Erroneous, unsuccessful use of words in a figurative sense. The use of words in a figurative sense

Language is a multifaceted and multifunctional concept. To determine its essence requires careful consideration of many questions. For example, the device of the language and the ratio of the elements of its system, the influence of external factors and functions in human society.

Definition of portable values

Already from the elementary grades of the school, everyone knows that the same words can be used in different ways in speech. A direct (main, main) meaning is one that is correlated with objective reality. It does not depend on the context and on the allegory. An example of this is the word "collapse". In medicine, it means a sharp and sudden drop in blood pressure, and in astronomy, the rapid contraction of stars under the influence of gravitational forces.

The figurative meaning of words is their second meaning. It arises when the name of a phenomenon is consciously transferred to another in connection with the similarity of their functions, features, etc. For example, the same "collapse" received a figurative meaning of the word. Examples relate to public life. So, in a figurative sense, "collapse" means the destruction, the collapse of the association of people as a result of the onset of a systemic crisis.

scientific definition

In linguistics, the figurative meaning of words is their secondary derivative, associated with the main meaning of metaphorical, metonymic dependence or any associative features. At the same time, it arises on the basis of logical, spatial, temporal and other correlative concepts.

Application in speech

Words with a figurative meaning are used when naming those phenomena that are not an ordinary and permanent object for designation. They approach other concepts by emerging associations that are obvious to speakers.

Words used in a figurative sense can retain figurativeness. For example, dirty insinuations or dirty thoughts. Such figurative meanings are given in explanatory dictionaries. These words are different from the metaphors invented by the writers.
However, in most cases, when there is a transfer of meanings, the figurativeness is lost. Examples of this are expressions such as the spout of a teapot and the elbow of a pipe, the clock and the tail of a carrot. In such cases, the figurativeness in the lexical meaning of words fades.

Changing the essence of a concept

The figurative meaning of words can be assigned to any action, feature or object. As a result, it goes into the category of main or main. For example, the spine of a book or a doorknob.

Polysemy

The figurative meaning of words is often a phenomenon caused by their ambiguity. In scientific language, it is called "Polysemy". Often a single word has more than one stable meaning. In addition, people who use the language often need to name a new phenomenon that does not yet have a lexical designation. In this case, they use the words they already know.

Questions of polysemy are, as a rule, questions of nomination. In other words, the movement of things with the existing identity of the word. However, not all scientists agree with this. Some of them do not allow more than one meaning of a word. There is another opinion. Many scientists support the idea that the figurative meaning of words is their lexical meaning, realized in various variants.

For example, we say "red tomato". The adjective used in this case is a direct meaning. "Red" can also be said about a person. In this case, it means that he blushed or blushed. Thus, a figurative meaning can always be explained through a direct one. But linguistics cannot give an explanation why red is called red. It's just the name of the color.

In polysemy, there is also the phenomenon of non-equivalence of meanings. For example, the word “flare up” can mean that an object suddenly caught fire, and that a person blushed with shame, and that a quarrel suddenly arose, etc. Some of these expressions are found more often in the language. They immediately come to mind when the word is mentioned. Others are used only in special situations and special combinations.

There are semantic connections between some meanings of the word, which make understandable the phenomenon when different properties and objects are called the same.

trails

The use of a word in a figurative sense can be not only a stable fact of the language. Such usage is sometimes limited, fleeting, and carried out within the framework of only one utterance. In this case, the goal of exaggeration and special expressiveness of what was said is achieved.

Thus, there is an unstable figurative meaning of the word. Examples of this use are found in poetry and literature. For these genres, this is an effective artistic device. For example, in Blok one can recall “the deserted eyes of the wagons” or “the dust swallowed the rain in pills.” What is the figurative meaning of the word in this case? This is evidence of his unlimited ability to explain new concepts.

The emergence of figurative meanings of words of a literary-stylistic type are tropes. In other words, figurative expressions.

Metaphor

In philology, a number of different types of transfer of names are distinguished. One of the most important among them is metaphor. With its help, the name of one phenomenon is transferred to another. Moreover, this is possible only with the similarity of certain signs. Similarity can be external (by color, size, character, shape and movements), as well as internal (by assessment, sensations and impressions). So, with the help of a metaphor, they talk about black thoughts and a sour face, a calm storm and a cold reception. In this case, the thing is replaced, and the sign of the concept remains unchanged.

The figurative meaning of words with the help of metaphor takes place at various degrees of similarity. An example of this is a duck (a device in medicine) and a tractor caterpillar. Here, transfer is applied in similar forms. The names given to a person can also carry a metaphorical meaning. For example, Hope, Love, Faith. Sometimes the transfer of meanings is carried out by similarity with sounds. So, the whistle was called a siren.

Metonymy

It is also one of the most important types of name transfers. However, when using it, the similarities of internal and external features are not applied. Here there is a contiguity of causal relationships, or, in other words, the contact of things in time or space.

The metonymic figurative meaning of words is a change not only in the subject, but also in the concept itself. When this phenomenon occurs, only the connections of neighboring links of the lexical chain can be explained.

The figurative meanings of words can be based on associations with the material from which the object is made. For example, earth (soil), table (food), etc.

Synecdoche

This concept means the transfer of any part to the whole. Examples of this are the expressions “a child goes after a mother’s skirt”, “a hundred heads of cattle”, etc.

Homonyms

This concept in philology means identical sounds of two or more different words. Homonymy is a sound match of lexical units that are not semantically related to each other.

There are phonetic and grammatical homonyms. The first case concerns those words that are in the accusative or nominative case, sound the same, but have a different composition of phonemes. For example, "rod" and "pond". Grammatical homonyms arise in cases where both the phoneme and the pronunciation of the words coincide, but the individual forms of the words are different. For example, the number "three" and the verb "three". When the pronunciation changes, such words will not match. For example, "rub", "three", etc.

Synonyms

This concept refers to words of the same part of speech that are identical or close in their lexical meaning. The sources of synonymy are foreign language and their own lexical meanings, general literary and dialectal. There are such figurative meanings of words and thanks to jargon (“to burst” - “to eat”).

Synonyms are divided into types. Among them:

absolute, when the meanings of words completely coincide (“octopus” - “octopus”);
conceptual, differing in shades of lexical meanings (“reflect” - “think”);
stylistic, which have differences in stylistic coloring (“sleep” - “sleep”).

Antonyms

This concept refers to words that belong to the same part of speech, but at the same time have opposite concepts. This type of figurative meanings can have a difference in structure (“take out” - “bring in”) and different roots (“white” - “black”).
Antonymy is observed in those words that express the opposite orientation of signs, states, actions and properties. The purpose of their use is to convey contrasts. This technique is often used in poetic and oratory speech.

19. Direct and figurative meanings of the word.

The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately causes an idea of them and is least dependent on the context. Words often appear in the direct meaning.

The figurative meaning of the word - this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.

Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the ambiguity of the word is formed. Depending on the basis of which sign the meaning is transferred, there are three main types of meaning transfer: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity:

ripe apple - eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the bow of the ship (according to the location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound); and etc.

Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency:

water boils - the kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc.

Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:

dense currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.

20. Stylistic use of homonyms.

Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. As you know, within the limits of homonymy, lexical and morphological homonyms are distinguished. Lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all their forms. For example: a key (from a lock) and a (cold) key.

Morphological homonymy is the homonymy of separate grammatical forms of the same word: three is a numeral and a form of the imperative mood of the verb to rub.

These are homophones, or phonetic homonyms, - words and forms of different meanings that sound the same, although they are written differently. flu - mushroom,

Homonymy also includes homographs - words that coincide in spelling, but differ in emphasis: castle - castle

21. Stylistic use of synonyms.

Synonyms - words denoting the same concept, therefore, identical or close in meaning.

Synonyms that have the same meaning but differ in stylistic coloring. Among them, two groups are distinguished: a) synonyms belonging to various functional styles: live (neutral interstyle) - live (official business style); b) synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades. sensible (with positive coloring) - brainy, big-headed (rough-familiar coloring).

semantic-stylistic. They differ both in meaning and in stylistic coloring. For example: wander, wander, wander, stagger.

Synonyms perform various functions in speech.

Synonyms are used in speech to clarify thoughts: He seemed to be a little lost, as if srobel (I. S. Turgenev).

Synonyms are used to oppose concepts, which sharply highlights their difference, emphasizing the second synonym especially strongly: He actually did not walk, but dragged along without lifting his feet from the ground

One of the most important functions of synonyms is the replacement function, which allows you to avoid the repetition of words.

Synonyms are used to build a special stylistic figure

The stringing of synonyms may, if handled ineptly, testify to the stylistic helplessness of the author.

Inappropriate use of synonyms gives rise to a stylistic error - pleonasm ("memorable souvenir").

Two types of pleonasms: syntactic and semantic.

Syntactic appears when the grammar of the language allows you to make some auxiliary words redundant. "I know he will come" and "I know he will come." The second example is syntactically redundant. It's not a mistake.

On a positive note, pleonasm can be used to prevent loss of information (to be heard and remembered).

Also, pleonasm can serve as a means of stylistic design of an utterance and a method of poetic speech.

Pleonasm should be distinguished from tautology - the repetition of unambiguous or the same words (which can be a special stylistic device).

Synonymy creates ample opportunities for the selection of lexical means, but the search for the exact word costs the author a lot of work. Sometimes it is not easy to determine how exactly synonyms differ, what semantic or emotionally expressive shades they express. And it is not at all easy to choose the only correct, necessary one from a multitude of words.

Single-valued and polysemantic words (examples)

The number of words in the Russian language is simply amazing: modern vocabulary consists of more than 500 thousand units. Single-valued and multi-valued words enrich it even more. Considering that most words have several meanings, this further expands the verbal horizons of speech.

This article talks about single-valued and polysemantic words, examples of such words are given below. . But first, a little theory.

Definition

Single-valued and polysemantic words are distinguished with respect to how many lexical meanings they have. All words that are independent parts of speech have a lexical meaning.

If you explain in simple words, then this is the meaning that people put into the word. Words can denote objects, personalities, phenomena, processes, signs, and, in general, the entirety of thoughts and thinking.

To remember how to define single-valued and multi-valued words, the rules are not too complicated.

An unambiguous (monosemic) word is a word that has only one lexical meaning. If there are two or more meanings, then such a word is polysemantic (polysemic).

Single words

Basically, words that name people according to different signs (doctor, professor, technologist, relative, widow, nephew, Muscovite), animals (bison, rabbit, crocodile, bullfinch, thrush, whale, dolphin), plants (pine, mountain ash, mint, oats, chamomile, peony, mallow), specific objects (bag, screwdriver, hammer, fence, bell, window sill), days and months (Friday, Sunday, September, December), most relative adjectives (urban, maple, sea, five-story) and numerals (eight, ten, one hundred). Also, the terms are single-valued words (molecule, gravity, cosine, verb, liter, kilometer, photosynthesis, hypotenuse).

Polysemantic words

Since a word can be single-valued and multi-valued, the meaning of the word, respectively, can be one or more. But, as already noted, most words in Russian have several meanings. The ability of a word to have different meanings is called polysemy.

For example, the word "press" has 7 meanings:

Every day we use both single-valued and polysemantic words in our speech, sometimes without even realizing how many meanings a particular word has. The palm for the number of meanings in the Russian language is held by the word "go" (26 meanings).

Relationship between the meanings of a polysemic word (metaphor and metonymy)

As a rule, a polysemantic word has one main meaning, and others are derivatives. The root meaning often comes first in a dictionary entry. For example, the main meaning of the word "head" is "part of the body", and "leader", "mind", "main part", "beginning" are secondary and derivative. But all these meanings, one way or another, are united by one common feature. In this case, such a sign is "the main part of something" (body, enterprise, composition).

Sometimes a word can have several basic meanings. For example, the word "rough" has two original meanings - "brutal" ("rough answer") and "raw" ("rough surface").

Usually, all the meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected either by similarity (metaphor) or by contiguity (metonymy). Metaphor is the transfer of a name from one object to another. At the heart of metaphorical transfer lies an unnamed similarity, but it exists only in the minds of people. Often the main role here is played by a sign of a similar appearance. For example, the word "branch" has two meanings, the second of which was formed by metaphorical transfer:

Branch of a tree.
A railroad line that deviates from the main track.

Metonymy emphasizes a connection that actually exists. For example, an audience is:

A room for listening to lectures.
lecturers themselves.

Another example of metonymy: cuisine is:

How did polysemy originate?

If we return to the origins of the formation of the lexical composition of speech, then there was no such thing as single-valued and polysemantic words. At the beginning, all lexemes were monosemic (they had only one meaning and named only one concept). But over time, new concepts arose, new objects were created, for the designation of which they did not always invent new words, but selected some of the already existing ones, because they observed similarities between them. This is how polysemy was born.

Polysemy and homonymy

After this article, single-valued and polysemantic words are not difficult to distinguish. But how not to confuse polysemantic words and homonyms (words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have different meanings)? What is the difference between them? In polysemantic words, all meanings are somehow related to each other, and no connection is observed between homonyms. For example, the meanings of the words "peace" ("calm") and "peace" ("globe") have nothing in common. More examples of homonyms: "bow" ("weapon") and "bow" ("plant"), "mine" ("facial expression") and "mine" ("explosive device"), "bar" (entertainment) and "bar" ("atmospheric pressure unit").

So, if you deepen your knowledge of the different meanings of already known words, this will significantly expand your vocabulary and increase your intellectual level.

Give examples of words with a figurative meaning

Olga

So, the word table is used in several figurative meanings: 1. An item of special equipment or part of a cold-form machine (operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Food, food (rent a room with a table); 3. Department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (reference desk).

The word black has the following figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread); 2. Took on a dark color, darkened (black from sunburn); 3. In the old days: chicken (black hut); 4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy (black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious (black treason); 6. Not the main one, auxiliary (back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).

The word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing); 2. Show something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation); 3. Randomly move (the river was seething with fish).

Vadim andronov

Portable (indirect) meanings of words are those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

So, the word TABLE is used in several figurative meanings:
1. An item of special equipment or part of a cold-formed machine (operating table, raise the machine table);
2. Food, food (rent a room with a table);
3. Department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (reference desk).

The word BLACK has the following figurative meanings:
1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread);
2. Took on a dark color, darkened (black from sunburn);
3. In the old days: chicken (black hut);
4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy (black thoughts);
5. Criminal, malicious (black treason);
6. Not the main one, auxiliary (back door in the house);
7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).

The word BOIL has the following figurative meanings:
1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing);
2. Show something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation);
3. Randomly move (the river was seething with fish).

As you can see, when transferring the meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, ordinary object of designation, but come close to another concept through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain figurativeness (black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. In this figurative-figurative meanings differ from the metaphors that are created by writers.

In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a carrot tail, a clock. In such cases, one speaks of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word.

The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity in something of objects, signs, actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: a teapot spout, a door handle, a table leg, a book spine, etc.

What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?

First, let's find out what the "lexical meaning of the word" is.

All objects and phenomena of the surrounding world have their own names. The correlation of the phenomenon of reality with a certain set of sounds, that is, the word, is the lexical meaning of the word. In turn, the lexical meaning of the word is direct and figurative. The direct meaning of the word is the direct relation of the word to the object of reality. For example, the word "table" refers to a piece of furniture consisting of a rectangular (round or oval) horizontal board on high supports (legs). This word also has figurative meanings that arise as a result of transferring the name from one subject to another based on some similarity between them. With the word "table" we can name a diet prescribed by a doctor, for example, table number 9. The word "table" means "reference desk", that is, an institution that provides information on various issues, or "address desk".

It is best to explain with examples. You can come up with a lot of such examples yourself.

Echidna: direct meaning - an animal (it seems Australian). A figurative meaning is a disapproving statement about a person because of certain (“malicious”) properties of his character.

Hammer: direct meaning - a tool for driving nails. Portable - approvingly about a person: well done!

Crazy House: direct meaning - hospital. Portable - chaos, confusion, hustle, etc.

Balagan: theater (literal sense) and figuratively - something "not highly artistic", as Zoshchenko would say.

Words in a language can have one, two or more lexical meanings.

Words that have the same lexical meaning, are called unambiguous or monosemous.

These words include:

1) various terms (not all): subject, electron;

2) various thematic groups:

a) plant names (birch, poplar);

b) names of animals (minnow, jay);

c) names of people by occupation (doctor, livestock specialist, pilot).

However, most words in Russian have many meanings. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes, due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.

The word used in more than one sense, is called polysemous or polysemous(from Greek poly - many, sema - sign).

For example: according to the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov's word easy

1. Insignificant in weight (light foot);

2. Easy to learn, solutions (easy lesson);

3. Small, insignificant (light breeze);

4. Superficial, frivolous (light flirting);

5. Soft, accommodating (light character);

6. Laid-back, graceful (light syllable);

7. Smooth, smooth, sliding (easy gait).

One of these meanings is primary, initial, and the others are secondary, resulting from the development of the primary meaning.

The primary value is usually the direct value.

primary value - this is the main meaning of the word, directly naming the object, action, property.

In the literal sense, the word appears out of context. For example: forest "many trees growing in a large space"; in a figurative sense: a lot of “forest of hands”, without understanding anything “dark forest”, building material “logging”.

The figurative meaning is secondary. It arises on the basis of the similarity of objects in form, in color, in the nature of movement, on the basis of association, etc.

There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word - metaphorical and metonymic. As a kind of metonymy - synecdoche.

Let's consider each separately.

metaphorical transfer.

The essence of this transfer is that the name of an object is transferred to another object, based on the similarity of these objects.

Similarity can be:

1. In form. For example, the word "beard" we call a small beard of a person - this is a direct meaning. In a figurative sense, we call the ledges at the keys a beard. An apple is a fruit, a smooth apple.

2. By color similarity. Gold is a yellow precious metal, "the gold of her hair" is the color of her hair.

3. By the similarity of size. A pole is a long thin pole, a pole is a long thin person.

4. By the similarity of sounds. Drum - beat the drum, drumming rain.

5. Transfer by function: janitor - a person sweeping a yard, a street; a device in the car that serves to clean the glass.

Metaphors are common language - such a metaphorical meaning of a word that is widely used and known to all speakers: a nail head, a Christmas tree needle.

Individually - author's are not peculiar to the national language. They are created by writers and poets and characterize his stylistic manner. For example, a fire of a red mountain ash, a birch tongue of a grove, a calico of the sky (S. Yesenin). The river of life began to rumble (Leonov).

metonymic transfer.

Its essence lies in the fact that the name from one subject to another is transferred on the basis of adjacency.

Adjacency is understood here as spatial adjacency, proximity of an object, temporal adjacency, etc., i.e. objects named by the same word may be completely different, but they are nearby in space, in time.

1. Transferring the name from the container to its contents: audience - a room for classes, people in it; class - students (class listened), room; plate - dishes, contents in a plate (ate a bowl of soup).

2. Material - a product from it: crystal - a type of glass, a product from it; gold - she has gold in her ears.

3. Action - the result of that action: jam - the process of cooking, berries boiled in syrup.

5. Action - the object of this action: book edition - illustrated edition.

6. Action - means or instrument of action: harvesting vegetables - harvesting on the table.

7. action - place of action: exit from the house - stand at the entrance.

8. plant - the fruit of a plant: pear, plum.

9. Animal - the fur or meat of an animal: chicken, mink, eggs.

10. An organ of the body is a disease of this body: stomach - grabbed the stomach, naughty heart.

11. Scientist - his image: Ampere, Volt.

12. Locality - a product invented, made there: Kashimir - a city in India, fabric; Boston is a city in England, fabric.

13. Time - events that took place at that time, year: it was 1918, 1941.

As a result of metonymy, a number of common nouns appeared, formed from proper names: volt, ampere, ohm, boston, mac.

Synecdoche.

This type of lexical transfer is based on the following principle: the name is transferred from part to whole and vice versa.

For example, "head" is a part of the human or animal body.

This name can be transferred to the whole person.

From part to whole. Headache - direct meaning.

Borya - bright head - figurative (synecdoche).

Herd of 20 heads.

Mouth - part of the face - direct meaning.

"We have 5 mouths in our family" - figurative.

Machine - any mechanism, passenger car.

From the whole Tool - any technical device (a tool on a part of labor) - a direct meaning; gun - portable.

Synecdoche, as a special type of transference, is combined with metonymy by many scientists and is considered as its variety.

Some characteristic signs of a person are often used to refer to this person, to refer to him. This use of words for colloquial speech is especially characteristic: "I am behind the little blue cap." "Hey, beard, where are you going?"

Little Red Riding Hood is a classic example of synecdoche.

Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.

Plan.

1. Native Russian vocabulary.

2. Borrowed vocabulary.

3. Old Slavonicisms, their signs and use in modern Russian.

East Slavic vocabulary - these are words that arose in the period from the 6th to the 15th centuries, common among the languages \u200b\u200bof the East Slavic group: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian. These words are not found in other Slavic languages.

For example:

Completely (Russian) zovsim (Ukrainian) zusim (bel.);

snowfall snowfall snowfall;

Good good good good.

The East Slavic layer represents a rather diverse vocabulary, reflecting in all its diversity the political, economic and cultural life of the Old Russian state.

During this period, many words appear on the basis of common Slavic vocabulary:

Bullfinch (Russian);

Snow< снiгур (укр.);

Snyagir (white);

Compound numbers: eleven, forty, ninety;

Compound words: hook-nosed, today;

Suffix words - finch, blackberry, pantry.

4. Actually Russian vocabulary.

In the 14th century, in connection with the collapse of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian language breaks up into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian (Great Russian) nationality was formed.

Proper Russian vocabulary - these are words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian nationality and continue to arise to the present.

Words and morphemes of primordially Russian origin served as the basis for the creation of Russian vocabulary proper. those. common Slavic, East Slavic:

1. Almost all words with suffixes: chik / schik, nick, - testimonials, - lux, - nost bricklayer, wallet, teacher, mower;

2. Many compound words: ship, plane, steel progress;

3. Words with prefixes on, before, behind and the suffix sya: look at, wake up, talk;

4. Abbreviations: JSC - joint stock company, CJSC - closed joint stock company, LLC - limited liability company, PSC - private security company.

Thesis

Qi Wangzhi

Academic degree:

Candidate of Philology

Place of defense of the dissertation:

VAK specialty code:

Speciality:

Journalism

Number of pages:

CHAPTER I THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH.

1.1 Correlation between newspaper language and scientific style.

1.2 Features of the term.

1.3 Correlation of terminology and general literary language.

CHAPTER II FUNCTIONING OF TERMS.

II. 1 Terms in their direct meaning and ways of their functioning.

11.2 Terms in a figurative sense and their semantic and stylistic features.

11.3 Reterminologization of terms and their semantic and stylistic features.

CHAPTER III FUNCTIONS OF TERMS IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEWSPAPER.

III. 1 Features of socio-political vocabulary.

111.2 Functions of terms in their direct meaning.

111.3 Functions of terms in a figurative sense.

111.4 Unjustified use of terms in the newspaper.

Introduction to the thesis (part of the abstract) On the topic "Terms in the language of the newspaper"

This dissertation research is devoted to the problems of functioning and functions of terms in the language of the newspaper.

Both in Russian and foreign linguistics much attention is paid to the study of terms. The last decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century are characterized as the era of the information explosion, which resulted in terminological explosion» - a significant increase in the number of new terms and the emergence of new term systems with the advent of new branches of knowledge. Terminology noticeably colors the speech of broad native speakers and acquires exceptional significance in the modern world.

Russian scientific terminology is a highly developed system of nominations that corresponds to the current level of Russian science, technology, culture and art. The beginning of the actual terminological activity in scientific research in Russian terminology dates back to 1931, when the first article by D.S. Lotte was published “ Next tasks of technical terminology". Extensive theoretical studies of terminology based on the works of V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur, V.P. Danilenko, V.M. Leichik, D.S. Lotte, A.A. terminological school. A number of works have been created in Russia that cover the following areas in terminology: the formation of problems and basic concepts of the science of terms (V.M. Leichik 1969, A.V. .S. Lotte 1961, V.P. Danilenko 1993), term formation (G.O. Vinokur 1939, V.P. Danilenko 1977). The successful development of theoretical problems of terminology contributed to the functioning of terms and term systems.

Terminology constantly interacts with the general literary language, is formed on its basis, replenishing and enriching its system. It is an ongoing and two-way process. Its various aspects constitute the object of study in various linguistic studies. The problems of the relationship between terminology and general literary vocabulary and the transition of terms into the literary language in historical and etymological studies of a general nature are considered in the works (Yu.S. Sorokin 1965, V.V. Vinogradov 1961, JI.A. Kapanadze 1965, I.A. Voitseva 1989).

The degree of development of the topic is characterized by the fact that the problem of terminology in the language of the newspaper is studied by scientists in different aspects: V.S. Terekhova (1982) analyzed the ways of interpreting the semantic meaning of the term; ZV Solovieva (1977) in her study confirmed the hypothesis about the dependence of the stylistic effect when using terminology in other style conditions on the degree of its determinology. It should be noted that her research was devoted to the English language on the material of the press of Great Britain and the USA for 70 years. OI Revutsky (1983) studied the phenomenon of determinology of certain areas of knowledge-terminology of biology, medicine, chemistry, physics, geography and meteorology; N.P. Kirilenko (1984) drew attention to polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy of terminology in newspaper language, as well as ways to include terms in newspaper texts. Thus, despite the wide representation of terms in newspapers designed for a general reader, their functioning and functions in the language of the newspaper are little studied.

Thus, the relevance of the work is determined by the tasks of a comprehensive study of word-terms, revealing the patterns of determinology in the modern Russian language of the newspaper. The choice of the newspaper-journalistic style as a field of study is also due to the fact that it is the most massive functional style, capable of mobilizing the most diverse elements of the dictionary. The analysis of the use and changes of terms in the newspaper-journalistic style is very important for understanding the processes of the semantic development of the word on a general language scale. The problem of semantic changes of special terms in new conditions of functioning for them is always relevant for linguists.

The purpose of the study is to identify the features of the functioning of terms in the language of the newspaper, to determine the functions performed by the terms in newspaper texts in Russia over the past 10 years.

Studying the problem of the functioning and functions of terms, we thereby explore the processes of determinologization, their features and the relationship between determinologization and expressiveness of terms in the language of the newspaper.

To achieve this goal, the following specific tasks are solved in this work:

To reveal the ratio of the language of the newspaper, scientific and technical style and the ratio of terminology and general literary language;

Explore the ways in which terms function in the language of the newspaper;

Determine the semantic and stylistic features of terms in the processes of determinology in the language of the newspaper;

Reveal the characteristics of socio-political terminology in recent years;

To characterize the functions of terms in the newspaper-journalistic style;

Analyze the correlation between the processes of determinology and the degree of expressiveness of terms in a newspaper text;

Show the unjustified use of terms in modern Russian newspapers.

To solve the tasks set in this dissertation, a semantic-stylistic descriptive research method is used, which involves the observation of linguistic facts with subsequent analysis and identification of patterns of semantic change in words. Along with the descriptive method, the study uses elements of component analysis, contextual-situational analysis, which allow you to establish and compare the elements of word meanings and classify vocabulary into groups. The study of the language materials of the newspaper is carried out taking into account the linguistic methods of text analysis and lexical units that function in different types of newspaper texts.

The novelty of the work lies in the fact that in recent years, for the first time, a special comprehensive description of the terms that function in newspaper texts has been carried out. The work not only comprehensively outlines the functions of terms in the language of the newspaper, characterizes the processes of determinology and degrees of expressiveness of terms in a figurative sense in the language of the newspaper, but also reveals their correlation and the regularity of the semantic change of terms in the language of the newspaper.

The practical value and theoretical significance of the work is determined by the fact that the materials and results of the study can be widely used in a multidimensional description of Russian terminology for the purpose of further research and theoretical study of terminology, for constructing lecture courses on the problems of terminology, lexicology and stylistics of the Russian language. An important theoretical result of the study is also that it concretizes the process of intra-style changes that characterize the newspaper and journalistic style in the field of mass communication. The research undertaken in the dissertation will serve to further study the processes of enrichment of the vocabulary of the Russian language and its styles. The conclusions presented in the work will have a positive impact on the development of the theory of the term and its functioning in different functional styles of the language. The research materials can be used in compiling explanatory and terminological dictionaries, in the practice of teaching the Russian language both in Russian and in foreign audiences. Selected texts from newspapers can be used in special reading courses for non-native Russian speakers in Russia and foreign audiences.

The object of the study is the terminology of various branches of knowledge used in Russian newspapers, mainly for the period 2002-2005. The subject of the study is the scientific and socio-political terms used in Russian newspapers, mainly for the period 2002-2005.

The material for the study is mass newspapers in Russia for 2002-2005, in particular, the newspapers Izvestiya, Novye Izvestiya, Moscow's comsomolets(hereinafter referred to as "MK"), "Kommersant" and other all-Russian social and political newspapers, which occupy stable positions in the rating in terms of circulation and popularity, which makes it possible to fully reflect the state of the language of the newspaper. The basis of the study was a compiled card file of terms that function in newspaper texts, numbering 1200 units.

The following provisions are put forward for defense:

The newspaper uses mainly four ways of interpreting the semantic meaning of a term: 1) description of the term; 2) through synonyms; 3) descriptive-synonymous method; 4) using a note.

Socio-political terminology is one of the main layers of newspaper vocabulary. It conveys conceptual information, acquiring a positive or negative connotation. Cardinal political changes in society can lead to a change in the assessments associated with individual concepts.

The function of transmitting information is performed by terms mainly in the direct meaning. Terms in a figurative sense perform mainly stylistic functions. Theatrical vocabulary, most medical, biological and card terms in a figurative sense express a negative assessment.

The degrees of expressiveness and the stages of terminology determination in the newspaper are closely interconnected. The more often the term is used in the newspaper, the more accessible it is for the reader, the less the degree of its expressiveness.

In the newspaper, there is often an unjustified use of terms. These are highly specialized terms incomprehensible to readers, an erroneous understanding of the term, a violation of the semantic compatibility between the metaphorical nomination and the words associated with it. Sometimes the ethical requirements for language are violated in the modern press.

Approbation of work. The dissertation was discussed at the Department of Russian Language Stylistics, Faculty of Journalism, Moscow State University. On some issues, reports were made at the annual conferences of graduate students in philology, held as part of the "Science Day" of Moscow State University (2003, 2004). The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected in 5 published articles and abstracts with a total volume of 1.25 a. l. The volume of work is 155 pages.

The structure of the dissertation, determined by the objectives of the study, consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, an appendix, a list of references.

Dissertation conclusion on the topic "Journalism", Qi Wangzhi

In the newspaper-journalistic style, two most important functions of the language are connected - informational and influencing. As part of the newspaper's vocabulary of language, the terms assist it in conveying information and influencing the reader. Socio-political terminology covering socio-political events in life is a special layer of newspaper vocabulary. Clarity and accessibility of words constitute its distinctive feature. Another striking feature of socio-political vocabulary is its socially evaluative nature. Its informativity is characterized by an open social position or value setting. Depending on the expressed ideological content, socio-political words acquire a positive or negative connotation in journalism. Cardinal political changes in society can lead to a change in the assessments associated with individual concepts. The pragmatic value of terminological information lies in its ability to influence socio-political positions in a certain way. Socio-political terminology largely contributes to the performance of the newspaper's influence function.

The functions of information transfer are performed by terms mainly in direct use. According to the author's interpretation, the reader can visually imagine the object designated by the word-term. The term in the newspaper expresses the main features of the concept and increases the level of knowledge of the reader and the whole society. The function of knowledge transfer is one of the main functions of terms in a newspaper. Incomprehensible terms, terminological errors made by journalists who have poor knowledge of scientific and technical terminology reduce the informativeness of the newspaper as a whole.

The terms of other scientific fields in a figurative sense mainly perform the stylistic functions of influence with their evaluation and metaphor. The purpose of the metaphor in the language of the newspaper is to provide objective and comprehensive information in the specific conditions of the newspaper process. Newspaper metaphor, built on the external features and properties of the content of the concept, is predominantly pejorative in nature. Theatrical vocabulary, most medical, biological and card terms in a figurative sense express a negative assessment.

When comparing the terms with their commonly used synonyms, it turns out that the terms in figurative use show vivid figurativeness and expressiveness.

According to the degree of expressiveness, terms in a figurative sense in newspapers are divided into three groups: occasional metaphor, combat metaphor, reterminated terms. Accordingly, terms in a figurative sense in newspapers are divided into three groups: new or highly specialized terms, terms from different areas, including musical, theatrical and other terms. The last group includes most of the sports terms that, as a result of reterminologization, came from the sphere of military affairs, and socio-political terms from the military or sports spheres.

The term from its terminological system passes into the language of the newspaper, at the first stage of determinology it is a new word-term, which is just beginning to be used in newspaper texts. At this time, it is used only in its direct meaning, and needs clarification. If at this stage the term is figuratively used in newspaper texts, then its occasional connotation gives the text a strong effect of expressiveness. Over time, its scientific meaning becomes more accessible to the reader, its figurative meaning will gradually lose its freshness for the reader, and accordingly, its degree of expressiveness decreases. As a result of reterminologization, the semantic meaning of the term is quite accessible to the reader, and it will lose its connotations and expressiveness. It actually becomes a common word. Thus, some terms are included in the common language.

In the newspaper, there is often a stylistically unjustified use of terms. These are highly specialized terms incomprehensible to readers, an erroneous understanding of the term, a violation of the semantic compatibility between the metaphorical nomination and the words associated with it. Sometimes the ethical requirements for language are violated in the modern press.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, an attempt was made to investigate the functioning and functions of terms in the language of the newspaper.

Summing up, we can say that the language of the newspaper belongs to the sphere of mass communication and occupies a certain place in the system of functional styles of the modern Russian literary language, i.e. included in the newspaper - journalistic style. The orientation of the language of the newspaper to the most diverse linguistic tastes and its subject matter are very diverse. Publicists often use the terms both literally and figuratively. The language of the newspaper includes a large number of professionalisms and terms.

Accuracy, unambiguity, consistency, stylistic neutrality, lack of synonyms and homonyms are the characteristic features of the terms. These features are requirements for "ideal" terms and are largely relative. This relativity gives the terms the opportunity to enter the general literary language. There is constant contact between terminologies and general literary language, there is a constant exchange. Such processes of exchange between terms and non-terms are respectively called determinologization and terminologization.

The process of determinologization significantly expanded the boundaries of the vocabulary of the general literary language. At the same time, the terminology loses its strict conceptuality, consistency, unambiguity and acquires pragmatic properties, that is, a new word appears with a terminological meaning that no longer requires a definition, but an interpretation.

Terms function in the newspaper in two main aspects: 1) in a direct sense, 2) in a figurative sense. The terms in newspaper texts are varied in subject matter. Among the factors on which the functioning of terms in newspaper texts depends, genres of texts play a particularly important role. In its direct meaning, terminology appears mainly in the group of information genres; in a figurative-metaphorical sense - mainly in analytical and artistic-journalistic genres.

The process of determinologization of terms in the language of the newspaper is divided into three stages: the first stage - the terms are used in a direct sense, the second - the terms are used in a figurative sense; the third is reterminologization.

Some terms are used in the language of the newspaper without explanation, these are usually general scientific and general technical terms; highly specialized or new terms, especially of foreign origin from the field of science and technology, require clarification. The newspaper uses four ways of interpreting the semantic meaning of a term: 1) description of the term; 2) through synonyms; 3) descriptive-synonymous method; 4) using a note. The interpretation of terms not only enhances the impression, but also makes the subject of the image understandable, tangible and visible, more accessible to the reader.

In newspaper texts, the author does not impose strict requirements on the completeness of definitions, but only indicates the essential features of the concept. At the same time, the semantic structure of this term is simplified, which makes its understanding accessible to a non-professional reader.

Terminology in a figurative-metaphorical sense is used in all genres of the newspaper. Some determinologized special words are recorded in dictionaries and have already entered the general literary language.

The occurrence of terms in the language of the newspaper in a figurative sense depends on extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic factors. Extralinguistic factors lie in the fact that the metaphorical transfers of the name primarily affect those groups of vocabulary that are associated with the most pressing phenomena in a given period. Intra-linguistic reasons First, one should keep in mind the internal correspondence of the nature of the concepts denoted by the terms of these areas, the functional tasks of journalism, its main stylistic setting. The more widely known the term, the higher the social prestige of the relevant branch of science, the greater the chances for such a term to enter the arsenal of stylistic means developed by journalism. Secondly, the figurative meaning arises in connection with the direct, basic meaning of the word. The information that constructions with metaphors contain is much higher than that carried by ugly combinations. Associativity, caused by the metaphorical use of the term, helps to present the situation. Metaphors turn the term into a unit of newspaper language with a certain stylistic effect. After reterminologization, semantic rigor is weakened. On the one hand, thanks to reterminologization, new terms are born; on the other hand, the term, having fallen into another terminological system, acquires a wider distribution and use, sometimes it becomes general scientific. Thus, the term expands its scope of use and becomes more accessible to a wide audience, approaches the common vocabulary.

In the newspaper-journalistic style, two most important functions of the language are connected - informational and influencing. Terms help the newspaper in conveying information and influencing the reader. Socio-political terminology is a special layer of newspaper vocabulary. Clarity and accessibility of words constitute its distinctive feature. Another striking feature of socio-political vocabulary is its socially evaluative nature. Its informativity is characterized by an open social position or value setting. Depending on the expressed ideological content, socio-political words acquire a positive or negative connotation in journalism. Cardinal political changes in society can lead to a change in the assessments associated with individual concepts. The pragmatic value of terminological information lies in its ability to influence socio-political positions in a certain way. Socio-political terminology largely contributes to the performance of the newspaper's influence function.

The degrees of expressiveness and the stages of terminology determination in the newspaper are closely interconnected. The more often a term is used in a newspaper, the more accessible it is to the reader, the less expressive it is.

The term from its terminological system passes into the language of the newspaper, at the first stage of determinology it is a new word-term, which is just beginning to be used in newspaper texts. At this time, it is used only in its direct meaning and needs clarification. If at this stage it is figuratively used in newspaper texts, then its occasional connotation gives the text a strong expressive effect. Over time, its scientific meaning becomes more accessible to the reader, its figurative meaning will gradually lose its freshness for the reader, and accordingly, its degree of expressiveness decreases. As a result of reterminologization, the semantic meaning of the term is quite accessible to the reader, and it will lose its connotations and expressiveness. It actually becomes a common word. Thus, some terms are included in the common language.

In the newspaper, there is often an unjustified stylistically use of terms. These are highly specialized terms incomprehensible to readers, an erroneous understanding of the term, a violation of the semantic compatibility between the metaphorical nomination and the words associated with it. Sometimes the ethical requirements for language are violated in the modern press.

List of references for dissertation research PhD in Philology Qi Wangzhi, 2006

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Publicistic style is characterized by the use ambiguity words, three types of phenomena are observed:

1. The use of the word in a figurative sense.

2. Development of ambiguity.

3. Metaphorization as a means of expression and evaluation.

Figurative meaning. The use of a neutral word or a special term in a figurative sense gives the word a journalistic coloring, for example:

· a package of milk - a package of proposals / laws,

· quiet steps are practical steps,

· book format - negotiation format,

· traffic lights - signals from places.

Development ambiguity is a general language process that is reflected and consolidated in the language of the mass media, moreover, in many cases this development originates in journalistic texts, it differs from transfer only in that the ratio of direct and figurative meanings is not obvious here. Consider examples:

In some cases, ambiguity is formed due to inaccurate use of the word, for example:

In other cases, polysemy develops under the influence of foreign languages, for example:

Metaphorization is the use of words in figurative meanings in order to create a vivid image, express an assessment, an emotional attitude to the subject of speech; it is intended to have an impact on the addressee of the speech. It is important to note that the Soviet press was characterized by the use in figurative meanings of words that directly refer to military vocabulary:

· battle for the harvest, ideological armament, ideological sabotage,

· educational and creative training ground, pedagogical landing.

In modern speech, military lexemes sound at least:

· explosive situation, headquarters, raid, offensive, flank, attack, clip,

· to force, maneuver, torpedo.

The comparison of the state structure with the building is actively used:

· corridors of power, wall of distrust, national flats(typical for 1989-1991 rᴦ.), occupy a niche, social bloc, party building.

Since the time of perestroika, a comparison of social development with the movement of a train, a ship has entered the journalism:

· the locomotive of reforms is stalling/creeping/stuck/derailing,

· reform ship, captains of domestic business.

The metaphorical understanding of words related to medicine is widely used. Most of them express strong negative emotions:

· paralysis of the economy, microbes of philistinism, disease of society, allergy to contacts with the press, bacilli of feudal morality, decay virus, disease of sovereignty, malignant tumor of nationalism.

Some medical metaphors are related to treatment and medicines:

improvement of finances, financial injections, shock therapy, industry resuscitation.

Decorating speech in form, metaphors often make it difficult to perceive the content, cover up demagogy and pressure on the audience. When discussing economic and political topics, an excess of metaphors leads to the fact that logical reasoning is replaced by an emotional dispute, the addressee is not affected by the power of arguments, but by the brightness, freshness, catchiness of words. The immoderate use of metaphors confuses the reader, and sometimes the author himself. It is especially inappropriate in parliamentary speech when discussing laws. The abuse of metaphors leads to the fact that the expressiveness of the text is detrimental to its accuracy. This trend of journalism is reflected in the written language of schoolchildren, who strive to make their writings more beautiful and in some cases use metaphors in such a way that the phrase becomes meaningless:

· "Οʜᴎ stand in a row at the same level";

· "It is impossible to pass by such a huge state as RUSSIA, with many victories and a glorious history";

· "What made it possible to put them on the stage of a huge contribution to the development of Russian culture?";

"He laughs at the situations that surround him closely."

Meaning of PORTABLE MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

FIGURATIVE MEANING

A derivative, secondary, non-basic meaning acquired by a word and functioning in it along with a direct meaning, which is directly directed to objects and phenomena of reality. In contrast to the direct meaning, which, if we mean non-derivative words, is inexplicable, the figurative meaning is motivated through the direct one. The transfer of meaning occurs on the basis of the similarity of objects in form, color, nature of movement, on the basis of the function performed by the object, on the basis of association by adjacency (spatial, temporal, etc.). see metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012