The main parts of the hydrosphere. Major flowing rivers

The hydrosphere is a discontinuous water shell of the globe, which occupies more than 70% of its surface. Its main element is water, which is presented in three states of aggregation: gaseous, solid and liquid. We learn what is part of the hydrosphere and what is its purpose.

Components of the hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is an open water system that occupies 3⁄4 of the planet's surface. This scale is amazing: in total, the volume of the hydrosphere is 1.5 billion cubic meters. km of water.

The hydrosphere includes the following large and small objects:

oceans;
seas;
all water bodies on land (reservoirs, swamps, lakes, rivers);
The groundwater;
snow cover and glaciers.

The most important part of the hydrosphere is the World Ocean, which occupies 96% of all water resources of the planet. Its main distinguishing feature is stability over time and constancy.

Rice. 1. Waters of the oceans

Scientists are still struggling with an amazing mystery of nature - in any part of the World Ocean, at any depth and at any time of the year, the salt composition of ocean water is constant and unchanged.

Due to the high heat capacity of water, it became possible to accumulate a large amount of heat. As a result, the most comfortable conditions for the growth and development of living organisms have been created in the waters of the World Ocean.

The main functions of the hydrosphere

The importance of the hydrosphere for the Earth is difficult to overestimate. Consider the main, most important functions of the hydrosphere:

Accumulating . The waters of the World Ocean accumulate a large amount of heat, thereby ensuring a stable temperature on the planet.
Oxygen production . Phytoplankton living in ocean waters produce the bulk of oxygen in the atmosphere, which is necessary for the full life of living beings.
The oceans are a huge resource base , capable of providing mankind not only with water, but also with food and mineral resources.

The most important process in which all objects of the hydrosphere take part is the global water cycle in nature. Under the influence of solar heat, water evaporates from the surface of the land and the oceans. In the form of vapor, it penetrates into the atmosphere, where, under the influence of air masses, it is transported over long distances. Then atmospheric moisture falls to the ground in the form of precipitation, which later evaporate again. Further, this pattern is repeated in a circle.

All parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected by the already known process of the water cycle in nature.

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Natural science grade 5

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Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere - the totality of all the waters of the Earth: continental (deep, soil, surface), oceanic and atmospheric. Sometimes the waters of the oceans and seas are combined into a kind of part of the hydrosphere - oceanosphere. This is logical, because the vast majority of water is concentrated in the oceans and seas.

The emergence of water on Earth is usually associated with the condensation of water vapor from volcanic eruptions that have occurred since the beginning of the formation of the planet. Evidence of the presence of water in the geological past are sedimentary rocks with horizontal layering, which reflects the uneven deposition of mineral particles in the aquatic environment. Such rocks are known and their age dates back to 3.8-4.1 billion years. However, the appearance of drop water could have been earlier - in the air, on the surface of the planet, in the voids of rocks. In order for water to be concentrated in the depressions of the earth's surface and form pools, flooding of the initially dehydrated rocks had to occur. Primary waters were highly mineralized, which is associated with the dissolution of various substances in them that were released along with water vapor during volcanic manifestations. Fresh water came later. It is possible that an additional source of water on Earth was icy comets that invaded the atmosphere. Such a process is observed at the present time, as well as the formation of water during the condensation of vapors from volcanic eruptions.

Despite the diversity of natural waters and their different state of aggregation, the hydrosphere is one, because all its parts are connected by ocean and sea currents, channel, surface and underground runoff, as well as atmospheric transport. The structural parts of the hydrosphere are given in Table. 5.3.

Physical and chemical properties of water. Water is the most amazing substance in the world. Despite the fact that A. Celsius used for the temperature scale the melting point of water as 0 ° and its boiling point as 100 °, this liquid can freeze at a temperature of 100 ° C and remain liquid at -68 ° C, depending on the oxygen content and atmospheric pressure. It has many anomalous properties.

Fresh water is odorless, colorless, and tasteless, while seawater is tasteful, colorless, and may have an odor. Under natural conditions, only water occurs in three states of aggregation: solid (ice), liquid (water) and gaseous (steam).

The presence of salts in water changes its phase transformations. Fresh water on land at a pressure of one atmosphere has a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling point of 100°C. Sea water at a pressure of one atmosphere and a salinity of 35‰ has a freezing point of about -1.9°C and a boiling point of 100.55°C. The boiling point depends on atmospheric pressure: the higher the height above the ground, the lower it is. Water is a universal solvent: it dissolves more salts and other substances than any other substance. It is a chemically resistant substance that is difficult to oxidize, burn or decompose into its constituent parts. Water oxidizes almost all metals and destroys even the most resistant rocks.

Table 5.3 The volume of water and the activity of water exchange in various parts of the hydrosphere

Parts of the hydrosphere	Volume	Duration of conditional water exchange
thousand km 3	% of total volume	% of fresh water volume
World Ocean		96,5	-	2500 years
The groundwater	23 700	1,72	30,9	1400 to 10000 years in the permafrost zone
Glaciers	26 064	1,74	68,7	9700 years
lakes		0,013	0,26	17 years
soil moisture	16,5	0,001	0,05	1 year
The waters of the atmosphere	12,9	0,001	0,037	8 days
swamps	11,5	0,0008	0,033	5 years
reservoirs	6,0	0,0004	0,016	0.5 years
Rivers	2,0	0,0002	0,006	16 days

When water freezes, it expands, increasing its volume by about 10%. The density of fresh water is 1.0 g / cm 3, sea - 1.028 g / cm 3 (at a salinity of 35‰), fresh ice - 0.91 g / cm 3 (therefore, ice floats in water). The density of other bodies (except for bismuth and gallium) increases during the transition from a liquid to a solid state. Water has a high specific heat capacity, i.e. the ability to absorb a large amount of heat and heat up relatively little at the same time. This property is extremely important, since water stabilizes the planet's climate.

The anomalous properties of water are explained by the structure of its molecule: hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom not "classically", but at an angle of 105 °. Due to the asymmetry, one side of the water molecule has a positive charge, while the other has a negative charge. Therefore, the water molecule is an electric dipole.

The processes where water is involved are extremely multifaceted: photosynthesis of plants and the respiration of organisms, the activity of bacteria and organisms that generate from water (mainly sea water) to build their skeletons or accumulate chemical elements (Ca, J, Co), nutrition processes and anthropogenic pollution and many more.

World ocean (oceanosphere)- a single continuous water shell of the Earth, which includes oceans and seas. Currently, there are five oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic (Arctic according to foreign classifications) and Southern (Antarctic). According to the international classification, there are 54 seas, among which there are domestic and marginal.

The volume of waters of the World Ocean is 1340-1370 million km3. The volume of land rising above sea level is 1/18 of the volume of the ocean. If the surface of the Earth were completely flat, the ocean would cover it with a layer of water of 2700 m.

The waters of the World Ocean make up 96.5% of the volume of the hydrosphere and cover 70.8% of the planet's surface (362 million km 2). Due to the huge water mass, the World Ocean has a great influence on the thermal regime of the earth's surface, acting as a planetary temperature regulator.

The chemical composition of the waters of the oceans. Sea water is a special type of natural water. The water formula H 2 O is also true for sea water. However, in addition to hydrogen and oxygen, seawater contains 81 of the 92 naturally occurring elements (theoretically, all naturally occurring elements of the periodic table can be found in seawater). Most of them are found in extremely low concentrations.

1 km 3 of sea water contains about 40 tons of dissolved solids, which determine its most important property - salinity. Salinity is expressed in ppm (0.1%) and its average value for ocean waters is 35‰ . Water temperature and salinity determine density sea water.

The main ones that are part of sea water are listed below.

1. solids, components an average of 3.5% (by weight). Most of all, sea water contains chlorine (1.9%), i.e. over 50% of all dissolved solids. Followed by: sodium (1.06%), magnesium (0.13%), sulfur (0.088%), calcium (0.040%), potassium (0.038%), bromine (0.0065%), carbon (0.003%) . The main elements dissolved in sea water form compounds, the main of which are: a) chlorides(NaCl, MgCl) - 88.7%, which give sea water a bitter-salty taste; b) sulfates(MgSO 4 , CaSO 4 , K 2 SO 4) - 10.8%; in) carbonates(CaCO 3) - 0.3%. In fresh water, on the contrary: the most carbonates (60.1%) and the least chlorides (5.2%).

2. Biogenic elements(nutrients) - phosphorus, silicon, nitrogen, etc.

3. Gases. Sea water contains all atmospheric gases, but in a different proportion than air: nitrogen prevails (63%), which, due to its inertness, does not participate in biological processes. This is followed by: oxygen (about 34%) and carbon dioxide (about 3%), argon and helium are present. In those sea areas where there is no oxygen (for example, in the Black Sea), hydrogen sulfide is formed, which is absent in the atmosphere under normal conditions.

4. Trace elements present in low concentrations.

Geographic patterns of distribution of water temperature and salinity. The general regularities of the horizontal (latitudinal) distribution of temperature and salinity on the surface of the World Ocean are shown in fig. 5.9 and 5.10. Obviously, the water temperature decreases in the direction from the equator to the poles, and salinity is characterized by a pronounced minimum in the equatorial region, two maxima in tropical latitudes, and lower values near the poles. The alternation of centers of low and high salinity near the equator and in the tropics is explained by the abundance of atmospheric precipitation in the equatorial zone and the excess of evaporation over the amount of precipitation near the northern and southern tropics.

The water temperature decreases with depth, as shown in Fig. 5.11 for the North Pacific. This pattern is typical for the World Ocean as a whole, however, changes in water temperature and salinity differ in its individual parts, which is explained by a number of reasons (for example, the season). The greatest changes occur in the upper layer to a depth of 50-100 m. With depth, the differences are erased.

water masses- this is a large volume of water that forms in a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe World Ocean and has relatively constant physical, chemical and biological properties.

According to V.N. Stepanov (1982), the following water masses are distinguished vertically: superficial, intermediate, deep and bottom.

Among the surface water masses, there are equatorial, tropical(northern and southern), subtropical(northern and southern), subpolar(subarctic and subantarctic) and polar(Arctic and Antarctic) water masses (Fig. 5.12).

The boundaries of various types of water masses are the boundary layers: hydrological fronts, zones divergences(discrepancy) or convergence(convergence) of water.

Surface water interacts most actively with the atmosphere. In the surface layer, intensive mixing of water occurs, it is rich in oxygen, carbon dioxide and living organisms. They can be called the waters of the "oceanic troposphere".

Along with surface currents (see Fig. 7.11), countercurrents, subsurface and deep water movements, as well as vertical mixing, tidal currents, and level fluctuations exist in the World Ocean.

Rice. 5.9. Average annual temperature (°C) of the surface of the World Ocean (according to V.N. Stepanov 1982): 1 - isotherms; 2 - areas of maximum water temperature; 3 - areas of water temperature below the average value (average water temperature 18.56 ° C)

Rice. 5.10. Average annual salinity (‰) of the surface of the World Ocean (according to V.N. Stepanov, 1982): 1 - isohalines; 2 - areas of maximum salinity; 3 - areas of salinity below average; 4 - areas of minimum salinity (average salinity 34.7 8‰)

Rice. 5.11. Graphs of the vertical temperature distribution characteristic of the arctic (1), subarctic (2), subtropical (3), tropical (4) and equatorial (5) water types

The relief of the bottom of the oceans. In the relief of the bottom of the World Ocean, the following structures are distinguished: shelf(mainland shoal), usually limited by the 200 m isobath, continental(continental) slope to a depth of 2000-3000 m and bed of the ocean. According to another classification, there are: littoral(and sublittoral), bathyal, abyssal(Fig. 5.13). Plots with depths over 6000 m make up no more than 2% of the area of the ocean floor with a depth of less than 200 m - approximately 7%.

Rice. 5.12. Ocean fronts and surface water masses of the World Ocean (according to V.N. Stepanov, 1982): types of water masses: Ar- arctic; SbAr- subarctic; SbTs - subtropical Northern Hemisphere; Ts- Tropical Northern Hemisphere; E- equatorial; Chu - tropical southern hemisphere; SbTu- subtropical southern hemisphere; SbAn - subantarctic; An - Antarctic; Tar- Arabian Sea; 715 - Bay of Bengal. The names of the oceanic fronts are shown in the figure

Rice. 5.13. Schematic division of the ocean floor

The role of the oceanosphere. Various (thermal, mechanical, physical, chemical, etc.) processes taking place in the vast (more than 70% of the Earth's surface) water area of the World Ocean have a significant impact on the processes taking place on land and in the atmosphere. The chemical elements that make up sea water are involved in the processes of gas, mass and moisture exchange at the boundaries of the hydrosphere - lithosphere - atmosphere. Hydrochemical processes affect the flora and fauna of not only the ocean, but the planet as a whole. Constant gas exchange with the atmosphere regulates the Earth's gas balance: the content of carbon dioxide in sea water is 60 times greater than in the atmosphere.

land waters, despite the relatively small volume, they play a huge role in the processes of functioning of the geographical envelope and the vital activity of organisms. It should be noted that not all land waters are fresh, there are salt lakes and springs. The ionic composition of fresh and sea water is given in Table. 5.4.

Rivers- the most active representative of the fresh waters of the land. Rivers include permanent and relatively large watercourses. Smaller streams are called streams. The relief, geological structure, climate, soils, vegetation affect the regime of rivers and shape their natural appearance. The river has source - where it starts and mouth- the place of direct confluence of the river into the receiving body of water (lake, sea, river). The mouth can branch out, forming delta rivers. The area of land through which a river flows is called channel. The main river and its tributaries set up a river system. Rivers flowing into the oceans form estuaries- vast areas of mixing river and sea water. Estuaries are largely influenced by ocean waters.

Table 5.4. Ionic composition of river and sea water (according to P. Weil, 1977)

ions	river water	Sea water (salinity 35‰ )
Cations
Na+	0,27	468,0
K+	0,06	10.0
Mg2+	0,34	107,0
Ca 2+	0,75	20,0
Sum	1,42	605,0
anions
Cl -	0,22	546,5
HCO3-	0,96	2,3
SO 4 2-	0,24	56,2
Sum	1,42	605,0

The nature of the flow of rivers is associated with their food, which is rain, snow, glacial and underground, and is determined by the climatic conditions in the river basin. Rivers predominantly fed by snow have a pronounced spring flood and summer low water (Volga, Dnieper, Danube, Northern Dvina, Amur, etc.). Underground feeding smoothes the annual runoff. Rain-fed rivers often have a maximum runoff in different seasons of the year. The areas of the earth's surface and the thickness of soils and soils, from where the river receives food, is called catchment.

Rivers perform significant work, eroding the channel, transporting and depositing erosion products - alluvium. They not only mechanically destroy, but also dissolve rocks. River deposits sometimes form vast alluvial plains with an area of millions of kilometers (Amazonian, West Siberian lowlands, etc.). It is estimated that 2,100 km 3 of water is simultaneously in the rivers, while 47,000 km 3 annually flows into the ocean. This means that the volume of water in the rivers is updated approximately every 16 days. For comparison, we point out that the waters of the World Ocean carry out a large circulation in about 2500 years.

lakes- a natural body of land with a slow water exchange, which does not have a direct connection with the ocean. For its formation, the presence of a closed depression of the earth's surface (hollow) is necessary. The lakes occupy a total area of approximately 2 million km 2, and the total volume of their waters exceeds 176 thousand km 3. According to the conditions for the formation of the basin, the size, the chemical composition of the waters, and the thermal regime of the lakes are very diverse. Many artificial lakes have also been created - reservoirs(about 30 thousand), the volume of water in which is more than 5 thousand km 3. Approximately half of the lake waters are saline, and most of them are concentrated in the largest drainless lake - the Caspian Sea (76 thousand km 3). Of the fresh lakes, the largest are Baikal (23 thousand km 3), Tanganyika (18.9 thousand km 3), Upper (16.6 thousand km 3). The regime of lakes is characterized by heat inflow, water level fluctuations, currents, water exchange conditions, ice cover, etc. Large lakes largely determine the climatic conditions of adjacent territories (for example, Lake Ladoga).

swamps- these are land areas characterized by excessive moisture, stagnant or weakly flowing water regime and hydrophytic vegetation. They occupy an area of 2.7×10 6 km 2 , or about 2% of the land surface. The volume of swamp waters in the world is about 11.5 km 3, which is 5 times higher than the one-time volume of water in rivers. The emergence of swamps is associated with both climatic conditions (excess moisture) and the geological structure of the territory (proximity to the water-resistant horizon), which contribute to the swamping of land or the overgrowth of water bodies. In some areas of temperate and subpolar latitudes, permafrost plays the role of an aquiclude. The specific formation of swamps is peat.

The groundwater These are waters that are in rocks in a liquid, solid or gaseous state. According to recent studies, the water content in rocks within the lithosphere exceeds the data indicated in Table. 5.3, and is about 0.73 - 0.84 billion km 3. This is only half as much as it is contained in the seas, oceans and surface waters, including the world's ice reserves. Water accumulates in all sorts of voids - channels, cracks, pores. It has been established that below the groundwater level to a depth of 4–5 km or more, almost all voids in rocks are filled with water. According to deep drilling data, water in the voids of rocks is located at a depth of more than 9.5 km, i.e., below the average level of the bottom of the World Ocean.

The totality of watercourses (rivers, streams, canals), reservoirs (lakes, reservoirs) and other water bodies (swamps, glaciers) is hydrographic network.

Land waters have been greatly transformed by man due to irrigation, land reclamation, plowing of land and other urban processes, in connection with which the problem of drinking water has become acute.

The complexity of its solution lies in the fact that the demand for clean water is growing, while its reserves remain the same. Used in in everyday life, in industrial and agricultural cycles, fresh water most often returns to the river network in the form of wastewater, treated in different ways or not treated at all.

Water forms the water shell of our planet - hydrosphere(from the Greek words "gidor" - water, "sphere" - a ball). It includes water in three states - liquid, solid (ice, snow) and gaseous (steam). Currently, water occupies 3/4 of the Earth's surface.

The hydrosphere includes three main components: World Ocean, sushi water and water in the atmosphere. All parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected by the process of the water cycle in nature already known to you.

The oceans account for over 96% of all water on our planet. Continents and islands divide it into separate oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic. In recent years, the maps highlight the Southern Ocean - the body of water surrounding Antarctica. The largest in area is the Pacific Ocean, the smallest is the Arctic Ocean. The parts of the oceans that jut out into the land are called seas. There are a lot of them. The largest seas of the planet are the Philippine, Arabian, Coral.

Water in natural conditions contains various substances dissolved in it. In 1 liter of ocean water, on average, contains 35 g of salt (most of all table salt), which gives it a salty taste, makes it unsuitable for drinking and use in industry and agriculture.

Land waters are rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and groundwater. Most of the land waters are fresh, but salty ones are also found among lakes and groundwater.

You know what a huge role rivers, lakes, swamps play in nature and people's lives. But here's what is surprising: in the total amount of water on Earth, their share is very small - only 0.02%.

Much more water is contained in glaciers- about 2%. Do not confuse them with the ice that forms when water freezes. Glaciers are formed from snow. They occur where there is more snow than it has time to melt. Gradually, the snow accumulates, compacts and turns into ice. Glaciers cover about 1/10 of the land. Where are they located? First of all, on the mainland Antarctica and the island of Greenland, which are covered with huge ice shells. Blocks of ice that break off along their shores form floating mountains - icebergs. Some of them reach enormous sizes. Large areas are occupied by glaciers in the mountains, especially in such high places as the Himalayas, the Pamirs, and the Tien Shan. The beauty of the mountain peaks, covered with ice and snow all year round, is unique!

Glaciers are formed by fresh ice, and therefore they can be called pantries of fresh water. So far, it has hardly been used, but scientists have long been developing projects to transport icebergs to arid regions in order to provide local residents with drinking water.

The groundwater also make up about 2% of all water on Earth. They are located in the upper part of the earth's crust. These waters can be salty and fresh, cold, warm and hot. Often they are saturated with substances useful for human health and are medicinal (mineral waters). In many places, for example, along the banks of rivers, in ravines, groundwater comes to the surface, forming sources(they are also called springs and keys). Groundwater reserves are replenished by precipitation that seeps through some of the rocks that make up the earth's surface. Thus, groundwater is involved in the water cycle in nature.

Water in the atmosphere is water vapor, water droplets, ice crystals. Together they make up fractions of a percent of the total amount of water on Earth. But without them, the water cycle on our planet would be impossible.

Test your knowledge

What is the hydrosphere? List its constituent parts.
What oceans form the World Ocean of our planet?
What is called the sea?
What makes up land water?
How are glaciers formed and where are they located?
What are ground waters?
What is water in the atmosphere?

Think!

How is the ice in the Arctic Ocean different from the ice in Antarctica?
What is the difference between a river, a lake and a swamp?
What is the danger of an iceberg?
Are there salt water bodies on our planet other than seas and oceans?
What is the importance of water in the atmosphere?
Find on the map the seas washing the shores of our country. Name them.

The water shell of the Earth is called the hydrosphere. It consists of the waters of the oceans, land waters and water in the atmosphere. The oceans account for over 96% of the world's water. It is divided into separate oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, Southern. The parts of the oceans that jut out into the land are called seas. Land waters include rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers, groundwater. The atmosphere contains water vapor, water droplets and ice crystals.