his treatises “On Friendship”, “On Duties”; in the latter, he condemns Caesar, directly calling him a tyrant. He wrote treatises "On the Limits of Good and Evil", "Tusculan Conversations", "On the Nature of the Gods". Cicero does not reject or approve the existence of the gods, however, he recognizes the need for a state religion; he resolutely rejects all miracles and fortune-telling (treatise "On fortune-telling").

Questions of philosophy had an applied character for Cicero and were considered by him depending on their practical significance in the field of ethics and politics.

Considering the horsemen the "support" of all classes, Cicero did not have a definite political platform. He sought first to gain the favor of the people, and then went over to the side of the optimates and recognized the union of horsemen with the nobility and the senate as the state basis.

His political activities can be characterized by the words of his brother Quintus Cicero: “Let you have confidence that the Senate regards you according to how you lived before, and looks at you as a defender of his authority, Roman horsemen and rich people on the basis of your past life. they see in you a zealot of order and tranquility, but the majority, since your speeches in courts and at gatherings showed you to be half-hearted, let them think that you will act in his interests.

The first speech that has come down to us (81) “In defense of Quinctius”, about the return of illegally seized property to him, brought success to Cicero. In it, he adhered to the Asian style, in which his rival Hortensius was known. He achieved even greater success with his speech "In defense of Roscius of Ameripsky." Defending Roscius, whom his relatives accused of murdering his own father for selfish purposes, Cicero spoke out against the violence of the Sullan regime, exposing the dark actions of Sulla's favorite, Cornelius Chrysogon, with the help of which the relatives wanted to take possession of the property of the murdered. Cicero won this process and, by his opposition to the aristocracy, gained popularity among the people.

For fear of reprisals from Sulla, Cicero went to Athens and to the island of Rhodes, allegedly due to the need to study philosophy and oratory more deeply. There he listened to the rhetorician Apollonius Molon, who influenced Cicero's style. From that time on, Cicero began to adhere to the "middle" style of eloquence, which occupied the middle between the Asian and moderate Attic styles.

A brilliant education, oratorical talent, a successful start to advocacy opened Cicero access to government positions. The reaction against the aristocracy after the death of Sulla in 78 helped him in this. He took the first public office of a quaestor in Western Sicily in 76. Having earned the trust of the Sicilians by his actions, Cicero defended their interests against the governor of Sicily, the propraetor Verres, who, using uncontrolled power, plundered the province. The speeches against Verres were of political importance, since in essence Cicero opposed the oligarchy of the optimates and defeated them, despite the fact that the judges belonged to the senatorial class and the famous Hortensius was the defender of Verres.

In 66 Cicero was elected praetor; he delivers a speech "On the Appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as General" (or "In Defense of the Law of Manilius"). Cicero supported the bill of Manilius to grant unlimited power to fight Mithridates to Gnaeus Pompey, whom he praises immoderately.

This speech, defending the interests of wealthy people and directed against the political order, was a great success. But with this speech ends Cicero's speeches against the Senate and the optimates.

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party stepped up its demands for radical reforms (debt cassation, granting land to the poor). This met with clear opposition from Cicero, who in his speeches strongly opposed the agrarian bill introduced by the young tribune Rullus to purchase land in Italy and settle it with poor citizens.

When Cicero was elected consul in 63, he reinstated senators and horsemen against agrarian reforms. In the second agrarian speech, Cicero speaks sharply about the representatives of democracy, calling them troublemakers and rebels, threatening that he will make them so meek that they themselves will be surprised. Speaking against the interests of the poor, Cicero stigmatizes their leader Lucius Sergius Catiline, around whom people who suffered from the economic crisis and senatorial tyranny were grouped. Catiline, like Cicero, put forward his candidacy for consulship in 63, but, despite all the efforts of the left wing of the democratic group, to get Catiline consuls, he did not succeed due to the opposition of the optimates. Catiline conspired, the purpose of which was an armed uprising and the assassination of Cicero. The plans of the conspirators became known to Cicero thanks to well-organized espionage.

In his four speeches against Catiline, Cicero ascribes to his adversary all sorts of vices and the most vile aims, such as the desire to set fire to Rome and destroy all honest citizens.

Catiline left Rome and, with a small detachment, surrounded by government troops, died in battle near Pistoria in 62. The leaders of the radical movement were arrested and, after an illegal trial of them, were strangled in prison by order of Cicero.

Crouching before the Senate, Cicero in his speeches carries out the slogan of the union of senators and horsemen.

It goes without saying that the reactionary part of the Senate approved of Cicero's actions to suppress the Catiline conspiracy and bestowed on him the title of "father of the fatherland."

The activities of Catiline are tendentiously covered by the Roman historian Sallust. Meanwhile, Cicero himself in his speech for Murepa (XXV) cites the following remarkable statement by Catiline: “Only he who is unhappy himself can be a faithful defender of the unfortunate; but believe, afflicted and destitute, in the promises of both the prosperous and the happy... the least timid and the most affected - this is who should be called the leader and standard-bearer of the oppressed.

Cicero's brutal reprisal against the supporters of Catiline caused displeasure, popular. With the formation of the first triumvirate, which included Pompeii, Caesar and Crassus, Cicero, at the request of the people's tribune Clodius, was forced to go into exile in 58.

In 57, Cicero returned to Rome again, but no longer had his former political influence and was mainly engaged in literary work.

His speeches in defense of the people's tribune Sestius, in defense of Milop, belong to this time. At the same time, Cicero wrote the famous treatise On the Orator. As proconsul in Cilicia, in Asia Minor (51-50), Cicero gained popularity among the army, especially due to the victory over several mountain tribes. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor (the highest military commander). Upon returning to Rome at the end of 50, Cicero joined Pompey, but after his defeat at Pharsalus (48), he refused to participate in the struggle and outwardly reconciled with Caesar. He took up the issues of oratory, publishing the treatises Orator, Brutus, and popularizing Greek philosophy in the field of practical morality.

After the assassination of Caesar by Brutus (44), Cicero again returned to the ranks of active figures, speaking on the side of the Senate party, supporting Octavian in the fight against Antony. With great harshness and passion, he wrote 14 speeches against Antony, which, in imitation of Demosthenes, are called "Philippika". For them, he was included in the proscription list and in 43 BC. e. killed.

Cicero left works on the theory and history of eloquence, philosophical treatises, 774 letters and 58 judicial and political speeches. Among them, as an expression of Cicero's views on poetry, a special place is occupied by a speech in defense of the Greek poet Archius, who appropriated Roman citizenship. Having glorified Archius as a poet, Cicero recognizes the harmonious combination of natural talent and assiduous, patient work.

The literary heritage of Cicero not only gives a clear idea of ​​his life and work, often not always principled and full of compromises, but also paints historical pictures of the turbulent era of the civil war in Rome.

The language and style of Cicero's speeches

For a political and especially a judicial orator, it was important not so much to truthfully illuminate the essence of the case, but to present it in such a way that the judges and the public surrounding the judicial tribunal would believe in its truth. The attitude of the public to the speaker's speech was considered, as it were, the voice of the people and could not but put pressure on the decision of the judges. Therefore, the outcome of the case depended almost exclusively on the skill of the orator. Cicero's speeches, although they were built according to the scheme of traditional ancient rhetoric, give an idea of ​​the methods by which he achieved success.

Cicero himself notes in his speeches "an abundance of thoughts and words", in most cases stemming from the speaker's desire to divert the attention of judges from unfavorable facts, to focus it only on circumstances useful for the success of the case, to give them the necessary coverage. In this regard, the story was important for the trial, which was supported by tendentious argumentation, often a distortion of the testimony of witnesses. Dramatic epidoses were woven into the story, images that give speeches an artistic form.

In a speech against Verres, Cicero talks about the execution of the Roman citizen Gavia, whom they did not have the right to punish without trial. He was flogged on the square with rods, and he, without uttering a single groan, only repeated: "I am a Roman citizen!" Indignant at arbitrariness, Cicero exclaims: “O sweet name of freedom! O exclusive right connected with our citizenship! Oh, the power of the tribunes, which the Roman plebs so strongly desired and which was finally returned to them! These pathetic exclamations intensified the drama of the story.

Cicero uses this technique of varying style, but rarely. The pathetic tone is replaced by a simple one, the seriousness of the presentation - by a joke, a mockery.

Recognizing that "the speaker should exaggerate the fact," Cicero in his speeches considers amplification to be natural - the technique of exaggeration. So, in a speech against Catiline, Cicero claims that Catiline was going to set fire to Rome from 12 sides and, patronizing the bandits, destroy all honest people. Cicero did not shy away from theatrical techniques, which caused his opponents to accuse him of insincerity, of false tearfulness. Wanting to arouse pity for the accused in a speech in defense of Milo, he himself says that “he cannot speak from tears,” and in another case (a speech in defense of Flaccus) he picked up the child, the son of Flaccus, and with tears asked the judges to spare his father .

The use of these techniques in accordance with the content of speeches creates a special oratorical style. The liveliness of his speech is acquired through the use of a common language, the absence of archaisms and the rare use of Greek words. Sometimes the speech consists of short simple sentences, sometimes they are replaced by exclamations, rhetorical questions and long periods, in the construction of which Cicero followed Demosthenes. They are divided into parts, usually having a metric form and a sonorous end of the period. This gives the impression of rhythmic prose.

Rhetorical works. In theoretical works on eloquence, Cicero summarized the principles, rules and techniques that he followed in his practical activities. His treatises “On the Orator” (55), “Brutus” (46) and “The Orator” (46) are known.

The work "On the Orator" in three books is a dialogue between two famous speakers, Cicero's predecessors - Licinnes Crassus and Mark Antony, representatives of the Senate party. Cicero expresses his views through the mouth of Crassus, who believes that only a versatile educated person can be an orator. In such an orator, Cicero sees a politician, the savior of the state in the troubled time of civil wars.

In the same treatise, Cicero deals with the construction and content of speech, its design. A prominent place is given to the language, rhythm and periodicity of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, through facial expressions and gestures, achieves an impact on the soul of the listeners.

In the treatise Brutus, dedicated to his friend Brutus, Cicero speaks of the history of Greek and Roman eloquence, dwelling on the latter in more detail. The content of this work is revealed in its other title - "On famous speakers." This treatise received great importance in the Renaissance. Its purpose is to prove the superiority of Roman orators over Greek ones.

Cicero believes that the simplicity of the Greek orator Lysias alone is not enough - this simplicity must be complemented by the sublimity and power of expression of Demosthenes. Characterizing many orators, he considers himself an outstanding Roman orator.

Finally, in the treatise Orator, Cicero expresses his opinion on the use of different styles depending on the content of speech, in order to convince listeners, to impress the grace and beauty of speech, and, finally, to captivate and excite sublimity. Much attention is paid to the periodization of speech, the theory of rhythm is described in detail, especially in the endings of the members of the period.

The works of the orator that have come down to us are of exceptional historical and cultural value. Already in the Middle Ages, and especially in the Renaissance, experts were interested in the rhetorical and philosophical writings of Cicero, and through the latter they got acquainted with the Greek philosophical schools. Humanists especially valued Cicero's style.

A brilliant stylist, able to express the slightest shades of thought, Cicero was the creator of that elegant literary language, which was considered a model of Latin prose. During the Enlightenment, the rationalistic philosophical views of Cicero influenced Voltaire and Montesquieu, who wrote the treatise The Spirit of the Laws.

Conclusion

As can be seen from all of the above, the genre of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman cultures did not die along with ancient civilization, but, despite the fact that the heights of this genre have so far remained unattainable for contemporaries, it continues to live at the present time. The living word has been and remains the most important tool of Christian preaching, the ideological and political struggle of our time. And it is the rhetorical culture of antiquity that underlies the liberal education of Europe from the time of the Renaissance until the 18th century. It is no coincidence that today the preserved texts of the speeches of ancient orators are not only of historical interest, but have a powerful influence on the events of our time, retain great cultural value, being examples of convincing logic, inspired feeling and a truly creative style.

Bibliography

S.I. Radtsig "History of Ancient Greek Literature", Moscow, publishing house "Higher School", 1969;

M. Gasparova, V. Borukhovich "Oratory of ancient Greece", Moscow, publishing house "Fiction", 1985;

"Antique Literature", Moscow, publishing house "Enlightenment", 1986;

O.M. Tronsky "History of Ancient Literature", Leningrad, UCHPEDGIZ, 1946

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.refcentr.ru/

ORatory ART OF ANCIENT GREECE AND

ANCIENT ROME

Performed:

group student

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Togosheeva Tamara Igorevna

Supervisor:

M.N. Chupanovskaya, Ph.D. PhD, Associate Professor

Irkutsk 2016

INTRODUCTION 3

1. THE ORIGIN OF RHETORIC. SPEAKERS OF ANCIENT GREECE.. 4

2. ORATORY OF ANCIENT ROME.. 9

CONCLUSION. fourteen

REFERENCES 15

Introduction.

Oratory is the art of public speaking for the purpose of persuasion. Oratory and the properties of oratory are studied by the science of rhetoric. To be able to correctly express your thoughts means to have the most powerful tool for managing people - the word. However, the word is not only the most important means of influencing others. It gives us the opportunity to know the world, to subjugate the forces of nature. The word is a powerful means of self-expression, each of the people. But how to use it? How to learn to speak in such a way as to interest listeners, influence their decisions and actions. The answer to these and other questions related to the ability to master the word is given by rhetoric (from the Greek art of eloquence) - the science of the skill of “persuading, captivating and delighting” with speech (Cicero). A similar skill was common during the trials or general meetings of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans. The solution of important state and public issues depended on the eloquence of the speakers, on the logic and accessibility of their arguments for understanding and perception by the audience. Many judges swayed their decision one way or another only through fiery and persuasive speeches by a defense lawyer or prosecutor - this also applies in modern jury courts. The special significance of rhetoric lies in the fact that it forms the style and logic of presentation, makes it possible to make the narrative coherent and intelligible to the audience, which is so necessary for human speech in our time. This is the relevance of this topic.

The art of eloquence has existed since time immemorial due to the natural need to prove or explain something in public speech. But for a long time this art was considered only as a natural gift, and no one tried to determine the theoretical foundations of such performances, to keep them in the memory of posterity.

The history of rhetoric began in ancient Greece and was then called the "science of eloquence." The development of oratory is possible only under a system that ensures freedom of speech. Such conditions appeared with the establishment of democracy. The success of the case depended on the persuasiveness of the orator's speech in popular assemblies, in councils and in courts. And so the theory of oratory - rhetoric - arose. The word "rhetor" originally meant "orator", but gradually they began to be called teachers of eloquence.

The rise of rhetoric. Speakers of Ancient Greece.

Rhetoric arose primarily in Sicily, where in the second half of the 5th century. in connection with the abolition of tyranny and the establishment of democratic government, scope was opened for the activity of orators, especially in the courts, since, due to the frequent abuses of the former power, great confusion remained in public and private affairs.

In the conditions of the ancient world, the living word of the orator played an extremely important role, there was a cult of the word, especially in Athens: the judicial order demanded that a citizen speak in court in person. Therefore, at the end of the 5th c. there was a need for experienced people who could help with their advice or even write an appropriate role for the speaker. This is how a special profession of lawyers arose - "logographers"1, who wrote speeches for clients for a fee. In addition, orators, leaders of public opinion or representatives of political parties began to stand out in the Council and in the People's Assembly.

The first professional teachers in ancient Greece were the sophists, who were called teachers of wisdom and eloquence (5th century BC). They prepared young people for public life, for discussions, developed the ability of students to use the methods of proof and refutation, to defend their opinion using sophisms. To prove the truth of a false statement, the sophists used reasoning built on logical tricks, i.e. deliberately erroneous reasoning. Sophism is based on the external similarity of phenomena, deliberately incorrect selection of starting points, on the ambiguity of words and the substitution of concepts. The most prominent of the sophists, the ideologist of slave-owning democracy and politician Protagoras of Abdera (481-411 BC), actively developed the theory of rhetoric. Giving paramount importance to the word in oratory, he considered it necessary to study the language and develop questions of grammar.

The Sophists questioned all truths, believed that each person has his own special truth; there are no true statements, all statements of people are false. The tricks of proof developed by the sophists are also used in modern rhetorical practice, but in a more hidden form, so it is difficult to immediately detect them.

Sophists rightly argued that in order to master a living word, it is necessary not only to develop logical thinking, but also to improve the technique of speech (clear pronunciation, sufficient volume, a certain pace) and the culture of speech (correctness, quality). And this position in rhetoric remained unshakable.

Already the first rhetoricians took into account the need for a systematic construction of speech and began to single out its main parts: introduction, main part, and conclusion. Eloquence was divided into three types: 1) deliberative or political 2) judicial, including accusatory and defensive speeches, and 3) epidictic, that is, ostentatious, or solemn, aiming to glorify some object, event, holiday, person etc. and enabling the speaker to show off his skill.

Greek scholars of the Hellenistic era, from a large number of orators known to them, singled out the "canon" of ten speakers as the most remarkable; it included Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates, Demosthenes, Hyperides, Lycurgus, Aeschines, and Dinarchus.

The first rhetorician was the sophist Gorgias (483-376). In 427, he came to Athens as an ambassador from the Sicilian city of Leontin to ask for help against Syracuse. With his speeches, he made a strong impression on the Athenian youth. Gorgias also gave examples of solemn, epidictic eloquence. His speech at the all-Greek meeting in Olympia was known - "Olympic speech", in which he called on the Greeks to forget their civil strife and turn against a common enemy - the Persians. But this speech has not reached us. An excerpt from his "Tombstone" has been preserved. The author in solemn, high-flown expressions praises the valor of the soldiers who fell in the struggle for the fatherland. Gorgias uses in abundance all sorts of external, formal decoration techniques, which later received the name "Gorgia's Figures". He builds his speech on oppositions - "antitheses", which sharpen the author's thought and give it special clarity; each phrase is divided into members, or knees, equal in length, and often their parallelism is emphasized by consonant endings - rhyme. Thus, rhyme in Greek literature manifested itself primarily in prose, and entered poetry only in the first centuries of our era.

Gorgias had many disciples and followers; his literary influence was very strong, as is clearly seen in the speeches of Antiphon, Lysias and Isocrates, partly in the History of Thucydides.

At the turn of the V-VI centuries. BC. the outstanding Athenian judicial orator Lysias (about 445 - 380 BC) declared himself. He was a wealthy metek ("alien") and belonged to the Democratic Party. During the reign of the "thirty tyrants", his brother was executed without trial, the family's property was confiscated. Lysias fled and returned to Athens only after the restoration of democracy in 403. He became a professional "logographer", i.e. "speech writer". Lysia's style is simple, transparent, and crisp. The art of this speaker is to create a favorable impression of the personality of the speaker for the court, so that its characteristic appearance (ethos - in ancient terminology) appears in the most favorable light, while maintaining all its naturalness and vitality. The portrait created by the speech should testify in favor of the speaker; Of course, this portrait is sometimes very far from reality.

Of the traditional parts of the judicial speech, Lysias' narrative is the most artistic; this was already noted by ancient criticism. In ancient times, over 400 speeches circulated under the name of Lysias, of which 233 were considered authentic. 34 speeches with varying degrees of literary processing have come down to us; they belong to the period between 403 and 380. In his speeches - a bright, worldly, psychologically reliable everyday narrative; remarkable social and moral characteristics of plaintiffs and defendants, creating generalized contrasting types of contemporaries; the simplicity and clarity of style that made the speeches of Lysias a classic example of Attic prose.

The most striking representative of the solemn (epideictic) eloquence of ancient Greece is the orator Isocrates (436-338 BC), a student of Gorgias, the founder of the rhetorical school in Athens. But rhetoric was taught in this school not as a formal discipline, teaching only the art of oratory, but as a means of knowing and spreading the truth.

Isocrates did not give speeches himself, but only taught eloquence and wrote speeches that spread throughout Greece. His most famous speech, the Panegyric, is a glorification of Athens; the speaker calls on the Greek communities to unite under the hegemony of Athens and Sparta.

A characteristic feature of the oratorical style of Isocrates is pomp. He is the creator of the so-called period - a complex sentence, which is a set of subordinate and subordinate sentences with a rhythmic beginning and a rhythmic ending, which later became the norm for fiction. The smooth, beautiful, symmetrically constructed periods of Isocrates gave his speeches a certain monotony and coldness, and they do not have that animation that is so characteristic of the most prominent political orator of Ancient Greece - Demosthenes.

The best of the disciples of Isocrates, the greatest Greek orator Demosthenes grew up in an atmosphere of acute political struggle. The unprecedented flourishing of culture, and especially the growth of the social significance and popularity of ancient oratory, is associated with the name of Demosthenes. Demosthenes (384–322 BC) was the son of an armory owner, but was orphaned as a child. His father left him a large fortune, but his guardians plundered him. Barely reaching adulthood, Demosthenes sued his guardians, but, although he won the process, he managed to regain only an insignificant part of the inheritance - a house and some money. This trial was the first impetus for the oratorical activity of Demosthenes, the most famous of the representatives of Greek eloquence.

Demosthenes had a very weak voice; The first two attempts at the performance ended unsuccessfully. And then Demosthenes decided to correct and corrected all his shortcomings. Every day, for several hours at a time, he practiced exercises to correct the ambiguity of pronunciation. He never spoke without preparation, but always learned by heart a pre-written speech; at night he diligently prepared for the performance, carefully considering every word.

The largest theoretician and teacher of eloquence in the 5th century BC. e. was Gorgias from the Sicilian city of Leontina. In 427, he arrived in Athens, and his skillful speeches attracted everyone's attention. Later, he traveled all over Greece, speaking to audiences everywhere. At the meeting of the Greeks in Olympia, he addressed the audience with a call for unanimity in the struggle against the barbarians. The Olympic speech of Gorgias glorified his name for a long time (a statue was erected to him in Olympia, the base of which was found in the last century during archaeological excavations).

Tradition has preserved little of the creative heritage of Gorgias. For example, the following advice to the speaker has been preserved: "Refut the serious arguments of the opponent with a joke, jokes with seriousness." Only two speeches attributed to Gorgias have survived in their entirety - "Praise to Helen" and "Justification of Palamedes", written on the plots of myths about the Trojan War. The oratory of Gorgias contained many innovations: symmetrically constructed phrases, sentences with the same endings, metaphors and comparisons; the rhythmic articulation of speech and even rhyme brought his speech closer to poetry. Some of these techniques have retained the name "Gorgian figures" for a long time. Gorgias wrote his speeches in the Attic dialect, which is a clear evidence of the increased role of Athens in the literary life of ancient Hellas.

Gorgias was one of the first orators of a new type - not only a practitioner, but also a theorist of eloquence, who taught young men from wealthy families to speak and think logically for a fee. Such teachers were called sophists, "experts in wisdom." Their "wisdom" was skeptical: they believed that absolute truth does not exist, the true is that which can be proved in a sufficiently convincing way. Hence their concern for the persuasiveness of the proof and the expressiveness of the word: they made the word the object of a special study. Especially a lot they were engaged in the origin of the meaning of the word (etymology), as well as synonymy. The main field of activity of the sophists was Athens, where all genres of eloquence flourished - deliberative, epidictic and judicial.

Information processes in Ancient civilizations and the Middle Ages.

Topic 1. Prehistory of journalism. Development

Oratory is a significant phenomenon in the social life of the ancient world. But it is Ancient Greece that is considered the birthplace of oratory. Here already in W. BC. there was a culture of oratory, its various types. Oratory becomes a profession. It was in ancient Greece that the theory of eloquence was born, primarily in the works of the Greek scientist who laid the foundation for many branches of knowledge - Aristotle (384-322 BC). Aristotle devoted some of his works to the theory of rhetoric. Its main - "Rhetoric" - consists of three books and is devoted to such important issues of oratory as language, style and structure of speech. The author divides speeches into three types: deliberative (political), judicial and solemn (epideictic). The author believes that good speech is only that speech that gives knowledge. Also in the "Rhetoric" the problem of the main orientation of eloquence is raised - the organization of public opinion. The art of the word was considered the art of influencing people, and the main task of the orator was the ability to explain and encourage - to think or act.

The heyday of ancient Greek rhetoric is also associated with the peculiarities of the state structure of Ancient Greece. The end of U1 - the beginning of the U century BC is the period of the birth and formation of Athenian democracy. It was during this period that elements of the rule of law state were formed in the country. The reforms that were carried out by the politician Solon (born c. 638 - d. c. 559 BC) had a great influence on the development of oratory. The most important aspect of Solon's activity was the reform of the ekklesia - the assembly of the people. Previously, all state issues were decided by the council of the tribal aristocracy - the Areopagus. Solon deprived the Areopagus of part of his powers, and all the fullness of state power passed into the hands of the ecclesia. The ecclesia included all free adult male citizens. Approximately 3,000 people were present at the meeting of the people's assembly and made decisions on important state issues (war and peace, relations with other states). Under such conditions, the role of political speech and the role of the political orator himself, which significantly influences public opinion, increase significantly.

Demosthenes (384-322 BC) can be called an unsurpassed master in this area. At first he was a logographer (legal speech writer), but he gained the greatest fame precisely as a political orator. Demosthenes is a supporter of Athenian democracy, openly opposed tyranny and monarchy.

The main theme of his political speeches is the struggle against the Macedonian king Philip, who threatened the independence of Greece, and against the pro-Macedonian party in the country, which supported Philip. Of the sixty speeches of Demosthenes that have come down to us, the most famous are eight on this topic. They have a common name - "Philippi". Demosthenes strive

explain to fellow citizens the essence of the policy of the Macedonian king, which threatens Greek democracy. Demosthenes' speeches were designed for a large number of listeners, his main task was not only to state the essence of the issue, but also to convince the Hellenes of the need to resist the Macedonian. These tasks also determined the clear structure of the "Philippic" - a short introduction, then the speaker proceeds to the presentation of the factual material and its analysis, and in the conclusion draws clear conclusions and sums up what has been said.

At the time of Solon, a reform of the court was also carried out: a jury was created - a democratic supreme court, where any citizen of the state at least thirty years old could act as a judge. In some cases, the number of assessors reached 6,000 people. The functions of a lawyer and prosecutor were performed by the plaintiff or the defendant himself. The verdict of the court largely depended on the impression that the speech would make on the jury. Therefore, it was so important to compose your speech competently and logically, to be able to clearly express your thoughts and behave with dignity in public. If a person could not prepare his speech himself, then this work was performed by a logographer, who, for a fee, composed speeches and taught the techniques of oratory. Many of the great Greek orators were logographers.

The most famous court orator of ancient Greece was Lysias (c. 459-380 BC). Lysias delivered his first speech at a fairly mature age, when he was about 60 years old. Lysias acted as an accuser at the trial against the man who was guilty of the death of his brother with a speech "Against Eratosthenes, a former member of the college of thirty." This is the only speech that Lysias made himself, later he was engaged in compiling speeches for others. A feature of the speeches of Lysias are the simplicity and clarity of presentation. A large role is given to the narrative part, which gives a clear picture of the events that took place.

The most prominent representative of solemn eloquence is Isocrates (436-338 BC). The first attempts to speak publicly ended in failure for him - he had a very weak voice. So Isocrates abandoned public speaking and set about writing speeches that were primarily meant to be read. No wonder Isocrates is called the first publicist. 21 (6 judicial and 15 solemn) speeches and nine letters have come down to us. In his most famous speech, the Panegyric (which can also serve as an example of a political speech), Isocrates raises the issue of the crisis of policies. He proposes to unite the Greek cities under the auspices of Athens for a campaign against ancient enemies - the Persians. The political point of view of Isocrates is set forth in his writings "Areopagitic", "Philip". The first speech is devoted to an important topic - the internal organization of Athens, but here the question is raised about the basic principles of the proper leadership of the state.

The speech "Philip" is built as an appeal to the Macedonian king Philip, he calls on him to unite the Greek cities and lead the campaign against the Persians. A war against the Persians, according to Isocrates, would be beneficial to both Greece and Macedonia.

Isocrates is also famous for the school of eloquence he created. Her training lasted three or four years. It is noteworthy that the school studied various subjects - both humanitarian and natural. Isocrates believed that a real orator should not only learn professional skills, but also have broad knowledge in various fields of science. The school of Isocrates played a big role in the history of Greek culture and Greek society: not only well-known orators, but also historians and politicians came out of its walls.

The heyday of Roman oratory falls on the 1st century BC. This is a difficult period in the history of Rome, a time of political battles, the fall of the republic and the emergence of an empire. Roman art is associated primarily with the practical aspects of life, so the main types of Roman oratory are political and judicial. This fully applies to the peculiarities of the rhetoric of Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), the most prominent representative of Roman eloquence. 58 of his speeches have come down to us.

Cicero came from a wealthy family and received a good education. Starts his career with judicial eloquence. The most famous of his speeches are "In defense of the Sesta Roscius of Ameria" and a series of "Speeches against Gaius Verres".

In 63 BC Cicero rises to the pinnacle of political power - he becomes a consul. This period also marks the peak of oratorical activity. In the same year, Cicero delivers his famous speeches "Against Catiline", which went down in history under the name "catilinaria". Catiline is a political opponent of Cicero, who led a conspiracy to overthrow the government. Cicero brilliantly convincingly proves the guilt of Catiline, although he had no evidence of a conspiracy. In his speeches, the most famous of which is the first Catilinaria, delivered on November 8, 63 BC, Cicero is based on debunking the identity of the accused, his criminal nature. The speaker does not rely on facts, but on emotions and achieves his goal. The very next day, Catiline leaves Rome.

The famous political speeches of Cicero also include fourteen speeches against Mark Antony. Spoken at the end of the life of the great orator in 44 BC. speeches called by Cicero himself "Philippics" raise important political issues of the time.

Written forms of dissemination of information in ancient Rome. The first pre-newspapers.

The appearance of writing in the period of the 8th-6th millennium BC. radically changed the system of human communication. It becomes possible to record information in special texts. History testifies that in ancient times, the initial records were astronomical, ritual information, a reflection of economic calculations, genealogy, that is, materials that were documentary in nature.

Both in ancient Greece and in ancient Rome, there were oral and written ways of disseminating information. Although in Ancient Greece there was no similarity to newspapers, such a genre of written journalism as a pamphlet appeared, which performed an ideological and propaganda role.

The appearance of historical chronicles is an important stage in the development of written forms of information dissemination. Already from the first steps of the emergence of writing and statehood, the recording of historical information begins. The ancient Greek scientist Thucydides (r. 460-d. 400 BC) can rightly be called the father of scientific historiography. He is the author of the greatest work of ancient historiography - "History of the Peloponnesian War". In his works, Thucydides reflects reality in a new way - he relies on proven reliability of the material and analyzes the facts. Thus, documentary is slowly, step by step, replacing the mythologism of written texts. So, for example, Thucydides in his writings no longer mentions the role of the gods and their intervention in the course of historical events.

Written forms were widely used in ancient Rome. First of all, it is necessary to note the use of epistol. Writing played an important role in the life of the Roman Republic. Many politicians, public figures were often forced to leave Rome on business, going to distant provinces. In order to keep abreast of events that take place in the city, they hired literate, poor people who collected information about the city and compiled reports on recent events in the form of letters. Moreover, the content of these letters was very diverse - from theatrical news to descriptions of the funerals of wealthy citizens. Collectors of information were called "artisans". To a certain extent, they can be called the likeness of modern reporters: their duties included the collection, certain processing and transmission of information. Artisans received money for their work.

An important role in ancient Rome was played by the epistles of the politicians themselves, people from the senatorial class. In such correspondence, social and political issues were mainly discussed. Moreover, in the letters one could find not only information, various information, but also an analysis, the point of view of the author of the letter on a particular problem was expressed. It is important that such correspondence became public. If the letter was devoted to particularly important issues, then copies were made and identical messages were simultaneously sent to several statesmen.

There were also so-called "open" letters. Their texts were copied in several copies and hung out in the city.

In ancient Rome, there are also such forms of dissemination of information that can be called a pre-newspaper. In 59 BC By order of Julius Caesar, Acta diurna senatus ac popoli (Daily Protocols of the Senate and the Roman People) began to appear. They were made on clay tablets and exhibited in Rome in the squares, in the bazaars, in crowded places. The content of "Asta diurna" was very diverse - from political information to information about various events in the city. Announcements about weddings, christenings, and funerals in wealthy noble families were also placed here. Copies were made from the "Acta diurna" and sent to the provinces, that is, it can be argued that there was some kind of circulation.

Under Emperor Augustus, the content of the newspaper was significantly changed: the section of official information was reduced. More attention began to be paid to information about various incidents, the gossip column section expanded significantly.

"Acta diurna" has the characteristics of a newspaper - the presence of a variety of information - from political to secular, the circulation of the publication, a certain periodicity. The Latin word "duirnalis" (daily) is the basis of the French "journal".

The emergence and main forms of early Christian journalism.

The first Christian communities appeared at the end of the 1st century. BC. - the beginning of the 1st century AD in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Communities of Christians, as a manifestation of protest against the slave-owning state, arose outside the temple organizations that illuminated this state. They included settlers, slaves, freedmen - people who did not accept the official religion. The first Christian communities were distinguished by their simplicity of organization; their members held joint meetings and meals. Sermons were delivered at the meetings, and messages were often exchanged between the communities. Preachers were at the head of the congregations. Sermon, the spoken word becomes the main form of dissemination of the new teaching.

Only at the beginning of the 4th century did Christianity become the official religion. In 313, Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed the free practice of Christianity. In turn, the Christian church began to support the imperial power, gradually becoming the ideological pillar of the state. In 325, the first Ecumenical Council (Nicene) was convened. At the council, a creed was developed - a summary of the main provisions of Christianity.

In the future, the development of Christian journalism goes in two directions - both oral and written forms are practiced. Oral journalism, as already noted, includes a sermon. Written journalism includes letters, messages, bulls, breve - messages of the popes.

Book publishing in the early Middle Ages. The development of information processes in the late Middle Ages.

The fall of the Roman Empire in 476 significantly changed the development and course of the information process. The range of journalistic activity has become much narrower. This is due to the fact that the new society lost communication links: the states existed separately, trade relations did not develop, and the level of literacy was extremely low. Religious journalism occupies a dominant position compared to secular journalism.

The main book of Christians is the Bible, which consists of two parts - the Old and New Testaments. Numerous commentaries on the Bible were created in the Middle Ages. The texts of the Holy Scriptures were widely used to create other church books. The lives of the saints, which contained genuine historical information and facts, were also very widespread. In the Middle Ages, almost the only centers of literacy were monasteries. Books were copied in the monasteries, this custom was borrowed from the East. In Europe, the first monastic order was founded by Benedict of Nursia (480-543) and wrote the Charter, according to which the monks were to read and copy books. This Charter gave impetus to the transformation of monasteries into centers of literacy.

The creator of the first writing workshop - the scriptorium - was Cassiodorus (born 487). In 540, he founded a monastery, where he created a school similar to the ancient one. It studied such sciences as grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, music and even medicine. Wrote "Manual", which contained the rules for writing books.

The life of the monastic scriptoria was subject to a strict schedule. Correspondence was carried out according to strictly established rules: scribes were supposed to be silent during work, it was possible to copy books only in the daytime, at night - to check for errors, entrance to the scriptorium (in addition to the scribes themselves) was allowed only to the abbot or prior. Correspondence of books was considered a charitable deed. Each monk had to devote several hours a day to this work; illiterate monks were required to learn to read and write.

In the monasteries, first of all, books necessary for church services were produced - liturgical literature. Large monasteries were the centers of chronicle writing - they compiled historical chronicles, the Lives of the Saints. Books were written in Latin, which significantly narrowed the circle of readers.

The book in the monasteries was made by the monks themselves, which is called "from cover to cover." The writing material of that time was also produced here - papyrus and parchment, there were also bookbinding workshops.

After the undertaking of Cassiodorus in Europe, masterful letters began to appear one after another. By the beginning of the 12th century, there were already 2,000 monasteries with scriptoria.

In the 12th-13th centuries, new moments appeared in the development of information processes associated with the emergence of capitalist relations in the bowels of the Middle Ages. Previously lost communication links between different regions of the European continent are being restored. Trade is developing, trade routes are being formed, cities are actively growing. The need for literate people is growing significantly. At the beginning of the 12th century, municipal and private schools began to appear, thus violating the centuries-old church monopoly on education. City schools were still closely connected with the church, since their teachers had to obtain permission to teach from the bishop. Despite this, the new schools were a very special phenomenon in the life of society, they were financially independent from the church, which gave relative freedom of teaching.

An important role in the development of education was played by the first universities, which arose in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. These are universities in Bologna - Italy, Paris - France, Oxford and Cambridge - England. For teaching in schools and universities, more books were required, and if in monastic schools these were books of a purely theological nature, now there is a need for secular literature. So the production of the book goes beyond the auspices of the church. In the cities there are artisans who are engaged in census work. For example, at the University of Paris, a new system of book rewriting is emerging. The university commission compiled a list of books required for students and carefully checked the text of a copy of each book. They were rented to the library (stationary) and were given to students for a fee. Work in urban workshops differed significantly from that in monasteries, where they created a book from parchment to binding. The division of labor in this area was determined in the city, and the book becomes a commodity.

An important factor in the dissemination of information is the emergence of a new writing material - paper. Parchment - specially processed animal skins - was strong enough, but its production was difficult and expensive. Paper was invented in China in the 2nd century. AD and gradually penetrated to the West. In 751, Samarkand was captured by the Arabs, from where they took the secret of its manufacture to Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Syria. Only in the 13th century paper was exported by the Arabs to Spain, then came to Italy, then to France, Germany. Already in the same century in Italy, then in France, the first paper mills began to appear and production was established in Europe.

As cities and trade develop, the need for information increases. In the 15th and 16th centuries, information centers appeared in Europe. First of all, such centers arose in large port cities, or cities where fairs were held. These are Hamburg, Frankfurt, Leipzig, Strasbourg, Paris, Venice, London and others. The initiators of the dissemination of information were large trading houses. Gradually, handwritten leaflets, which initially contained purely commercial information, began to spread, later news about various events began to appear in them. In Venice, these sheets were sold for a small coin, which was called "gazzeta". This is how the word GAZETA appeared. There is also the profession of a news gatherer.

Trade publications were also widespread in Germany, where in 1508 trade leaflets appeared, first handwritten, later printed, published by the Fugger trading house - “Fugger newspapers”. They came out from 1520 until the beginning of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). The newspapers mostly contained information that was important for commerce, but also contained political information. The well-known Fugger trading house from Leipzig maintained relations with many states, concluded trade deals with large corporations in many countries, with the German emperor, with the Vatican.

It is important that newspapers were ordered by interested parties, for which a small circulation was made. But the Fugger newspapers were not widely distributed.

A young cyclist must have cycling shoes, cycling gloves, a helmet, a hat, cycling shorts and T-shirts, leggings, a training suit, a jacket, and socks. Cycling shoes have riveted spikes that, together with the toe clips and straps installed on the bicycle pedals, help transfer force from the foot to the pedal. Spikes can be metal or leather. Cycling shoes are selected strictly according to the athlete's foot. For winter training, they should be 1 - 2 sizes larger so that you can put on an extra pair of woolen socks.

Cycling gloves protect the hands from scuffs during long cycling, as well as from damage during falls. They are made of leather with an extra layer on the palms. The back side of them can also be leather or kapron threads.

A bicycle helmet protects the athlete's head from impacts when falling. It is mandatory to wear it during training and competitions on the track, as well as in road and cross-country competitions. A bicycle helmet is made of leather in the form of strips with a cross section of 2-3 cm, finished with felt, sponge rubber or horsehair. The distance between the strips should be no more than 4.5 cm. Protective helmets made of synthetic materials can also be used. Bicycle helmets and helmets are attached to the head with a bifurcated chin strap covering the ears on both sides.

Bicycle cap made of light fabrics with a visor protects athletes from sunlight, dust and rain. It can also be worn under a helmet.

Bicycle shorts are made of wool knitted material or wool with the addition of artificial materials. Pants come with or without seams. In some models of underpants, thin and soft suede leather is sewn at the point of contact with the crotch. Underpants for road and track riders should fit tightly to the body of the athlete and not restrict movement. Recently, to reduce air resistance in racing, overalls made of synthetic materials have been used.

The athlete needs to have 2 - 3 pairs of shorts and wash them after 2 - 3 workouts. If there is suede on the shorts, it must be lubricated with a "Children's" cream before training or competitions, followed by washing.

Cycling shirts can be made of cotton, viscose or woolen fabric, for road bikers - with pockets at the back, fastened sleeves or without them. The shirt should tightly fit the body of the athlete, without restricting breathing and movement. Cycling shirts, like cycling shorts, need to be washed regularly.

For training in cold weather, athletes need to have leggings made of wool or synthetic fabric. They can be with or without socks. In the place of contact with the crotch, a second layer of woolen fabric is sewn.

A training suit made of cotton, brushed or wool is worn in cold weather during competitions and breaks in training.

Bologna-style jacket with hood protects athletes from rain and wind during training.

White cotton socks are a must for road races to keep your feet dry and cool.

The coach needs to teach the athletes to become in accordance with the weather and the objectives of training and competition. In cool weather, an additional cycling shirt, leggings, warm gloves and a hat are required.

Boys from 14 - 15 years old may well conduct winter training at - 5 - 8 °. In winter training on the highway and rough terrain, to protect the toes from hypothermia, the pedals of the bicycle must be equipped with special linings, fur gloves or mittens should be put on the hands, and a ski cap covering the ears should be worn on the head.

For training, running, sports games, skiing, etc., athletes need to have a regular training suit, ski cap, sneakers or sneakers.

For more information about special preparatory exercises, see the book: S. M. Minakova, N. N. Vlasova. Cycling, M., FiS, 1964

QUESTIONS FOR THE RHETORIC EXAM

1. Subject of rhetoric. Formation and main stages of development of rhetoric.

The rise of rhetoric.

Rhetoric (Greek) - the science of oratory, which studies the relationship of thought to utterance; the direct subject of rhetoric is public argumentation.

subject of rhetoric- a product of a word that has not yet been created, but which is to be created.

In different periods, different content was invested in rhetoric. It was considered both as a special genre of literature, and as a mastery of any kind of speech (written and oral), and as a science and art of oral speech. Already in ancient times, two approaches to understanding rhetoric were clearly identified. On the one hand, Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Cicero developed the concept of meaningful rhetoric, where one of the main components was the idea (logos). On the other hand, the Quintilian school viewed rhetoric mainly as the art of embellishing speech.

Apparently, therefore, rhetoric has other names: eloquence (red speech is “beautiful”), oratory, or, in Latin, eloquence; oratory (from the Slavic “viti word”), the theory of literature, oratory. The last term causes the most controversy. Is rhetoric really a science or an art?

Already in antiquity, rhetoric was considered both as a science and as an art. Some called her "the queen of all the arts" and most closely associated with poetry and stagecraft. Others, in particular Aristotle, emphasized that rhetoric is the art of persuasion, but based it on purely scientific disciplines - dialectics and logic. Today, rhetoric is more often seen as a science, sometimes defined as a theory of persuasive communication.

There is no contradiction here, both approaches are justified. This is due to the fact that human thinking is carried out in two forms - logical and figurative, and they correspond to two types of knowledge - science and art, mutually complementing each other.

Oratory is a kind of emotional and intellectual creativity, realized in verbal form: it simultaneously affects the consciousness and feelings of a person. The art of public speaking consists in skillfully using both forms of human thinking.

All people are involved in rhetoric in one way or another, because, as Aristotle explained, “everyone, to a certain extent, has to both disassemble and support some opinion, both justify and accuse.” In fact, there are no such professions where mastery of the word would not be useful.

To give a good speech, it is not enough to know what to say: you must also know how to say it. It is necessary to imagine the features of oratorical speech, take into account many factors that affect the speaker and listeners, and master the technique of speaking. A simple enumeration of the laws of rhetoric speaks of how much knowledge and skills are required from a speaker.

1. The conceptual law involves the systematization of the speech material, a comprehensive analysis of the subject of speech and the formulation of the main idea of ​​the message. With the help of this law, the speaker learns to distinguish between the main and the secondary, to arrange the material in a certain sequence, to foresee its impact on the audience. In the formula below, this law is denoted by the letter K.

2. The Law of Audience Modeling (A) requires the speaker to know the audience before which he will speak. He must have a clear understanding of the three main features that make up the "portrait" of any audience. Its socio-demographic characteristics are determined by gender, age, nationality, level of education, profession, etc. Socio-psychological characteristics are justified by the motives of behavior, attitude to the subject of speech and the speaker, and the level of understanding of the problems under discussion. Individual personality traits take into account the type of nervous system, way of thinking, features of thinking, temperament of listeners, etc.

3. The third law of rhetoric (C) determines the speaker's behavior strategy, requiring to establish:

goals of speech activity (why?);

contradictions in the problems under study and ways to resolve them;

the main thesis of the speech;

own position.

4. The fourth law of rhetoric shapes the tactics (T) of making a speech. This assumes the following sequence of actions:

to interest the audience;

cause listeners to think;

bring them to the level of discussion of the subject of speech.

5. The fifth law of rhetoric (LW) requires attention to verbal expression, teaches speech skills, how to clothe thought in an effective verbal form.

6. The Law of Effective Communication (EL) forms and develops the ability to establish, maintain and consolidate contact with the audience, win its sympathy, attention and interest. For this, a certain system of actions is also provided:

managing one's own behavior;

audience behavior management;

correction of the prepared text in the course of the presentation.

7. The system-analytical law of rhetoric (SA) develops the speaker's ability to identify and evaluate his own impressions of the speech and analyze the speech activity of others, which helps, as experience is gained, to improve the mastery of his public speaking.

Taking into account these laws of rhetoric (P), it is convenient to present it in the form of a certain scheme, which can be regarded as the quintessence of all the achievements of rhetorical thought from antiquity to the present day:

P \u003d K + A + C + T + CB + EO + SA.

Rhetoric is necessary for a person of any profession, regardless of whether his activity is connected with the ability to communicate and speak well. Personal qualities developed by rhetoric enable a person to realize himself much more fully, develop abilities in the chosen specialty.

2. Rhetoric as a science and skill. The first orators of antiquity.

Rhetoric as the art of speech and the term "rhetoric" itself were born in Greek antiquity. In antiquity, the main questions that determined the face of the subject of rhetoric were posed. This is the relationship between audience and speaker. The core of the problems of Greek rhetoric is given in Plato's dialogue "Gorgias" and Aristotle's treatise "Rhetoric".

Gorgias is the name of a famous sophist and rhetorician, a teacher who prepared youth for a civil career. Gorgias and his followers regarded rhetoric as an instrument of civil government and taught the art of government.

Plato, through the mouth of Socrates, opposes ethics to rhetoric. This is how the opposition of rhetorical technique and ethics develops. Plato puts ethics first. "And then, when we have succeeded enough in this virtue, then only, if we consider it necessary, we will take up public affairs or give advice in this or that matter, no matter what attracts us. Then we will be better advisers than now, for it is a shame -boyishly boasting and putting on airs in the state in which, apparently, we are now, when we endlessly change our judgments, and, moreover, about the most important things. This is how ignorant we have reached! . This is a condemnation of Gorgias and his disciples.

Further, Plato threatens politicians who constantly make unprincipled and unscrupulous decisions with the torments that they will have to take after death in the kingdom of Hades: “Who is guilty of the most difficult and, for this reason, inexcusable atrocities; they themselves do not derive any benefit from their punishment ... Witness to this is Homer himself. He depicts kings and rulers as bearing eternal punishment in Hades: here is Tantalus, and Sisyphus, and Titius ".

Socrates has no doubt that he himself can suffer from unscrupulous rhetoricians: “I would really be mad if I doubted that in our city everyone could suffer any fate. But one thing I know for sure: if I ever stand before one of the dangers you are talking about (the danger of being accused and the impossibility of defending yourself. --- Yu.R.) will also threaten me, my accuser, indeed, will be a scoundrel, and I will not be surprised to hear the death sentence ". This means that rhetoric is an evil from which even the humble Socrates is threatened with death.

The fact is that for Gorgias and his students it is important to win the case in any way. This is how they evaluate the success of the rhetor, but for Socrates it is important not to sin against goodness and justice. Therefore, Plato sees evil in oratory for speakers: “I see that when the city treats one of its accused husbands as a criminal, the accused are indignant and complain about an undeserved offense. But this is a lie from beginning to end. Not a single chapter states cannot perish undeservedly at the hands of the city that he heads, "since he made a career as an orator. Examples are Pericles, Meltiades, Cimon, Themistocles and others. Plato ironically compares such statesmen with a cattleman who "accepted the animals as peaceful, and then they suddenly became wild."

An orator who aspires to a public career is pleasing, like a cook who indulges society. The orator pleases the demos, the demos, like the tyrant, cannot in principle act virtuously and rationally. Therefore, the speaker only exacerbates the misfortunes of his own and the people. He "will suffer the greatest evil, he will be corrupted by his soul, imitating his master, The reason is that the speakers are chasing the goodwill of the citizens and for their own benefit they neglect the common, treating the people like a child ...".

However, the misfortunes that come from oratory, according to Plato, are not in speech itself as a technique for inventing thoughts and words, but in ethics. The fact is that the rhetorical school of Gorgias is unethical. But speech as such, as an instrument of communication in relation to ethics, is, as it were, neutral, since there is also virtuous eloquence.

"... If eloquence is dual, then one part of it should be the most obsequious, shameful fawning on the people, and the other - excellent care for the souls of fellow citizens ...".

This means that the purpose of eloquence and oratory depends on the morality of the speaker. Unethical speakers, according to Plato, are likened to people dragging water into a leaky vessel with a sieve.

Understanding ethics can be different. The student Gorgias Callicles states: "... Can a person really be happy if he is a slave and obeys someone? No! What is beautiful and fair by nature, I will tell you now with all frankness: who wants to live right, he must give full rein to his desires, and not suppress them, and, no matter how unbridled they may be, he must find in himself the ability to serve them (that's what courage and reason are for him), he must fulfill any of his desires.

But, of course, this is inaccessible to the majority, and therefore the crowd vilifies such people, ashamed, hiding their weakness, and declares self-will a disgrace, and, as I said before, tries to enslave the best by nature.

So Callicles boldly opposes man to the crowd, the best people to the worst, and says, apparently rightly, that it is natural for the crowd to suppress the best if they go against it. What is the best in the understanding of Gorgias and his followers and in the understanding of Plato, who speaks through the mouth of Socrates?

In the understanding of Gorgias, Callicles and Paul, Archelaus, the ruler of Macedonia, who killed the legitimate heirs and his relatives and seized power and now can do anything and therefore is happy, can be called the best. Plato, through the mouth of Socrates, says that this is an unfortunate person, since he has done injustice.

So, the criteria for happiness and the goal of striving for Gorgias and his followers to seize power and wealth in order to satisfy their desires and whims, for Socrates, happiness and the goal of life consist in justice and a worthy life not to the detriment of others, the absence of self-will.

3.Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes as authentic orators of Ancient Greece.

Word - One of the most important means of influencing others. The word is a powerful means of self-expression, the urgent need of each of the people. But how to use it? How to learn to speak in such a way as to interest listeners, influence their decisions and actions, and attract them to your side? What speech can be considered the most effective? To solve such problems, there is oratory.

Oratory is the art of speaking beautifully, expressing one's thoughts. Two components are important in it: the idea, or the content of speech (since rhetoric is the art of convincing with a word) and the beauty of speech, its form and style (after all, rhetoric can also be considered as the art of decorating speech). It originated in the democratic states of ancient Greece, since public politics and public court first appeared there. However, oratory was known in Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, and India. In antiquity, the living word was of great importance: possession of it was the most important way to achieve authority in society and success in political activity.
Speakers of Ancient Greece.

In the life of democratic ancient Greek states, oratory was of extreme importance. European rhetoric got its start in ancient Greece, in the schools of the sophists, whose main task was purely practical teaching of eloquence; therefore their rhetoric contained many rules relating to style and grammar proper.

No other ancient culture pays as much attention to oratory as the Greek. The most famous ancient Greek speakers were Plato, Pericles, Aristotle, Demosthenes
Demosthenes- Athenian politician, orator, leader of the democratic anti-Macedonian group. He called on the Greeks to fight against the aggressive policy of the Macedonian king Philip II (the speeches of Demosthenes against him are “Philippis”). He achieved the creation of an anti-Macedonian coalition of Greek policies.

Demosthenes was born in Athens, the son of an arms and furniture workshop owner. Since childhood, he suffered from physical disabilities (tongue-tied tongue, weak voice, nervous tic). At the age of seven, the boy lost his father, and the family's property was squandered by the guardians. Demosthenes began his independent life in 364 with a successful lawsuit against unscrupulous guardians. In the future, Demosthenes became a logographer - he earned a living by compiling speeches for participants in lawsuits. With persistent exercises, he managed to overcome his physical disabilities, he studied oratory with Isei, a well-known writer of speeches at that time.

Modern science recognizes 41 speeches as belonging to Demosthenes, as well as several dozen introductions to speeches and letters. Conventionally, his speeches are divided into judicial, judicial-political and political. Judicial speeches (364-345) of Demosthenes are characterized by accurate and specific argumentation, they give vivid, lively pictures of his contemporary life. Of the judicial-political speeches, the most striking are “On the Criminal Embassy” (343) and “For Ctesiphon on the Wreath” (330), directed against Aeschines. The most significant in the legacy of Demosthenes is recognized as political speeches, of which 8 speeches against Philip II, delivered between 351-341, stand out.

Demosthenes carefully prepared his public speeches, but he paid great attention to the lively and unconstrained presentation of the texts of speeches. Therefore, he did not adhere to a rigid plan, he actively used pauses, which were facilitated by rhetorical questions: “What does this mean?”, “What is the reason?”. The introduction and narrative part of Demosthenes were reduced to a minimum, he directed all his efforts to refuting the arguments of his opponents and proving his case.

It was important for Demosthenes to convince the listener that he was right at the very moment of the speech. Starting a new section of speech, he immediately reveals its content, in the process of presentation sums up what has been said, repeatedly repeats especially important thoughts. Often he built an imaginary dialogue with the enemy. Of great importance in the oratory of Demosthenes was facial expressions, gestures, voice modulations. He freely combined and varied rhetorical styles, used a variety of options for constructing phrases and sentences. Demosthenes skillfully used antitheses (“the present century” and “the past century”), combining synonyms into pairs (“know” and “understand”), metaphors, personifications, default figures, when the listeners themselves guessed what was being discussed. As a result, his performances were never monotonous.

The desire to convince gave rise to the passionate pathos of Demosthenes' speeches. According to legend, even Philip II admitted that if he had listened to the speeches of Demosthenes, he would certainly have voted for the war against himself. The recognition of the eloquence of Demosthenes was so high that contemporaries and subsequent generations of the ancient Greeks called him simply the Orator.

Plato- The great ancient Greek philosopher and writer, the founder of idealism as a philosophical trend. He came from an aristocratic family that took an active part in the political life of Athens. In his youth, he listened to the sophist Cratylus (the ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher), at the age of 20 he met Socrates, began to regularly attend his conversations, and even abandoned a real political career. He took part in the Corinthian War. In 387 he founded his philosophical school in Athens at the Academy Gymnasium. According to Olympiodorus, Plato was not only a philosopher, but also an Olympic champion. Twice he won pankration competitions - a mixture of boxing and wrestling. Plato is one of the founders of the idealistic trend in world philosophy. It is easy to detect signs of dualism in Plato's philosophy. Plato often contrasts the soul and body as two heterogeneous entities. In many of his works, Plato discusses in detail the theory of the immortality of the soul. In the Phaedo dialogue, Plato sets out four arguments in favor of this theory.

According to Plato, true eloquence is based on knowledge of the truth and therefore accessible only to a philosopher. Having known the essence of things, a person comes to a correct opinion about them, and having known the nature of human souls, he has the opportunity to inspire his opinion to listeners. Valuable in Plato's theory of eloquence is the idea of ​​the impact of speech on the soul. In his opinion, the speaker "needs to know how many types the soul has," because listeners are completely different. And what kind of speech, how it affects the soul.

Pericles- Athenian politician, leader of the Democratic Party, famous speaker and commander.

Born into an aristocratic family that has long belonged to the ruling elite of Athens. Received an excellent education. In the future, he became not only a remarkable statesman, who gave the development of the Athenian democratic constitution, but also a wonderful commander. The legislative measures of Pericles contributed to the flourishing of Athenian democracy. Pericles raised the sea power of Athens, adorned the city, especially the Acropolis, with famous buildings (Parthenon). Athens under Pericles reached the highest degree of economic and cultural development (Pericles). The foreign policy of Pericles was aimed at expanding and strengthening the Athenian maritime power. Under Pericles, a special fund was created to distribute money to poor citizens to visit the theater. He was the leader of a number of military campaigns during the Peloponnesian War. He died of the plague.

Pericles was a great orator, but he spoke little to the public, because he did not want his speeches to become familiar to the people. His speeches were beautiful in form and deep in content. Pericles' speech was colorful and figurative. A good education allowed him to develop his natural oratorical skills.

Aristotle- the great ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, a student of Plato, the founder of the Peripatetic school.

Born in the city of Stagira. At the age of 17 he came to Athens and from 367 to 347 was at the Platonic Academy, first as a student, then as a teacher. After the death of Plato, he leaves Athens and spends almost 14 years (347–334) wandering. In 334, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded his own philosophical school, the Lyceum (Peripatetic school). The school's name comes from Aristotle's habit of walking with his students while he lectures. The most famous is the doctrine of the soul. He believed that the soul, which has integrity, is nothing more than its organizing principle, inseparable from the body, the source and method of regulating the body, its objectively observable behavior. The death of the body frees the soul for eternal life: the soul is eternal and immortal. Aristotle also created a hierarchy of levels of everything that exists (from matter as a possibility to the formation of individual forms of being and beyond). Aristotle identifies 11 ethical virtues: courage, moderation, generosity, splendor, generosity, ambition, evenness, truthfulness, courtesy, friendliness, justice. The latter is the most necessary for living together. Died of illness in exile.

In his work "Rhetoric", which consists of three books, Aristotle summarized and elevated the achievements of Greek oratory to the rules. In the first book, the place of rhetoric among other sciences is considered, three types of speeches are reviewed: deliberative, epideictic, judicial. The purpose of court speeches is to accuse or justify, they are associated with an analysis of the motives and actions of a person. Epideictic speeches are based on the concepts of beauty and shame, virtue and vice; their purpose is to praise or blame.

The second book deals with passions, morals, and general methods of proof. The orator, according to Aristotle, must emotionally influence the listeners, express anger, neglect, mercy, hostility to hatred, fear and courage, shame, beneficence, compassion, indignation.

The third book is devoted to the problems of style and construction of speech. Aristotle demanded from style, first of all, fundamental and deepest clarity. The construction of speech, according to Aristotle, must correspond to the style, must be clear, simple, understandable to everyone. The works of Aristotle on rhetoric had a huge impact on the entire further development of the theory of eloquence.

4. The rhetorical ideal of antiquity. Cicero and Quintilian as theorists of oratory in ancient Rome.

In the life of ancient Rome, oratory plays no less significant role than in ancient Greece. The development of eloquence in Rome was largely facilitated by brilliant examples of Greek oratory, which from the 2nd century. BC e. becomes the subject of careful study in special schools. Of the speakers of Ancient Rome, the most famous are Cicero, Mark Antony, Caesar.

Mark Antony Orator- Ancient Roman Caesarian politician and military leader, triumvir 43-33 years. BC e., three times consul. He was promoted as head of the cavalry during the war in Palestine and Egypt (57-55). In 54, he joined Julius Caesar and participated in the Gallic campaigns, ruled the eastern possessions of the Roman state. Mark Antony the Orator was one of the teachers of the famous philosopher Cicero.

After being defeated at the Battle of Actium, he committed suicide.

Mark Antony the Orator was one of the teachers of the famous philosopher Cicero.

Cicero wrote about Mark Antony as one of the two (together with Lucius Licinius Crassus) of the most prominent orators of the older generation. According to Cicero's characterization, Antony was a prudent orator who skillfully selected the strongest arguments in support of his position and used them. Thanks to his memory, he delivered only carefully thought-out speeches with calculated effect, although he always seemed to be impromptu. In addition, Anthony very expressively used non-verbal means of communication, such as gestures, as if "his body movements expressed not words, but thoughts." Thanks to these qualities, Antony was the most sought after orator of his time at the court. Antony wrote a small essay "On Eloquence", which, however, has not survived.

Mark Tullius Cicero- an ancient Roman politician and philosopher, a brilliant orator.

He was born in Arpin, came from the class of horsemen, received an excellent education. The activity of Cicero in this post was so successful that the fame of his peaceful exploits crossed the borders of the island. Returning to Rome, Cicero joined the Senate and soon gained a reputation as an outstanding orator. Cicero was killed by assassins.

Marc Tullius Cicero published more than a hundred speeches, political and judicial of which have been preserved in full or in significant fragments. 58 His philosophical treatises, which do not contain new ideas, are valuable because they set forth, in detail and without distortion, the teachings of the leading philosophical schools of his time. The works of Cicero had a strong influence on religious thinkers, in particular, St. Augustine, representatives of the revival and humanism (Petrarch, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Boccaccio), French enlighteners (Didro, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu) and many others. Of particular note are four speeches delivered in November and December 63 BC. e. in the Roman Senate by the consul Cicero, during the suppression of the Catiline conspiracy. Preserved in the literary processing of the author, made by him in 61-60 BC. e. Speeches are a remarkable example of oratory

Recognizing that "the speaker should exaggerate the fact," Cicero uses exaggeration techniques in his speeches. The liveliness of his speech is acquired through the use of a common language, the absence of archaisms and the rare use of Greek words. A prominent place is given to the language, rhythm and periodicity of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, through facial expressions and gestures, achieves an impact on the soul of listeners. He also did not shy away from theatrical techniques. He especially emphasized the connection between content and verbal form: “All speech consists of content and words, and in any speech, words without content lose their ground, and content without words loses clarity.”

Selected quotes:

Sword of Damocles: From the ancient Greek myth about the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder, retold by Cicero in the essay "Tusculan Conversations"

Father of history: Such an honorary title of the Greek historian Herodotus was first given to him by Cicero in his essay “On the Laws”

5. Ancient rhetoric. Oratory in Ancient Greece.

Oratory in ancient Greece

Love for a beautiful word, a lengthy and magnificent speech, replete with various epithets, metaphors, comparisons, is already noticeable in the earliest works of Greek literature - in the Iliad and the Odyssey. In the speeches uttered by the heroes of Homer, admiration for the word, its magical power is noticeable - so, it is always “winged” there and can strike like a “feathered arrow”. Homer's poems make extensive use of direct speech in its most dramatic form, dialogue. In terms of volume, the dialogic parts of the poems far exceed the narrative ones. Therefore, the heroes of Homer seem unusually talkative, the abundance and fullness of their speeches is sometimes perceived by the modern reader as prolixity and excess.

The very nature of Greek literature favored the development of oratory. It was much more "oral", so to speak, more designed for direct perception by listeners, admirers of the author's literary talent. Having become accustomed to the printed word, we do not always realize what great advantages the living word, sounding in the mouth of the author or reader, has over the written word. Direct contact with the audience, the richness of intonation and facial expressions, the plasticity of gesture and movement, and finally, the very charm of the speaker's personality make it possible to achieve a high emotional upsurge in the audience and, as a rule, the desired effect. Public speaking is always an art.

In Greece of the classical era, for the social system of which the form of a city-state, a polis, in its most developed form - a slave-owning democracy, is typical, especially favorable conditions were created for the flourishing of oratory. The supreme body in the state - at least nominally - was the People's Assembly, to which the politician addressed directly. In order to attract the attention of the masses (demos), the orator had to present his ideas in the most attractive way, while convincingly refuting the arguments of his opponents. In such a situation, the form of speech and the skill of the speaker played, perhaps, no less important role than the content of the speech itself. “The power that iron has in war, the word has in political life,” said Demetrius of Phaler.

The theory of eloquence was born from the practical needs of Greek society, and the teaching of rhetoric became the highest level of ancient education. The created textbooks and manuals answered the tasks of this training. They began to appear from the 5th century BC. e., but almost did not reach us. In the IV century BC. e. Aristotle is already trying to generalize the theoretical achievements of rhetoric from a philosophical point of view. According to Aristotle, rhetoric explores the system of evidence used in speech, its style and composition: rhetoric is conceived by Aristotle as a science closely related to dialectics (i.e., logic). Aristotle defines rhetoric as “the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject. He divides all speeches into three types: deliberative, judicial, and epidictic (solemn). The matter of deliberative speeches is to persuade or reject, judicial speeches are to accuse or justify, epidictic speeches are to praise or blame. The topics of deliberative speeches are also determined here - these are finances, war and peace, defense of the country, import and export of products, legislation.

Of the three genres of public speech mentioned in classical antiquity, the deliberative genre, or, in other words, political eloquence, was the most important.

In epidictic speeches, the content often receded before the form, and some of the examples that have come down to us turn out to be a striking example of art for art's sake. However, not all epidictic speeches were empty. The historian Thucydides included in his work a funeral word over the bodies of the fallen Athenian soldiers, put into the mouth of Pericles. This speech, which Thucydides wove with such skill into the fabric of his vast historical canvas, is the political program of Athenian democracy in its heyday, presented in highly artistic form. It is an invaluable historical document, not to mention its aesthetic value as a monument of art.

Judicial speeches were a particularly common genre in antiquity. In the life of the ancient Greek, the court occupied a very large place, but very little resembled the modern one. There was no institution of prosecutors; anyone could act as an accuser. The accused defended himself: speaking before the judges, he sought not so much to convince them of his innocence as to pity them, to attract their sympathy to his side. For this purpose, the most unexpected methods were used. If the accused was burdened with a family, he brought his children, and they begged the judges to spare their father. If he was a warrior, he bared his chest, showing scars from wounds received in battles for his homeland. If he was a poet, he read his poems, demonstrating his art (such cases are known in the biography of Sophocles). In front of a huge panel of judges from our point of view (in Athens the normal number of judges was 500, and in total the jury, helium, numbered 6,000 people!) It was almost hopeless to bring to everyone the essence of logical arguments: it was much more profitable to influence feelings in any way. “When judges and accusers are the same person, it is necessary to shed copious tears and utter thousands of complaints in order to be listened to with benevolence,” wrote Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an experienced master and expert on the problems of rhetoric.

In the conditions of intricate judicial law, it was not easy to sue in ancient Athens, and besides, not everyone had the gift of words to win over listeners. Therefore, the litigants resorted to the services of experienced persons, and most importantly, those who had oratorical talent. These people, having familiarized themselves with the essence of the case, compiled for a fee the speeches of their clients, which they memorized by heart and pronounced in court. Such writers of speeches were called logographers. There were cases when the logographer made up a speech for both the plaintiff and the defendant at the same time - that is, in one speech he refuted what he claimed in another (Plutarch reports that even Demosthenes once did this).

6. Pedagogical rhetoric as a kind of private rhetoric. Children's rhetoric.

Pedagogical rhetoric- this is the view private rhetoric, namely the theory and practice of effective speech communication in the field of education and upbringing of the younger generation.

Sometimes, in a synonymous sense with respect to this term, the term educational homiletics is used - the doctrine of preaching, which considers a sermon to the people in the form public speaking.

In fact, pedagogical rhetoric is associated with school pedagogy, and within its limits - with the skill of the teacher. monologue and educational dialogue, speech behavior and rhetorical education of the teacher (the rhetorical side of university teaching is academic eloquence).

Pedagogical rhetoric is based on the general laws of such a subject as rhetoric, as well as modern achievements in communicative linguistics, general and developmental psychology, pedagogy, sociology and other social sciences. It is necessary as part of the teacher's professional training, which, unfortunately, has recently left much to be desired.

The presence of problems, whether personal, governmental or global scope, of course, leave their imprint on the professional activities of the teacher, on the formation of relations - "teacher-student" and, as a result, on the entire quality of education. But, what teachers now allow themselves in relation to students does not fit into any framework of aesthetics and morality.

Yes, in many respects this is facilitated by the students themselves and their parents, who believe that with money everything is possible and permissible. And it turns out, "double-edged sword" ...

Pedagogical rhetoric as a kind of private rhetoric provides a solution to the problem of forming the communicative competence of a future teacher, as it allows concretizing the main provisions of general rhetoric, demonstrating the specifics of applying the rules of rhetoric in real speech practice, and determining the theoretical and practical aspects of mastering professional speech.

At the same time, in this case, one should keep in mind not only the purely practical goals of pedagogical rhetoric (comprehension of the ways of mastering speech as a means of transferring knowledge, improving skills, solving educational problems, etc.), but also its capabilities in the formation of speech pedagogical (rhetorical -pedagogical) ideal, in the upbringing of a qualitatively different “producer of a rhetorical act”, - speaking and writing, creating in a highly moral coordinate system, where, according to N. Koshansky, “the power of feelings” is combined with persuasiveness and “the desire for the common good” (see .: L. G. Antonova, Written Genres of the Teacher's Speech, Yaroslavl, 1998, p. 14).

Thus, the concept of the rhetorical ideal as a category of general rhetoric is concretized in private pedagogical rhetoric.

The foregoing means that in the process of forming the communicative competence of a future teacher, it is necessary to awaken in students the desire to comprehend and achieve, to one degree or another, the rhetorical ideal and the pedagogical-rhetorical ideal, the essence of which is determined by the specifics of pedagogical speech communication (see: A. K. Mikhalskaya. Pedagogical Rhetoric: History and Theory, Moscow, 1998, pp. 283-285).

The course of pedagogical rhetoric should cause students to reflect on the essence of human communication and pedagogical communication, on the moral values ​​that underlie this communication, which will contribute to the formation of their views, ideas, judgments, tastes that have a general cultural value (see: T A. Ladyzhenskaya Brief explanatory note to the program "School rhetoric" // School rhetoric Methodological commentary Grade 5. M., 1996, p. 5).

In this case, one more circumstance must be taken into account. A prerequisite for the demand for rhetorical knowledge is its applied nature. The theoretical provisions of rhetoric are always aimed at practical application, at solving real problems related to human life. The knowledge gained in the course of rhetoric in many respects (but not in everything) is of the so-called instrumental nature (knowledge about the methods of activity), which ensures the formation of communicative speech skills, communicative competence of speakers and writers.

Thus, the course of pedagogical rhetoric allows solving one of the most important tasks of teacher training - the formation of the communicative competence of the teacher, which involves:

- mastery of rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, about the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative and speech situations;

- mastery of communicative and speech (rhetorical) skills;

- awareness of the specifics of pedagogical communication, features of communicative-speech situations characteristic of the teacher's professional activity;

- mastering the ability to solve communicative and speech problems in a specific communication situation;

- mastering the experience of analyzing and creating professionally significant types of statements;

- development of a creatively active speech personality who is able to apply the acquired knowledge and skills in new constantly changing conditions for the manifestation of a particular communicative situation, able to seek and find their own solution to diverse professional problems;

- students' knowledge of the essence of the speech ideal as a component of culture and pedagogical speech (pedagogical-rhetorical) ideal as a model of pedagogical communication.

This is the concept of the course of pedagogical rhetoric, which allows us to solve the problems formulated above.

The course of pedagogical rhetoric can be implemented at any faculties of higher educational institutions of a pedagogical profile. It is designed for 100-140 hours of classroom work, but can be minimized taking into account the specifics of the learning objectives.

The material offered in the program can be mastered in the form of a lecture course and mandatory laboratory (practical) classes, since only in this case it is possible to solve the main tasks of the course, ensuring its practical orientation.

In the process of implementing the course, students are expected to perform written and oral tasks based on the analysis of video recordings, constant targeted observations of speech in various situations of communication, including professional ones. In addition, at least two examinations are held during the semester.

The specificity of studying the course "Pedagogical rhetoric" is associated with the lack of a basic textbook on this discipline. In this regard, it seems legitimate to use manuals, textbooks, monographs, which are indicated in the lists of references for each section and which, to a certain extent, will help the teacher and student in understanding the program material.

The course of pedagogical rhetoric has been taught at Moscow State Pedagogical University for more than ten years in various versions and modifications. This program has been adjusted taking into account the actual practice of teaching this discipline at the Faculty of Philology of the Moscow State Pedagogical University.

When compiling the program, educational and methodological materials (programs, teaching aids for schools and universities, methodological developments and comments) prepared by members of the Department of Rhetoric and Culture of Speech of the Moscow State Pedagogical University, materials of scientific research of postgraduate and doctoral students of the department, monographs, textbooks, articles of university teachers, employees of research institutes. The content of the section of the program “Pedagogical speech (pedagogical-rhetorical) ideal” is based on the ideas and methodological approaches to solving this problem, developed by prof. A. K. Mikhalskaya.

7. Roman eloquence.

Roman eloquence has its roots in the language of laws, debates in court, the senate, and the people's assembly. Every free Roman could speak in court. The art of eloquence was widespread, highly valued and to a certain extent had a folk character. Greek oratory had a great influence on him. Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) achieved amazing heights in the field of oratory. He was a knowledgeable lawyer, a major statesman.

His speeches against the governor of Sicily, Verres, are an example of a brilliant denunciation of the entire Roman elite. The shameless governors drew income by plundering the provinces, killing innocent citizens. Cicero used the example of a particular person to oppose a whole cohort of his kind. Cicero believed that each orator “has three tasks: 1) proof! ъ their positions, 2) to give pleasure to listeners, 3) to influence their will and force them to accept the proposed decision.

The speaker should not forget that an appropriate style should be used to solve each task. Calm, clear and simple style - for evidence. Elegant, discreet - for enjoyment. Excited, pathetic - to influence the will. Cicero was the last exponent of Roman classical eloquence.

His age ended with the fall of the Republic. Political eloquence itself is gradually declining. The main reason for this was the establishment of the principate and, as a result, the destruction of democratic freedoms. During the period of the empire, oratory no longer had the same influence on political life as before.

The role of the orator, who used to take some topical political background as the basis of his speeches, is changing decisively. An epideictic, parade eloquence begins to take shape. Great importance is now attached to the form, expressive means. Nevertheless, oratory had a great influence on the development of literature and historiography.

In the II century. BC e. Rome is in a difficult situation. The condition of the slaves becomes intolerable. They were considered "talking tools". Many in their education (in particular the Greeks) were much higher than their masters.

Slaves were divided into domestic, employed in latifundia and quarries, as well as gladiators. In the second half of II-I century. BC e. slaves begin to fight against unbearable living conditions. The uprising in Sicily lasted about 6 years and ended in the defeat of the rebels. The consequence of this uprising was the weakening of the Roman army.

The growth in the number of slaves and the ruin of the peasants posed a real threat to Rome. The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, who came from a noble plebeian family, began to fight for the revision of the land law. Tiberius achieved a decision on the distribution of public lands, but opponents of the reforms killed Tiberius and his supporters. Their bodies were thrown into the Tiber, which they did only with the bodies of inveterate criminals. Gaius Gracchus' attempts to continue his brother's work also failed.

In addition to internal problems, the Roman Republic was constantly faced with the struggle of conquered peoples who wanted to get rid of the foreign yoke. The difficult internal situation ended with the establishment of the dictatorship of Sulla. He ruled Rome for three years, these were years of absolute lack of rights and lawlessness. At that time, an uprising of slaves led by Spartacus was brutally suppressed. The difficult domestic political situation required a reform of power.

At this time, Julius Caesar, Pompeii and Krase are trying to seize power. They could not act alone, as they lacked the strength to do so. Therefore, a triumvirate was concluded. Caesar went with his troops to Rome (49 BC). Thus, he openly opposed the republic. He managed to defeat the former ally of Pompey and become a dictator for life.

Nevertheless, there were many dissatisfied with the dictatorship of Caesar. Among the ardent defenders of the republic was the famous orator Cicero. Caesar's legionnaires won several brilliant victories. But he was afraid to proclaim himself king, although he was given royal honors.

His chair was more like a throne made of gold and ivory. His portrait was printed on coins, statues were placed next to the statues of the gods. A conspiracy was organized against Caesar, and he fell at the hands of the conspirators.

8. The development of rhetoric in Russia. The first "rhetorics".

The development of the theory of eloquence is connected with the works of Russian scientists, with the oratory practice of preachers, scribes, chroniclers and songwriters of Kievan Rus, the Muscovite state.

In Ancient Russia, collections of religious teaching content were compiled, preachers carried the “word of God” to the flock. In these texts and speeches, which have come down to us due to the fact that they were fixed in writing, the influence of Byzantine rhetoricians, in particular John Chrysostom, can be traced (cf. the names of the ancient Russian “selections” - “Chrystal jets”, “Chrysostoms”, “Izmaragda”).

Remarkable examples of rhetorically sophisticated, skillful preaching are the works of Metropolitan Hilarion, Cyril of Turov, Serapion of Vladimir. For example, the word for Antipascha by Cyril, Bishop of Turov, who worked in the second half of the 12th century, is saturated with symbols, comparisons and other tropes that go back to the Bible and the writings of the "fathers of the church." At the same time, it is characterized by some lyricism, it uses images of native nature in allegories and metaphors: baptism strikes human dirty tricks; stormy winds - think sinful thoughts ... ”In this fragment, a picture of the spring renewal of nature is recreated, and at the same time, its images carry an allegorical meaning: winter is paganism, spring is the Christian faith that eradicates paganism, stormy winds are sinful thoughts. The study and analysis of the monuments of the Old Russian literary language testify to a very high level of artistic use of the word in Ancient Russia, including in the practice of public speaking.

These traditions were strengthened and enriched in the era of Muscovite Russia (XIV - mid-XVII centuries). However, works on rhetoric and educational books appear only at the beginning of the 17th century.

The basis of the first Russian “Rhetoric” (it is assumed that its author was the Metropolitan of Novgorod and Velikolutsk Macarius) was the translation of the textbook by the German humanist (Luther’s associate) Philipp Melanchthon (1497 - 1560), which was written in Latin and published in 1577 in Frankfurt. When translating into Old Russian, some deviations from the original were made: the author's surname was removed, some examples were omitted, Latin names were replaced by Russian ones, in some cases new examples were introduced. This is a handwritten textbook - 34 of its lists have survived to this day. At present, it has been carefully studied and translated into modern language by V.I.Annushkin.

The author distinguishes in Russian speech “three types of verbs: humble, lofty and dimensional”; argues that the art of "ornoslovie" requires not only talent, but also training, exercise. “And the essence of a rhetorician,” he writes, “is such that he speaks powerfully about such things, which in cases and at Gradtsk courts, according to custom and law ... are suitable and laudable.”

In the first part of the book, an idea is given of rhetoric (“elegance or sweetness”) and its five parts: “invention of a deed”, “official distinction” (location), “combining words with suitable words” (expression, decoration), “memory” and “vociferous and polite word” (pronunciation).

Four types of speeches are considered: teaching (school and church education), judicial, reasoning (deliberative speeches in solving state affairs), showing (praise speeches).

The second part speaks of the “decoration” of speech and three “kinds of verbalization”: “humble”, which refers to colloquial, everyday speech; “high”, which is figurative speech; “dimensional”, which is typical for written and business speech and is an alloy of “humble” and “high”.

The “rhetoric” of Macarius was copied and studied throughout the 17th century. Until the time of Peter the Great, this was the main textbook of rhetoric in Russia. The book was distributed in Moscow, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, in the Solovetsky Monastery, etc.

In 1699 a new "Rhetoric" appeared. It is believed that its author was Mikhail Ivanovich Usachev. In this book, each of the "genders of verb" is endowed with a special function ("position"). The humble family performs the task of “teach”, the middle one (corresponds to the “dimensional” in Macarius) - “delight”, the high one - “excite”.

I would like to note the work of the translator of the Ambassadorial Order, Moldavian Nikolay Spafariy, “The Book Selected in Brief about the Nine Muses and the Seven Free Arts”. It was written in 1672 on the material of the “Tale of the Seven Wisdoms”. The decorated presentation of the sciences only in the form of "wisdom", apparently, did not satisfy the need to clarify the essence of each of them. That is why, having preserved the text of each of the seven "wisdoms", Spafarius writes a preface in which the nine "muses" are briefly introduced, Apollo and the seven free arts (ars liberalis) are described, then he retells the myth of the origin of the Muses from Zeus and Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory giving information about them from ancient authors. Further, the narrative of the seven arts completely preserved the composition of the “Tale”, and Spafariy’s additions regarding each of the sciences touched on their origin, definition, purpose and reasons for which they should be studied: “Rhetoric is an art that teaches to decorate speech and convince. The word “rhetoric” comes from the Greek “ero”, meaning I speak, or from “re”, meaning flow. The purpose of rhetoric is to teach to speak beautifully and to convince on any subject. There are five reasons to learn rhetoric:

1. For rhetoric is an ancient art and even the most ancient sage (ancient scientist) Gorgias wrote about it.

2. For rhetoric beautifies speech and creates, and is therefore worthy of study and labor.

3. For rhetoric has certain rules in the narrative, content, method of teaching.

4. For rhetoric is sweet in learning, decorating speech as if with flowers and beads.

5. For rhetoric is useful throughout our lives, since a rhetorically unskillful composition will be painful for listeners.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. The rhetorical essay “De officium oratore” was created by Feofan Prokopovich (1681-1736), the largest public and church figure of the era of Peter I, who supported his reforms. This work is a recording of a lecture course given by Feofan Prokopovich in Latin in 1706-1707. at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy.

During the lifetime of the scientist, his works were widely known from handwritten lists in Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus. They played a big role in shaping the science of the language and literature of the Slavic peoples.

Feofan Prokopovich's "Rhetoric" deals with the general theory of literature, its oratorical and poetic genres, and their linguistic means. He speaks in detail about the purpose of the text in various communicative situations, about the requirements that a good speaker must meet; considers the nature and purpose of the three styles of the literary language - high, medium, low; stops on the selection of evidence, on the composition of works of historical and oratorical prose, their language design.

9. Features of modern eloquence.

Features of modern eloquence.

By the end of the XX century. a person has already seen, pro-silt and experienced too much for his idea of ​​\u200b\u200bbeautiful speech, e. his rhetorical ideal, to remain the same, unchanged.

In our time, speech can hardly be considered ideal, beautiful, just “verbally beautiful”, and even more so overly colored, or, if we use the term of classical rhetoric, amplified (from Latin amplificatio - spread, increase). On the contrary, embellishment is now often perceived as a sign of deceit, flamboyance - as a cover that hides something base. It only alarms, gives rise to mistrust, repels.

The beauty of speech today is in many ways akin to the beauty of any household item - it is, first of all, functionality, compliance with its main task. The better and more fully the speech fulfills the goal of the speaker - it attracts the attention of the listener, awakens in the latter exactly those thoughts and emotions, the response that the speaker or interlocutor needs so much - the more perfect it is. The beauty of speech, as we have already said, is also the harmony of its mental framework, semantic richness and depth. A remarkable teacher of rhetoric, the author of one of the most popular textbooks, which went through many editions, Nikolai Fedorovich Koshansky (Pushkin's teacher) wrote: “Grammar deals only with words; Rhetoric predominantly thoughts. This feature of rhetoric was what we had in mind above when we said that we would not only talk about words.

Rhetoric, especially modern rhetoric, is first of all a school of thought, and then a school of the word. The simplicity and strength inherent in the oratorical samples of ancient classics are of particular importance today. Good modern public speech can be characterized in the same way as it was once said about the speeches of the remarkable Athenian orator and politician Demosthenes (384-322 BC): “Do not look for decorations from him: there are only arguments. Arguments and proofs intersect, push each other, run swiftly before your eyes, throwing out delightful sparkles of antithesis as they go. This means that modern speech is a kind of "literary geometry", the result of intensive mental work, it is a proportionate building, logically built from clear meanings of precisely used words. The masculine logic of the word evokes approval and admiration among our contemporaries rather than its feminine elegance. To be convinced of this, let's look at how Aleksey Fedorovich Losev (1893-1988), the greatest Russian philosopher of our time, a remarkable philologist and cultural historian, writes about a beautiful speech: “Yes! What a lover of reports, speeches, disputes and general conversations I was! The words! Yes, not with melancholy, not like Hamlet, I will say: “Words, words, words!” Words have always been for me a deep, passionate, bewitchingly wise and talented thing. How few people who love and know how to speak talentedly! And how I searched, how I loved, how I idolized these people! My God, what a wonderful gift it is to be able to speak and be able to listen when they speak! In my youth, at the sounds of talented speech, I felt how my thought thinned, silvered and played, how my brain was rebuilt like a precious and subtle musical instrument, like my spirit. began to rush along the boundless and pale greenness of the mental sea, on which foamed wisdom caresses and teases you with its crimson, scarlet splashes. In this fragment, the philosopher speaks of “talented” speech, first of all, precisely as a matter of thought, intellectual work - a matter of “bewitchingly wise”, “deep”, tuning the brain “like ... a musical instrument”, causing a subtle play of thought, freeing it . At the same time, such speech is both passionate and emotionally intense, and in any case cannot be called abstractly cold.

Let us also pay attention to the fact that the "wonderful gift" of "talented" speech is understood by A.F. Losev as a single, integral ability of a person not only to speak himself, but also "to be able to listen when they speak." This is very important, because only in this way does a genuine dialogue between people become possible and realistic. This means that there are prerequisites for mutual understanding between them. Not that speech is good that convinces, but that which, by convincing, unites. Leo Tolstoy spoke about this as well; in our time, when the very existence of mankind depends on the ability to find a common language, a genuine dialogue (and, therefore, the moral, ethical potential of speech, the degree of its striving for good) becomes truly decisive. So, this is what a beautiful, exemplary speech is for a person standing on the threshold of the 21st century: it is expediency, meaning and goodness, expressed in a trinity in a word and together constituting the rhetorical ideal of modernity.

10. Rhetoric of the "new" time. The eras of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance