Textbook for institutes and faculty. foreign lang. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher School, 1986. - 295 p.: ill. The textbook is devoted to the word as the main unit of the language, its semantic and morphological structure, features of English word formation and phraseology. English vocabulary is considered as a continuously developing system.
The 3rd edition (2nd - 1973) updated the theoretical and illustrative material, expanded the chapters on the theory of the word and semasiology. Preface.
Abbreviations.
Introduction.Fundamentals.
The Object of Lexicology.
The Theoretical and Practical Value of English Lexicology.
The Connection of Lexicology with Phonetics, Stylistics, Grammar and Other Branches of Linguistics.
Types of Lexical Units.
The Notion of Lexical System.
The Theory of Oppositions. The English Word as a Structure Characteristics of the Word as the Basic Unit of Language.
The Definition of the Word.
semantic triangle.
Phonetic, Morphological and Semantic Motivation of Words.Lexical Meaning and Semantic Structure of English Words.
definitions.
The Lexical Meaning Versus Notion.
Denotative and Connotative Meaning.
The Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words.
contextual analysis.
Componential Analysis Semantic Change.
Types of Semantic Change.
Linguistic Causes of Semantic Change.
Extralinguistic Causes of Semantic Change. Morphological Structure of English Words. Affixation.
Morphemes. Free and Bound Forms. Morphological Classification of Words. Word families.
Aims and Principles of Morphemic and Word-Formation Analysis.
Analysis into Immediate Constituents.
Derivational and Functional Affixes.
The Valency of Affixes and Stems. Word Building Patterns and Their Meaning.
Classification of Affixes.
allomorphs.
Boundary Cases Between Derivation, Inflection and Composition.
Combining Forms.
Hybrids.Compound Words.
Definitions and Introductory Remark.
The Criteria of Compounds.
Semi-Affixes.
"The Stone Wall Problem".
Verbal Collocations of the Give Up Type.
Specific Features of English Compounds.
Classification of Compounds.
Compound nouns.
Compound adjectives.
Compound verbs.
Derivational Compounds.
Reduplication and Miscellanea of ​​Composition.
Reduplicative Compounds.
Ablaut Combinations.
Rhyme Combinations.
Pseudo Compounds.
The Historical Development of English Compounds.
New Word-Forming Patterns in Composition.Shortened Words and Minor Types of Lexical Oppositions.
Shortening of Spoken Words and Its Causes.
Blending.
Graphical Abbreviations. Acronyms.
Minor Types of Lexical Oppositions. Sound Interchange.
Distinctive Stress.
sound imitation.
Back-Formation.Conversion and Similar Phenomena.
Introduction Remarks.
The Historical Development of Conversion.
Conversion in Present-Day English.
Semantic Relationships in Conversion.
substantiation.
Conversion in Different Parts of Speech.
Conversion and Other Types of Word-Formation.Set Expressions.
Introduction Remarks. definitions.
Set Expressions, Semi-Fixed Combinations and Free Phrases.
Changeable and Unchangeable Set Expressions.
Classification of Set Expressions.
Similarity and Difference between a Set Expression and a Word.
Features Enhancing Unity and Stability of Set Expressions.
Proverbs, Sayings, Familiar Quotations and Clichés. English Vocabulary as a System Homonyms. Synonyms. Antonyms.
Homonyms.
The Origin of Homonyms.
Homonymy Treated Synchronically.
Synonyms.
Interchangeability and Substitution.
Sources of Synonyms.
euphemisms.
Lexical Variants and Paronyms.
Antonyms and Conversives. Lexical Systems.
The English Vocabulary as an Adaptive System. neologisms.
Morphological and Lexico-Grammatical Grouping.
Thematic and Ideographic Groups. The Theories of Semantic Fields.
Hyponyms.
Terminological Systems.
The Opposition of Emotionally Colored and Emotionally Neutral.
Different Types of Non-Semantic Grouping. The Opposition of Stylistically Marked and Stylistically Neutral.
Functional Styles and Neutral Vocabulary.
Functional Styles and Registers.
Learned Words and Official Vocabulary.
Poetic Diction.
Colloquial Words and Expressions.
Slang.Native Words Versus Loan Words.
The Origin of English Words.
Assimilation of Loan Words.
Etymological Doublets.
International Words. Regional Varieties of the English Vocabulary.
Standard English Variants and Dialects.
american English.
Canadian, Australian and Indian Variants.Lexicography.
Types of Dictionaries.
Some of the Main Problems of Lexicography.
Historical Development of British and American Lexicography.
Conclusion.
Recommended Reading.
subject index.

Here you can download the book for free: Eliseeva VV "Lexicology of the English language".

Description: The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word (Greek leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching). Thus, lexicology considers the dictionary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. It is customary to distinguish between general and particular lexicology. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, that which refers to lexical universals. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the features of English synonyms or antonyms.

Contrastive lexicology is engaged in comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages ​​chosen for comparison.

The choice of approach to the study of the lexical composition of the language is determined by the tasks that the researcher sets himself. At the same time, data obtained in the sections of linguistics adjacent to lexicology are often involved. Thus, the meaning of a word or the definition of its boundaries is influenced by its phonetic characteristics, such as the quality of phonemes, stress, the order of phonemes, etc. Phonetic changes in diachrony and the reduction of endings often led to the coincidence of stems, as happened, for example, with the Old English verb carian and a noun with ur a known in the modern saga form. Ultimately, such changes contributed to the change of the inflectional structure of the language to the analytical one, the emergence of new word-formation methods, for example, conversion.

Year of issue: 2003

Introduction LEXICOLOGY AS A LINGUISTIC DISCIPLINE

Chapter 1 MEANING OF THE WORD

2. Types and types of value

2.2. Denotative and connotative meaning
3. Internal form (motivation) of the word
3.1. Types of motivation
3.2. Loss of motivation (deetymologization)
3.3. False etymologization

Chapter 2 CHANGING THE MEANING OF A WORD

2. Extralinguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word
3. Linguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word

3.2. Name transfer - the basis of the value shift
3.2.1. Implication type of transfer
3.2.2. Transfer qualification type
4. Results of changing the value

Chapter 3 POLYSEMY (POLYSEMY) OF WORDS
1. The concept of polysemy
1.1. Polysemy and broad meaning
1.2. Polysemy and context

1.2.2. Context types
2. Polysemy as a synchronous phenomenon
2.1. Multi-valued word value types
3. Polysemy in diachronic coverage
3.1. Source and Derived Values
3.2. Ways of development of ambiguity
3.3. The collapse of polysemy

Chapter 4 SYSTEM RELATIONS IN VOCABULARY
1. Homonymy
1.1. The concept of homonymy
1.2. Homonym types
2. Synonymy
2.1. The main signs of synonymy of words
2.2. Synonym types
3. Antonymy
3.1. The concept of antonymy
3.2. Antonym types
4. Paronymy
4.1. The concept of paronymy
4.2. Paronymy and paronomasia

Chapter 5 Phraseological Fund of the Vocabulary of the English Language
1. The concept of a phraseological unit
2. Types of phraseological units
2.1. Structural types of phraseological units
2.2. Functional types of phraseological units
2.3. Semantic types of phraseological units
3. Borders of the phraseological fund
3.1. Traditional phrases
3.2. Units like to have a smoke
3.3. Postpositive verb combinations like give in

Chapter 6 STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD
1. Morphological structure of the word
1.1. Types and types of English morphemes
1.2. Morphological articulation of the word
2. Word-building structure of the word
2.1. The basis of the word: concept and types
2.2. Word-building model

Chapter 7 WORD FORMATION
1. Basic concepts of word formation
1.1. The concept of generating basis
1.2. Classifications of word formation methods
2. Linear models of word formation
2.1. Affixation
2.2. Composition
2.3. Differentiation of complex words and phrases
3. Nonlinear models of word formation
3.1. Reversion
3.2. Conversion
3.3. Reduction
3.4. word fusion

Chapter 8
1. The genetic composition of the vocabulary of modern English
1.1. The concept of native English word
1.2. Borrowing in English vocabulary
1.2.1. Classification by source of borrowing
1.2.2. Classifications according to the degree of assimilation of borrowings
2. Ways to replenish the vocabulary of modern English

Introduction
LEXICOLOGY AS A LINGUISTIC DISCIPLINE

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word (Greek leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching). Thus, lexicology considers the dictionary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. It is customary to distinguish between general and particular lexicology. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, that which refers to lexical universals. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the features of English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and particular problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or any one historical stage of their development. Such a study of vocabulary is also called descriptive, or descriptive (English, descriptive lexicology). Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) deals with the study of the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.
Contrastive lexicology is engaged in comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages ​​chosen for comparison.
The choice of approach to the study of the lexical composition of the language is determined by the tasks that the researcher sets himself. At the same time, data obtained in the sections of linguistics adjacent to lexicology are often involved. So, the meaning of a word or the definition of its boundaries is influenced by its phonetic characteristics, such as the quality of phonemes, stress, the order of phonemes, etc. For example, it is enough to compare the pairs of sop / sore, hut / heart or remember that sounds are impossible at the beginning of English words , [?], or [?l], and at the end - the sounds [h] or [w]. Phonetic changes in diachrony and the reduction of endings often led to the coincidence of stems, as happened, for example, with the Old English verb carian and the noun sura, known in the modern form of saga. Ultimately, such changes contributed to the change of the inflectional structure of the language to the analytical one, the emergence of new word-formation methods, for example, conversion.
The grammatical form may be meaningful, for example arm - arms (arms and hands; coat of arms); genius - genii, geniuses; open (open the door; the open door). On the other hand, the grammatical meaning can be expressed in a lexical way (We are going there tomorrow instead of We shall go there or Gone today, forgotten tomorrow), while the form of the future tense is the same as in We are going there now, i.e. e. when using the present continuous tense. The lexicalization of the grammatical form affects the nature of the function of the word, while the lexical meaning is often weakened. This is clearly seen in the example of the modal verb sculan (modern form - shall), the predominant function of which is auxiliary.

The need to select lexical means depending on the circumstances of speech determines the connection between lexicology and stylistics, although lexicology studies the causes and ways of developing new shades of meanings that give expressiveness to speech, and stylistics mainly deals with the nature of the functioning of these means in the text. For example, from the point of view of lexicology, the words father and dad are synonyms that differ in the shade of meaning, but for stylistic analysis, it is important that this shade makes these words function in different areas of speech (colloquial style involves the use of the word dad, and the official word father).
In any case, the focus of researchers remains the word or the equivalent of the word.
In the linguistic literature, one can find various definitions of the word. The definition of the word in the ERY is laconic: “The most important structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties.” The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary gives the following definition: "A word is the main structural and semantic unit of a language that serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, having a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language." A much more detailed definition is found in E. S. Kubryakova, where, referring to J. Trnka, she describes the word as
“a formal sequence, parts of which are combined to perform common communicative functions; all sequences of this kind can be moved in the text or separated from each other without losing their identity to themselves” (Kubryakova, 1986). Historically, one can count more than 70 criteria for defining a word according to graphic, phonetic, structural, grammatical, semantic and other principles. The most important consideration seems to be that any of these criteria relates the object of study to some system, specifying its connections within the structure, its boundaries and relations with other objects. Even A. I. Smirnitsky singled out two main problems associated with the definition of a word - the problem of its separateness, on the one hand, and the problem of its identity, on the other. Separateness of a word is understood as its difference from a morpheme as a unit of a lower level and from a phrase as a unit of a higher level. Identity refers to the systemic nature of word usage and the invariance of the basic characteristics of the unit. Any word can be viewed from different angles, looking for the answer to one or more key questions. In search of answers, various aspects of the study of the word were formed, sections of lexicology were formed. Let's highlight the most important of these questions.

1. What does this word mean? This question seems to be the most difficult and usually requires detailed data to answer it. The branch of lexicology that deals with problems related to the meaning of a word is called semasiology.

2. What does this word consist of and where are its boundaries? Strictly speaking, the composition of the word is dealt with by an independent section of linguistics - morphology, but this section is inextricably linked with lexicological problems, therefore some problems related to morphology are solved within the framework of lexicological studies, for example, the question of the meaning of affixes and their relationship with stems.
3. How is the word formed? The answer to this question is found, respectively, in the section of word formation, which is closely related to morphology.

4. In what area is this word used? These are the tasks of stylistics, which were mentioned above. Within the framework of lexicological studies, the question is important from the point of view of the total scope of the meaning of the word; here we again return to the section of semasiology.

5. Often one concept can be described not by one word, but by a constant group of words (casual - free and easy; to begin (smth) - to get (smth) under way; etc). As a rule, such phrases are stable and more emotional than the corresponding word. Their features are dealt with by the section of lexicology called phraseology.

6. What is the origin of the word? Since the answer to this question often requires the use of data from several languages, its search goes beyond the scope of lexicology proper. The corresponding section of linguistics is called etymology, but its data are especially necessary in lexicological studies of the vocabulary of the English language due to its specificity - the English vocabulary consists of 70% of borrowed elements.

7. How to describe a word? How to organize all the answers to the previous questions? What system does the word belong to? These are already the tasks of lexicography, the science of compiling dictionaries, the data of which are also used by lexicologists.

As you can see, the vocabulary of a language is a multifaceted phenomenon. The elements of a dictionary, vocabulary are interconnected by ordered, systemic relations. First of all, all vocabulary units can be divided into three large groups - morphemes, words and phrases. The mention of a morpheme is appropriate here insofar as a huge number of words in the English language are monomorphemic and can function as a word; thus, the unit of the lower tier of the language goes to the higher tier. Combining words into groups with a single meaning leads to the appearance of phrases, both free and stable, including phraseological ones. It can be seen from what has been said that the word, or lexeme, that is, the invariant of all possible word forms, remains the central unit. The word form, according to the definition of Yu. S. Maslov, is a kind of abstract unit, “abstraction of the first degree”, expressed in the text (speech) by a specific copy of the word (Maslov, 1987, p. 13). According to V. Ya. Plotkin, in the paradigms of English verbs and nouns, 3 types of word forms are found: analytical (will work, an egg), synthetic (worked, eggs) and unmarked, that is, not containing grammatical indicators (work, egg) (Plotkin, 1989, p. 32).

As you know, a word is a two-way linguistic sign that has a plane of expression and a plane of content. In the human mind, the word, i.e., the unity of these plans, is connected not only with the object or phenomenon itself, designated by this word, but also with the concepts that make up the surrounding reality. In this regard, it is customary to talk about intralinguistic (linguistic) and extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors that affect the word and its functioning in language and speech. Both the linguistic and extralinguistic connections of the word are especially clearly traced in diachrony, since it is in historical development that one can clearly see how changes in any element lead to an adjustment in the relationship of the word with other elements and its position in the system.

Intralinguistic connections of a word can contribute to a regrouping of meanings and, accordingly, a change in the microsystem in which the word enters, or affect the scope of the concept reflected by this word.
The regrouping of meanings usually affects synonymous series and is often associated with the appearance of so-called etymological doublets. Thus, the Old English word haerfest, which meant the season, was supplanted by the Romance borrowing autumn with the same meaning. In the original word, the derivative meaning (season for) reaping and gathering in grain or other products came to the fore.
An example of a change in the scope of a concept is the history of the word knave. In the Old English period, the word cnafa had a neutral meaning boy, servant (cf. German Knabe). Gradually developing, the word acquired a different meaning - unprincipled man, rogue. The scope of the concept included an additional element of evaluation. Another example is the verb layer and its derivative layered. According to W. Safire, starting from the 60s. 20th century the meaning of this word is associated with fashion trends, first in hairdressing (layered hair styles introduced by Vidal Sassoon), and then in clothes (the layered look - big skirts with tight pants, tiers of fabric, one color on top of the other). The change in the thematic group to which the word originally belonged (paints, staining) continues. A new element is introduced into the scope of meaning - a fashionable trend in administrative politics: “They never fired anyone either. They just put a super-whatever on top. When they put somebody else in below, they call it sandwiching” (Safire, 1993, p. 181).

Extralinguistic connections of a word also affect its meaning, but here we are not talking about changing the linguistic microsystem, but about adding or changing the structure of the word's meaning under the influence of external factors. Such external factors include changes in the set of concepts in society and the processes that took place in the source language of borrowing before the arrival of the word in English.

A change in the set of concepts in a language community makes it necessary to designate a new object or phenomenon that has appeared. Often, for this purpose, words already existing in the language are used, or rather their figurative meanings. For example, the appearance of camouflage fabric and military uniforms from it influenced the meaning of the word samo (short for camouflage): a color combination and pattern resembling the camouflage garments of soldiers and their equipment. In connection with the advent of computer equipment, the noun mouse acquired an additional figurative meaning. The influence of external factors can lead to the loss of part of the meaning, as, for example, happened in the word address, where the component behavior (pleasing address) is obsolete along with the code of conduct adopted in society.

A set of meanings assigned to some sound-graphic complex can be formed outside the English language system, in the language (languages)-sources of borrowing. In these cases, homonymy is not uncommon, that is, the coincidence of the formal side with a discrepancy in the content. An example is the homonymous nouns box: 1) kinds of small evergreen shrub, esp. one with small leathery leaves, much used in garden borders (L. buxus); 2) receptacle of wood, cardboard, metal, etc. (L. buxum - boxwood); 3) slap with hand (origin unknown). Here, as we see, the derivative meaning arose already in the Latin period of the history of the word, finally breaking away from the direct already in English.
Thus, we see that lexicology as a linguistic discipline exists in close contact with other aspects of linguistics, solving various problems associated with the word - the basic unit of the language system.

Chapter 1
MEANING OF THE WORD
1. General definition of meaning
The complexity of the task is obvious already because scientists have tried to give a definition of the meaning of the word for centuries, but still have not come to a consensus. Various interpretations of the essence of the meaning of the word are known - functional, set forth, in particular, in the works of L. Wittgenstein; behavioristic, the main provisions of which are found in L. Bloomfield, and others. Researchers who proceed from the correlation of a word as a two-sided sign with an object or phenomenon adhere to the referential or conceptual theories of meaning. The first focuses on the referent and, according to some linguists, does not fully reveal the complexity of the nature of the meaning of the word. Conceptual theory proceeds from the connection of a word with a notion (concept), and within its framework, the meaning of a word is defined as a reflection of an object, phenomenon or relationship in the mind of the bearer enclosed in some material shell.

The word can name various referents - objects, phenomena, fantastic creatures, etc., that is, that which exists or seems to exist in connection with some concept. The term refers to the generalization in the mind of a native speaker of the most essential features of a fragment of reality. The semantic (semantic) structure of the word is in the center of attention of the science of its meaning, semasiology. Naming, the word appears as a unity of three components - the sound-graphic form, the object or phenomenon itself and the concept of it. This trinity is clearly seen in the diagram known as the "semantic triangle" or "Ogden-Richards triangle":

CONCEPT (CONCEPT, THOUGHT ABOUT SUBJECT, PHENOMENON, ETC.)

DENOTATE (REFERENT, DESIGNATED)

[….] SOUND-GRAPHIC FORM OF A WORD (SIGN, SYMBOL)

The meaning of the word is not equal to the sum of these three components, but is related to them.
First of all, the meaning of a word is not rigidly connected with its soundographic form. The same sound and/or graphic complex can correspond to several values. In particular, this is manifested in the presence of homonyms both within one language and in interlingual relations; for example, a word that sounds like in English corresponds to the preposition on, but in Russian it is a masculine pronoun. The meaning of the word is not tied to a single object (referent), since the word can be used not only in its direct, but also in a figurative sense (“oak” - 1) tree; 2) stupid person; 3) a person with good health; fork - 1) implement used for lifting food to the mouth; 2) farm tool; 3) place where a road, tree-trunk, etc. divides or branches). In addition, in the course of the historical development of the connection between form and meaning, there are also many cases of coincidence of the forms of different words as a result of diachronic processes, for example, the disappearance of the endings of English verbs or spelling changes, as happened, for example, with the Old English verb andswerian, which lost its ending and coincided in form with the noun answer.
The meaning of a word cannot be reduced to the concept that corresponds to it, for the concept is universal, while the meaning is particular. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that knowledge of the meaning of a word is not necessarily associated with knowledge of the denotation itself or the idea of ​​it. So, the meaning of the word goblin or UFO is known to a huge number of people who, for natural reasons, have never seen the denotation itself. In addition, the meaning of a word can have a different volume for different people who form their concept individually (the concept of money is different for the banker Dombey and his little son, which is why the banker is perplexed by the question “Papa, what is money?” Asked by the boy).
The same object or action can have different names (run - trot -joggle; house - mansion - building; etc.); a single concept can be expressed in one or more words (quickly - in the nick of time; limb - arm, hand, wrist; etc.), several concepts can be combined in one word (croissantization, revolution). The word acts as a carrier of different types of information. It can communicate symbolic information, including the lexical meaning of the word, its grammatical meaning, as well as a group of additional meanings - stylistic, evaluative and the so-called "cultural component". Another type of complex information communicated by a word is called symptomatic information, which conveys the frequency and regional characteristics of the word, as well as its associative links. The meaning of the word is also closely related to the pragmatics of the statement, i.e. the conditions in which communication takes place, the characteristics and intentions of the participants in communication, etc. All this indicates that the meaning of the word is a flexible structure, schematically resembling a triangle in which changes by either side affect the overall nature of the structure. While the concept is a generalized perception of an object or phenomenon, and therefore belongs to the categories of thinking, the meaning is a linguistic category, since it is a form of fixing the concept by means of language.
2. Types and types of value
2.1. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word
Being an element of the language system, the word is subject to grammatical laws. That is why we say that any word has a grammatical meaning, i.e., according to the definition of the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, "a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of word forms and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language." Indicators of such a meaning can be different even if the grammatical characteristics of the word are common. For example, the words chairs, children, phenomena are united by the common grammatical meaning of plurality, although the indicators of the number in each of them are different. Similarly, the grammatical meaning of singularity appears in the absence of a regular suffix or in the presence of an irregular one (-on for a number of words of Greek origin). The same can be illustrated with verbs that have the grammatical meaning of tense, form, and in some cases - persons and numbers. The combination of words based on their grammatical meaning is not a semantic association and does not express the general conceptual idea of ​​words. These tasks are performed by the lexical meaning of the word.
The lexical commonality of words lies, as a rule, in the root morpheme - the carrier of the conceptual idea. The lexical meaning, therefore, is the semantic side of the word and is devoid of a standard (regular) expression. According to the classical definition of V. V. Vinogradov, the lexical meaning of a word is “a subject-material content, designed according to the laws of the grammar of a given language and being an element of the general semantic system of the dictionary of this language” (Vinogradov, 1977). The most striking manifestation of the commonality of the lexical meaning for a group of words is the so-called word-formation nest, i.e. the totality of all possible derivatives from one root morpheme (for example, magic, magically, magician - (connected with the use of) supernatural forces; boy, boyhood, boyish, boyishness - young man, time of man "s youth, young man" s behavior; etc.) The lexical meaning is closely related to the grammatical one, so sometimes they form a strong unity. For example, the suffix -ness (darkness, boyishness, happiness) has the grammatical meaning of an abstract noun, while at the same time denoting the concept of the quality or state of an object (lexical meaning). However, it must be remembered that the grammatical meaning is inherent only in one specific word form, while the lexical meaning is assigned to the entire set of word forms of a given word. Thus, the lexical meaning of the verb be remains common for the word forms am, is, are, was and were; the word forms boy, boy "s and boys are the same in terms of lexical meaning, despite different grammatical ones. The lexical meaning is most clearly manifested in full-valued words, least of all in ambiguous, auxiliary ones, since their function is the connection between words, and not the transfer of concepts. The degree of expression of the lexical meaning can be different.For example, in the expression in the box, the preposition in has a clear "lexical meaning, and in the combination give in its meaning is vague and is directly dependent on the verb. It is impossible to give a single now generally accepted definition of the lexical meaning of a word, since this issue has not yet been resolved due to its complexity and the huge variety of approaches to the problem. So, according to M.V. Nikitin, in the total content of the lexical meaning of a word, two parts are distinguished: the content core of the lexical meaning (its intensive) and the periphery of the semantic features surrounding this core (the implication). In other definitions, lexical meaning appears as a combination of the conceptual core and additional shades. V. N. Telia considers the intension to be the conceptual essence of the word, thereby connecting it not with the subject-logical, but with the conceptual side of the meaning, referring the denotation to the area of ​​the extension. In this manual, lexical meaning is understood as the semantic content of a word formed on the basis of a concept that generally reflects any objects in the mind of a native speaker, and additional semantic shades. In further reasoning, we will proceed from the traditional, albeit rather conditional, division of the lexical meaning of a word into denotative and connotative components.

2.2. Denotative and connotative meaning
The denotative component (usually one speaks simply of the denotative meaning) conveys the general logical concept contained in the word ( Word Denotative meaning Connotation
notorious celebrated widely known for criminal acts or bad traits of character (-) for special achievements (+)
glare glance look steadily, lastingly (long)
briefly, passing (short)
father daddy parent (neutral)
(colloquial)
As can be seen from the table, in each of the three pairs, the logical value associated with the subject of the message (denotation) is common, and additional shades (evaluation, duration, stylistic affiliation) are in the connotative component of the value. The types of connotations can be very diverse, and, of course, there is no exhaustive list of them. In addition, not every word has a connotative component (look, know, parent, long do not have such a component). On the other hand, the connotative component can be contained within the denotative meaning (such, for example, are evaluative words - good, awkward, dirt, murder, riot, treason, etc.). For some categories of words (for example, interjections), the connotative meaning is the leading one (expression of expression, emotional evaluation). The so-called bias words stand somewhat apart, i.e. words whose emotional coloring depends on the subjective assessment of the speaker. Such words include, in particular, the names of political parties (communist, fascist, democracy, etc.).
Thus, we can say that the meaning of a word, inherent in any one word form, is called grammatical, and the common for all word forms, which has a subject-logical correlation with an object, action or phenomenon, is called lexical. The lexical meaning of a word consists of denotative and connotative components. The first reflects a logical concept, and the second (optional) - shades of relation or logical content.

3. Internal form (motivation) of the word
At the moment the word appears, there is a reason for choosing one or another sound, graphic or structural form to convey some concept. The sign underlying the name and perceived by native speakers as explanatory is called the internal form (motivation) of the word. In the future, this reason may fade into the background or be lost, or it may persist. One way or another, the presence or absence of motivation (internal form) is an important feature of the semantic side of the word.

3.1. Types of motivation
With a natural connection between the meaning of a word and its sound, one speaks of the presence of a phonetic motivation. Examples of phonetically motivated words include buzz, cuckoo, splash, gargle, purr, and a host of other so-called onomatopoeic words whose sound "explains" their meaning.
Since words are formed according to the models existing in the language from existing morphemes, it is possible to single out the morphological motivation of the word. So, the compound word loudspeaker is motivated by the morphemes included in it loud - speak - er (how - what does - doer, performer); similarly motivated to prefabricate (pre - fabric - ate: in advance - manufacture - do); bestseller, rewrite, employee and many others.
The third type of internal word form is semantic motivation. In this case, the new meaning is explained through the old one of the same form; very often there is a metaphorical or metonymic transfer of meaning: barking (cough) is motivated by a sound similarity to the barking of a dog. The semantically motivated word often has a figurative character: snowdrop recalls the resemblance of a flower to a ball of snow on a spring lawn; buttercup reflects the color and shape of the plant's calyx. Morphologically motivated here are the old meanings that served as the basis for the secondary nomination; Thus, different types of motivation are often intertwined in one word. The depth of motivation also varies. It can be pronounced, as in snowdrop; worn out, as in honeysuckle, volleyball, or wilful, or completely lost-
noah, as in the words home, read, alphabet, parachute, etc.
The motivation of a word can also reflect the national identity of the language; Thus, one and the same object can receive names in different languages, based on its different features. Let's compare, for example, the Russian word "oilcloth" and the English word oilcloth. The first one is semantically motivated by the feature “manufacturing method”, and the second one is motivated by the feature “material”. A similar example is a pair of "glasses" (motivation - "additional eyes") and glasses (mounting feature - "material"). The national originality of motivation is most clearly manifested in its phonetic variety; it is enough to compare the English cock-a-doodle-do and the Russian cock-a-doodle.

3.2. Loss of motivation (deetymologization)
The reasons for the loss of motivation by the word are comparable with the reasons for which the word acquires its internal form.
The patterns of development of the sound structure of the English language can lead to the loss, in a word, of motivation for phonetic reasons. Phonological processes can affect the morphological structure of a word, i.e., lead to the fact that an initially complex word is subjected to simplification. In some cases, a more conservative graphic form allows you to restore the motivation lost by the sound image (cupboard, forehead), but more often, the changes also affect the graphics. Thus, the inner form of the words lord, window, daisy, originally motivated morphologically (hlaf + weard, wind + eaze and d?ges + eage, respectively) turns out to be lost.
The reason for the loss of motivation may be the loss of a morpheme from the language (morphological reason). Thus, in the process of development of the morphological structure of the English language, the morphemes tyrel and mere were lost, which led to the loss of the internal form of the words nostril (nase + ?yrel) and mermaid (mere + m?gden).
A special kind of morphological reason for de-etymologization is the “unrecognition” by speakers of the morpheme or morphemes included in the word. From the examples of alphabet and parachute given above, it can be seen that the loss of motivation of a foreign word can occur when it is borrowed into English due to the fact that it loses its connection with other related words (alpha, beta - letters of the Greek alphabet and parer - French. " prevent" + chute - French "fall").
The semantic reason for the loss of motivation can be considered the semantic changes in the components of the word, also occurring in the course of its development. An example of such a loss is the word sweetmeats, in which the second component before the Middle English period meant any food, meal, and only later began to be used in the meaning of "meat", narrowing the scope of its use. The lost motivation of the word spoon can be restored only by referring to the history of this word, which goes back to the common German spon - “stick, sliver”. In a number of cases, deetymologization and, as a result, the “incomprehensibility” of a word to an ordinary native speaker lead to the appearance in the language of a semantic pair with a bright motivation - telegram / wire (motivation is a way of transmitting a message “over the wire”); pseudonym/pen name (motivated by constituents - tracing papers of a foreign word); radio/wireless (internal form describes the feature, signal transmission method), etc.

3.3. False etymologization
The desire of native speakers to restore the lost inner form of the word often leads to false etymologization. Sometimes the results of this process are called folk etymology.
As English researchers J. Greenough and G. Kitteredge write, "words live in groups." False etymology combines in them words that are only partially similar in sound and are related or appear to be related in meaning. Thus, the name of the deer reindeer is explained as a combination of the words rein and deer, i.e. "deer for a team", while the true origin of the word is a combination of Scandinavian hrenn (deer) and Old English deer (animal); Modern English shamefaced is erroneously associated with a state of shame, in fact being a combination of Old English scam (modern modesty) and faest (modern confirmed to). Often, having become entrenched in the linguistic tradition, the result of false etymologization is reflected in the spelling appearance of the word. Literature often cites a legend, or rather a historical anecdote, about a king who once supposedly knighted a lamb saddle (sirloin), which he liked so much during one of the hunting feasts. As you know, the accepted address to the knight is sir; the true origin of the word is an orthographically distorted French surloin ("over the thigh"). The difficulties of the formation of English spelling sometimes led to a false assimilation of words from original words to borrowed ones of the same thematic series. Thus, the spelling of the Old English word rime turned out to be complicated (rhyme) by analogy with the Greek rhythm, and the spelling of the Old French borrowing cisoires changed under the influence of the Latin scissor. “Refined” motivation is received mainly by borrowed words, incomprehensible to the average speaker. In this case, the word "align" by linking it with other words of a similar thematic range. An example of such an “alignment” is the modern English primrose, which goes back to the Latin primerole (primrose), where the second, “incomprehensible” component is replaced in the process of false etymologization with the thematic correspondence “rose”.

Chapter 2
CHANGING THE MEANING OF A WORD
1. The essence of rethinking the meaning of the word
The complexity of the meaning of a word, the obligatory but flexible interconnection of its components - denotation, concept and form - makes it possible to correlate one name with several denotations. The essence of rethinking the meaning of a word is that the name of one denotation extends to another if their concepts are somewhat similar. The word continues to exist in its original form. The development and change in the meaning of a word is influenced both by the laws of the language system and by extralinguistic changes in the life of society. Both of them can be considered both in diachrony and in synchrony; however, given that the moment when a changed meaning enters the language is rarely fixed exactly, and the process of rethinking itself goes on almost continuously in the language, we will not separate one plane from another, noting only that changes in the meaning of a word are determined by the different needs of the linguistic society. Conventionally, they can be divided into two groups - extra-linguistic (events occurring in the life of a linguistic community) and linguistic (associated with processes occurring within the language system). Some linguists especially note the so-called "expressive need", that is, the desire to give any name more imagery. Once again, we note the conditionality and approximateness of such a division, since the rethinking of meaning reflects complex cognitive processes, in which external and internal factors that influence the cognition of reality and the objectification of the formed concepts are also closely intertwined.

2. Extralinguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word
First of all, a change in the meaning of a word is likely when a new denotation appears in the life of society - an object or concept. So, with the development of electrical engineering in the word core (horny capsule containing seeds of apple, pear, etc.) a new component appears that names a new object - bar of soft iron forming center of electromagnet or induction coil. The fire reflector of the fireplace, screen, which received a new function with the advent of the magic lantern, and then the film and television screen, transfers its name to the new concept, thereby changing the scope of the meaning of the word. The most characteristic in this regard is the layer of terminological vocabulary (see, for example, antennae, pilot, cabin, to sail, etc).
A change in the meaning of a word can also be associated with a change in the concept of something that already exists. For example, the concept of a small quantity, conveyed by the word atom, until the 19th century. applied to any objects (an atom of a girl). With the development of physics, the concept of small quantities changes and the word atom acquires a terminological meaning (supposed ultimate particle or matter). The change in the concept of the object of study also led to a change in the meaning of the word probe, originally - "surgical instrument for exploring wound", later - "an instrument for exploring outer space (lunar probe)".
Another reason for changing the meaning of a word is a change in the denotation itself. In modern English, the verb to sail means any smooth movement in space (travel over, glide through), while originally it was associated with sailing (travel on water by use of sails). Changing the way of movement, first by water, and then by land and air, led to a change in the meaning of the verb. A hand mill, mill, with the development of industry turned into a factory building (building fitted with machinery), affecting the meaning of the word. Hospice (house of rest for travelers, esp. one kept by religious order), having changed its function, becomes a place where terminally ill people end their lives.
Among the extralinguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word, it is especially necessary to single out the so-called euphemistic substitutions. Euphemism (Greek eo - “beautiful”, phemo - “I say”) is usually called a more delicate designation of a phenomenon or object that is undesirable for mentioning for moral and ethical reasons. So, instead of the word cancer, rumour, it is preferable to say growth; instead of fatal - inoperable, etc. A large number of euphemisms are used, in particular, to denote death: pass away, perish, join the better, kick the bucket, go to green pastures, etc. As you can easily see, euphemization affects all stylistic levels of speech and is not limited to the selection of a synonymous lexical unit. In the words chosen for these purposes, a new component of meaning appears: pass away - not only to move in space, but also to change the physical state; the better - not only an assessment of the quality of someone, but also an indication that they are dead; etc. Euphemization is often used by journalists to mitigate the effect that certain events of a political, social or commercial nature have on the reader. In this regard, it is impossible not to mention the recently very widespread concept of "political correctness" (political correctness). Ascending, according to the assumption of some researchers, to the expression correct thinking, introduced by Mao Zedong, the phrase from the beginning of the 80s. means "correct", i.e. "reflecting the prevailing opinion", the designation of something. "Political correct" designations are usually required when the topic of conversation concerns issues of race, gender, or social relations. It is very popular to replace the word crisis with the euphemism depression, the words starvation - undernourishment, unemployed - redundant, salary cuts - adjustment, secondhand - pre-owned, etc. By the way, we note that the abuse of euphemisms provokes criticism from the readers themselves: “Government spokesmen talk about REDEPLOYMENT of American troops; they mean WITHDRAWAL. When sociologists refer to BLACKS LIVING IN SLUMS they are likely to mumble something about NON-WHITES IN A CULTURALLY DEPRIVED ENVIRON-MENT" ("Tune").

3. Linguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word
3.1. Reasons for changing the volume of the meaning of the word
During the formation of the modern English language system, the so-called struggle of synonyms was a very urgent problem, when borrowings coming into the English language displaced original or borrowed words that came earlier into another sphere. The result of such a struggle was a change in the semantic structure or stylistic affiliation of both words. This process was especially active in the Middle English period. It was at this time, under the influence of borrowed words, that the original ones often changed their stylistic affiliation. This happened, for example, with the original word foe, which, with the appearance of the borrowing enemi (modern English, enemy), turned out to be forced into the narrow stylistic sphere of poeticisms. Similar examples are the synonymous pairs valley/dale and people/folk, with a more limited use of the latter, primordial component. The struggle of synonyms can also lead to more significant changes in the semantic structure of the word, as happened, for example, with the verb starve, which in the Old English period had the meaning "to die." Under the pressure of the synonym die, its meaning first narrowed down to “die of hunger”, and then changed altogether (modern English - “starve”). Above was an example of a false etymology of the word reindeer, in which the second element in the Old English period meant "animal". Under the influence of the French borrowing animal, the meaning of the original word narrowed down to the designation of one of the types of animal, deer.
Another linguistic reason for changing the meaning of a word is ellipsis, i.e., the reduction of a phrase, in which the so-called semantic condensation occurs - the remaining word absorbs the meaning of the entire combination. A similar phenomenon is observed in the Russian language (cf. A worker (working person) came to the dining room (dining room, room)). Ellipsis examples are numerous: a weekly (paper); a musical (show); (policy of) brinkmanship; (steam) engine, etc. As can be seen from the examples, as a result of the reduction of the phrase, the remaining component, as it were, absorbs the meanings of all the others, often changing even its partial affiliation.
A very similar process occurs when the meaning of a word changes under the influence of a stable combination, a phraseological unit (PU). Standing out from such a unit, the word, as it were, carries away the traces of phraseological meaning. So, in the word brick, the meaning of tactless appears under the influence of the phraseological turnover to drop a brick - to say or do smth tactless; the word chaff (outer part of grain, removed before the grain is used as food) takes on the meaning of “easy trick” in the saying An old bird isn't caught with chaff. Such changes in meaning are not always recorded by dictionaries, since their connection with phraseological units is too rigid and actualization of the meaning takes place in a rather narrow context.Undoubtedly, however, that changes in the total volume of the meaning of a word under the influence of these reasons are quite regular.

3.2. Name transfer - the basis of the value shift
A special place among the linguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word is occupied by a shift in meaning based on the transfer of a name. The possibility of such a transfer lies in the very essence of the meaning of the word, namely, in the flexible connection between its components such as concept and form. In the presence of different denotations, a partial generality of the concept is possible, which is reflected in the use of the old form for it. The types of transfer depend on the type of relationship between the denotation and its name. It is customary to distinguish two main types of such connections - implicative (based on a logical premise, implying, implying a connection between the part and the whole) and qualifying (assuming the presence of a common feature for different denotations). Each of these types combines different types of transfer. Let's consider them in more detail.

3.2.1. Implication type of transfer
The implication type includes such types of transfer as metonymy, synecdoche and conversion, and we should not forget that we are not talking about stylistic devices related to the sphere of speech activity, but about the natural language processes of forming and changing the meaning of a lexical unit.
Metonymic transfer (metonymy - "renaming") implies the existence of a real, and not an imaginary connection between two denotations that are in an adjacency relationship. Spatial relations can be such a connection; in this case, the name of the place refers to people or objects that are permanently there: town (The whole town was asleep); hall (The hall was silent); Whitehall-government; British Government (policy); kettle (The kettle is boiling), etc. The meaning that appeared as a result of metonymic transfer does not necessarily coexist in modern language with direct. For example, the word mint (place where money is coined) goes back to the Old English mynet (money, coin; coinage), in turn borrowed from Latin, where this meaning was also formed by a metonymic transfer of the name of the temple in honor of Juno, nicknamed Moneta, where money was minted . The connection between denotations can be temporary (youth - period of one "s life > a person in this period), express the relationship of material / products from it (cork- outer bark of the tree > a stopper for a bottle; paper - substance manufactured from wood fiber, etc. > a document written on it; etc.) Of course, the adjacency relations between denotations cannot be reduced to the indicated types only and are very diverse.
A variation of metonymy is synecdoche (“co-implying”), a type of transfer in which either the name of the part is used to refer to the whole (the Crown = monarchy), or the specific name replaces the generic name (penny = (a pretty penny) a good sum of money), or the singular form denotes the plural number of denotations (royal horse = cavalry), etc. Usually, two directions of synecdoche action are distinguished - the use of the name of the part instead of the whole (pars pro toto) and the use of the name of the whole instead of the part (totum pars parte), which is much more common less often (lunch - meal taken > (packet lunch) food for the meal).
The implication type of transfer of meaning also includes conversion, which reflects a look at any sign of a denotation from different angles. So, the adjective sad can convey opposite meanings in the sentences It is sad (experiences a state of sadness) and His story is sad (causes a state of sadness). Similar conversion relationships are observed in the transfer of meaning in the verb wear: The coat wears long (the subject is subjected to action) and Not wears a coat (the subject acts).

3.2.2. Transfer qualification type
The qualification type of transfer is based on the presence of a common feature in several denotations and includes metaphor, synesthesia and functional transfer. It is worth recalling once again that we do not mean stylistic devices, the effect of which is limited to the framework of a certain text, but the process of developing the meaning of a word in the language system.
A metaphor (literally, “transfer”) is an association under the common name of several denotations that have a common feature. Metaphorical transfer is clearly seen in the example of the polysemantic word bridge, the meanings of which are united by the common feature smth to join two parts over smth:
1. Structure carrying a road across a river, etc.
2. Platform over and across the deck of a ship.
3. Upper bony part of a nose.
4. Movable part over which the strings of a violin etc. are stretched. Linguistic metaphors are also eye (of a needle), neck (of a bottle), based on the similarity of shape, foot (of a mountain), back (of a boot), similar in their location in relation to the denotation being defined, as well as a number of slang names, for example nut, onion in the meaning of head.
Synesthesia (“sympathy”) combines denotations according to the similarity of their perception by the senses. So, synaesthetic transfer is manifested in the meaning of the adjective soft with its different compatibility:
soft music, voice, whispers - quiet, pleasant to hear, tender;
soft surface, ground, velvet - smooth and delicate, pleasant to touch or walk on.
A more complex example of synesthesia is the figurative meanings of sharp:
sharp voice, sound - piercing, going deep into or through;
sharp feelings, pain, flavor - producing a physical sensation like cutting or piercing;
sharp mind, intelligence - acute, keen, deep.
All these meanings are based on the seme deep (cutting) shared with the direct meaning, as in the expression sharp knife - with a fine cutting edge, not blunt. Interestingly, the complex of figurative meanings of the adjective sharp also includes unscrupulous, not altogether honest (lawyer, practice). Here there is a connection with another component of direct meaning - the quality of a tool that can cause harm or pain. But the nature of the transference changes, pointing not to sympathy, but to the generality of the function of denotations.
The functional transfer of meaning is based precisely on such a generality, when two different denotations receive a common name, since they perform the same or similar function. So, the method of movement turned out to be the same for an insect and for a heavy machine, which was reflected in their common name, caterpillar. Green areas in the city perform the same function as the lungs of a person or animal, and this feature allows us to call them the word - lungs (of a town) in common with the respiratory organs of living beings. Using the example of the adjective sharp, it was clear that a functional transfer can coexist with a metaphorical one in the scope of the meaning of the same word. It is often difficult to separate these types. So, in the word leg, there is undoubtedly a similarity of both form and function: one of the parts of an animal "s or a person" s body; support for (a body, a cover of a table, etc.). Functional commonality combines the meanings of the word stool-pigeon: a) pigeon used as a decoy; b) (fig) person acting as a decoy, e. g. one employed by the police to trap a criminal.
Let us remind once again that linguistic changes in the meaning of a word and speech devices should not be confused, since the former aim to give the denotation a permanent name and are fixed in the language, completely or partially losing motivation. Speech devices serve to create the imagery of a separate text, increasing its expressiveness, and ideally retain their brightness, emphasizing and strengthening the sign of the similarity of denotations (cf., for example, the literary metaphor Not is a regular mouse with the language a leg of a table or the language metonymy the Bar with the literary All the world is a stage).

4. Results of changing the value
All the reasons discussed above lead to a change in the meaning of the word. According to the logical scheme proposed by G. Paul back in the 19th century, a change in meaning can take place in several directions: 1) expansion of meaning; 2) narrowing the meaning; 3) shift (shift or transfer) of value. With the expansion of the meaning, the specific concept inherent in the denotation develops into a generic one, in other words, generalization occurs. The narrowing of the meaning, on the contrary, assumes that the original meaning acts as a generic one, and the changed one - as one of its component species. In modern linguistic literature, the term "specialization", introduced by M. Breal, is more often used, since it more accurately conveys what happens to the original scope of the concept. Changes of the third type (shift (shift, transfer) of value), unlike the first two types, do not go gradually; as a rule, such a transfer is carried out by the speaker consciously. The fixing of the result in the language occurs on the condition that the basis for the transfer is recognized by the linguistic majority, i.e. stable collective associations are formed.
The expansion of the meaning of a word most often occurs when a new denotation appears or a change in the concept of an already existing object, action or phenomenon. The set of semes changes, the subject-logical (denotative) meaning covers a larger circle of referents. For example, the verb to bootleg, originally figuratively describing the smuggling of alcohol into the United States during Prohibition, expanded its meaning (sell alcoholic illegally) to a more general meaning (sell anything illegally). Here, the change in meaning is clearly influenced by external, extralinguistic circumstances reflecting changes in the business. Another example of generalization under the influence of external factors is the development of the meaning of the noun holiday. Initially, d.-a. halig dajg - "a religious feast day", then c.-a. holi day - church festival falling on a week day, the modern word means a broader concept - day of rest from work.
The reason for the expansion of meaning may also be linguistic. Thus, the struggle between the synonyms season and spring led to the expansion of the meaning of season from "part of the year between winter and summer" to "any part of the year".
The same reasons can lead to different results. In particular, the same struggle of synonyms can end up narrowing the meaning of one of them, as happened with the noun affection (originally - any feeling, as a result of the division of "spheres of influence" with the noun feeling - feeling of love) or hound (originally - any dog, later - a certain kind of dog). The narrowing of the meaning of a word is also possible for an extralinguistic reason, for example, when using words of general literary vocabulary in a terminological layer. This is clearly seen in the example of the word atom discussed above.
A shift, or displacement, of a value is observed for the most part when a value is transferred from one denotation to another: beauty - 1) quality; 2) a person of this quality (conversion result). We find a similar change in linguistic metaphors, synecdoche, metonymic transfers, and the results of synesthesia. With a shift, the volume of the meaning remains the same, but is correlated with a different number of denotations. The reasons for the shift can also be non-linguistic. Changes in the concept of something or the appearance of new denotations can lead to a shift in meaning, as happened, for example, with the word caterpillar discussed in the previous paragraph. The displacement of a value can also be accompanied by its narrowing or expansion. For example, d.-a. gebed (“prayer”), with the help of metonymic transfer, acquired in the modern English period the meaning of bead (for counting prayers), which developed the narrowed meaning “small ball of wood, glass, etc with a hole through it, for threading with others on a string or wire".
Another, evaluative result of changing the value may be its deterioration or improvement. In the first case, the neutral designation, for example, of the social status in the word villain (feudal serf, farm-servant), under the influence of public opinion, deteriorated to an evaluative one (person guilty or capable of great wickedness, scoundrel). Another example is the appearance of negative appraisal in the word boor. Initially, this German word meant only a peasant (a peasant, farmer). Already by the beginning of the early New English period, it was used in the meaning of "illiterate, dull or insensitive peasant", and in the modern dictionary we find the definition of boor as "a rude, ill-mannered person". The opposite result of the development of meaning is observed in the words urbane (initially the same as modern urban - living or situated in town, then - courteous, elegant, or refined in manner), marshal (servant looking after horses - general officer of highest rank), nice (d.-a. - foolish, c.-a. - pleasant), etc. It is interesting to compare the multidirectional processes in the development of the semantics of the words boy and knave.
Knave, Dr.-a. cnafa, c.-a. knave is a native English word that originally had an evaluatively neutral meaning "a male infant, a boy, or youth" (cf. modern German Knabe with this meaning). In parallel, the meaning “a boy or lad employed as servant”, “a stable boy, groom; a cook "s servant" and, accordingly, "a man low in rank or position". By the end of the Middle English period, it is this last meaning that becomes predominant, which quite soon leads, under the influence of social relations, to the appearance and consolidation in the language of the meaning "rogue, unprincipled man" Traces of the original meaning are preserved only in the use of the word knave for the name of a playing card.Thus, we observe a clear deterioration in the meaning of the word knave.
A similar process, but with the opposite result, is seen in the semantic history of the word boy. In the Middle English period, boi(e), like knave, is used to denote a servant (servant, person of low frank and position) and can be used in the sense of "a person lacking refinement, an ordinary fellow". Later, however, the word boy loses its negative meaning and in the modern language fixes only the neutral meaning "a youth, a male child". Obviously, here we can talk about improving the value.
Thus, under the influence of reasons of both linguistic and extralinguistic properties, meaning can change both quantitatively and qualitatively. The soundographic complex has a connection with several denotations, its variants accumulate in the volume of the meaning of the word, which leads to the appearance of ambiguity (polysemy).

Chapter 3
POLYSEMY (POLYSEMY) OF WORDS
1. The concept of polysemy

Polysemy, or polysemy, of a word (from the Latin poly - “many” + sema - “sign”) is the presence of more than one meaning in a language unit, subject to a semantic connection between them or the transfer of common or related features or functions from one denotation to another. Polysemy can be both grammatical and lexical. An example of the first is the polysemy of the 2nd person singular of Russian verbs: “You won’t understand this” and “You won’t understand anything here” or the article the in English, which performs both clarifying (The tiger was old) and generalizing (The tiger is a cat-like animal) function. Lexical polysemy can be defined as "the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality" (LES). Polysemy is a linguistic universal in the system of European languages. It is based on the asymmetry of the linguistic sign and reflects the principle of saving formal means while conveying the maximum semantic volume. Monosemia, i.e., the presence of a single meaning in a language unit, is not typical for the language as a whole. Mostly terms are unambiguous, if they are not formed by transfer from units of the literary language, or words borrowed from other languages ​​to denote exotic objects (igloo, koala). However, in these areas, too, the development of a new meaning is quite often observed. So, one and the same term can be ambiguous even within the same terminological system. In linguistics, the term “conversion” serves as such an example, denoting both “the formation of a new word by translating a given stem into another paradigm of inflection”, and “one of the two opposed properties that make up this category”. The term "robot" in recent years with the development of computer technology has also acquired a new meaning - "a user who is actually a programme" (an auxiliary user program). Also, the exotic word kangaroo is not unambiguous - at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in the scope of its meaning was the slang "a all thin man, especially ill-shaped and round-shouldered". The existence of the very principle of saving language resources arises from the discrepancy between the amount of human memory and the amount of information being mastered. G. Warrell (N. Warrel) in his book "Science of Human Behavior" (Warrel, 1962) cites the following data: the 500 most common words of the English language convey more than 10,000 meanings, and the more common the word, the more developed the system of its derived meanings . According to other estimates, there are on average up to 25 meanings per one English word. In a speech act, an utterance, one of these meanings is used. The choice of the right one is prompted by the environment of the word in a particular speech act, in other words, polysemy is neutralized by the context.

1.1. Polysemy and broad meaning
From the concept of polysemy it is necessary to distinguish the concept of "broad meaning". The term was introduced by N. N. Amosova; along with it in the literature there is its foreign language equivalent, "eurysemia". Some authors, such as D. N. Shmelev, speak of the “most common lexical meanings” of a word. As we have already seen, a polysemantic word has several meanings in the language. In terms of speech use, the choice of one of the meanings is facilitated by the context. A broad word, on the other hand, is unambiguous out of context, but this single meaning corresponds to several different objects of thought. The word, therefore, has a broad semantic reference, its conceptual volume is large, and the specific content is specified (but does not change!) in the conditions of speech, i.e., in the context. Let us explain what has been said with examples.
The verb take has one meaning out of context, lay hold of smth, “initiation of an object”, which is specified in speech: take smth from the table - lay hold of smth with the hands; take advantage - use; take smb. else "s hat - borrow without permission; take smb home - carry, consider; take a cup of tea - eat, drink; take notes - make a record of smth; take smb for a fool - suppose, etc. Easy to notice that all these specified meanings are variations of the general broad, and their implementation depends on the context and proceeds in the same way as in the case of a polysemantic word.In fact, the general broad meaning in the verb take remains unchanged, only the method or result of "incorporation" in depending on the combination in which the verb is used.
The narrowing of specific content is also characteristic of broad-meaning nouns. For example, the noun thing has the general broad meaning "any material or non-material object". In the context of the utterance, the word falls into combinations that clarify this broad meaning: swimming things - belongings; there "s an-other thing I would like to ask you about - there"s another subject...; That only makes things worse - circumstances; You take things too seriously - events, circumstances. Context can heighten emotional connotations (sweet little thing - a
darling) or stylistically move the word (see, for example, the slang usage of this noun in the speech of Holden Caulfield, the hero of J. Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye").

1.2. Polysemy and context
1.2.1. General definition of context

As mentioned above, the choice of the necessary part of the volume of the meaning of a polysemantic word occurs in speech conditions, depending on the context (Latin contextus - “connection, connection”). If you try to combine the numerous definitions of the context given by different authors, you get a short formula proposed by I. G. Torsueva: “Context is a fragment of a text minus the unit being defined” (Torsueva, 1990). A text fragment, of course, must include the unit being defined, making up its left and right surroundings, be necessary and sufficient to determine the meaning, and must not contradict the general meaning of the text. However, even in such a detailed form, the definition of the context does not cover all the conditions in which the scope of the meaning of a polysemantic word can be specified. The explanations offered by some reference books (for example, “context is the consideration of units of the same type in relation to the units of the same type compared to them in time or space” or “conditions, features of the use of these elements in speech”) seem rather vague. The most detailed and consistent, in our opinion, is N. N. Amosova’s theory of context. In short, it boils down to the following: a polysemantic word, semantically realized in speech, is the core around which there are indicator units, i.e., an index minimum of the environment that helps to make the right choice. The context, according to Amosova, is a combination of the core and indicators that mutually influence each other (compare with the definition of the context given by F. A. Litvin - “information about other elements of the speech statement known to the addressee from the code”). Depending on the nature of the indicators, several types of context can be distinguished. First of all, this is a group of linguistic types: lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical types. We will look at them in more detail below. The second group of context types is extralinguistic conditions in which speech takes place. If, in the presence of a linguistic context, the indicators are in the text itself and are necessarily represented by linguistic units, then in a non-linguistic context, the meaning is realized due to something outside the text. To describe the conditions of a speech act that are not expressed materially, N. N. Amosova uses the term "speech situation", offering such varieties as "life situation", "descriptive situation" and "thematic or plot situation".
Of course, the influence of the entire speech segment and the conditions of its use on the choice of the necessary part of the volume of the meaning of a polysemantic word is not so linear. That is why in the literature you can find a huge number of typologies and classifications of the context that arise depending on the goals of each researcher. So, it is customary to single out micron macrocontext, where microcontext is the minimum environment of the unit plus additional coding in the form of associations, connotations, etc., and macrocontext is the environment of the unit, which allows you to establish its function in the text as a whole. They also talk about explicit (explicit) verbal and non-verbal and implied (implicit) contexts; according to the functional principle, allowing, repaying, compensating and other types of context are distinguished. In O. S. Akhmanova we find an indication of such types of context as everyday, theatrical, toponymic, metaphorical; the context is treated in a very special way in the theory of literature and studies on aesthetics. Our tasks do not include a complete study of this complex problem, therefore, we will restrict ourselves to describing the conditions for removing polysemy, relying on the theory of N. N. Amosova and her later developments.

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USSR Ministry of Higher Education

as a teaching aid

for pedagogical institutes

and faculties of foreign languages
PUBLISHING HOUSE OF LITERATURE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Moscow 1959

From the author

The linguistic material presented in the book is partly drawn from Soviet and foreign lexicological and lexicographic literature, and partly is the result of the author's own observations. The book uses material from a number of dissertations defended in recent years, in particular doctoral dissertations by V.A. Zvegintseva and E.I. Klimenko and candidate dissertations of N.G. Guterman, N.I. Eremeeva, S.A. Kostenko, L.V. Malakhovskiy, O.A. Melnik, N.G. Oleksenko, O.S. Simonova and others.

The presentation of the course is illustrated by literary examples, taken mainly from English literature of the 20th century, since the author sought to describe the vocabulary of the English language in its current state. Translation is not given for all examples, because it is assumed that the reader already has a considerable vocabulary and some translation skills.

Considering it very important to teach the student to reason independently, comparing different points of view, and to draw their own conclusions and generalizations, the author sought to show the problems of lexicology, and not be limited to the most common point of view on certain issues. At the same time, a complete critical coverage of all debatable issues in a textbook is impossible and unnecessary. The main difficulty, therefore, was not to overload the textbook with excessive polemics and theorizing, on the one hand, and not to fall into dogmatism, on the other.

The textbook is a revision of a course of lectures on the lexicology of modern English, read by the author at the 2nd Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages ​​and at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A.I. Herzen. In creating the course, the author owes a lot to Assoc. I.P. Ivanova, whose lectures on the lexicology of the English language he happened to listen to.

The author considers it his duty to express his heartfelt gratitude to all his comrades at work, who rendered him great help during the discussion of the first edition of the book, and especially to Prof. B.A. Ilyish and candidates of philological sciences V.G. Vilyuman and N.G. Guterman.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Subject and sections of lexicology. 2. Tasks of lexicology and its methodological base. 3. Literature on the lexicology of modern English. 4. The place of lexicology among other linguistic disciplines, the connection between vocabulary and grammar. 5. The value of lexicology in the practice of teaching foreign languages

1. Subject and sections of lexicology

§ one. Each language is characterized by its own special grammatical structure, a special vocabulary and a special sound system, which constitute its main three sides, each subject to independent theoretical research.

The study of the three sides of the language developed unevenly. Before others began to study the grammatical structure. Since ancient times and until very recently, practical rules and scientific laws were established only for grammatical phenomena, and therefore there has long been a false idea that the main theoretical problem of a language is the study of its grammatical structure. Some information about the vocabulary and sound system was included in the grammar as secondary parts. Only in the 19th century did a deeper study of these latter make it possible to single out lexicology and phonetics as independent branches of linguistics.

At present, the science of language has sufficient data to, in accordance with the three main aspects of the language, consider the theory of each individual modern language as consisting of three main parts: grammar, lexicology and phonetics.

Lexicology (from Greek lexis word, lexicos verbal and logos teaching) - department of linguistics, and studying the word and vocabulary of the language. The vocabulary of any language is the totality of all words and equivalents of words in this language. Word equivalents are understood as stable combinations, which, like words, are not created anew in speech, but are introduced into it in finished form.

The terms "lexicon" and "lexicology" should not be confused. Vocabulary is a collection of words, for example, the vocabulary of a language or some part of it, and lexicology is a science that studies vocabulary.

§ 2. Lexicology, as the science of the word and the vocabulary of any language, is part of general linguistics. The specifics of the vocabulary of each individual language is considered by the private lexicology of this language. This course outlines the lexicology of modern English, i.e. private lexicology. Each private lexicology is based on the provisions of general lexicology, therefore, in the first chapters of the course, some general lexicological problems are considered, namely: the theory of the word, and the main provisions of the science of the meaning and semantic structure of the word - semasiology.

The lexicology of each language, including English, can be divided into historical lexicology, which considers the origin and development of its vocabulary, and descriptive lexicology of the modern language, which studies its vocabulary at a given historical stage of its development in all its originality, which distinguishes it from the vocabulary of other languages. .

It should be taken into account that the vocabulary of the modern language exists as a system of interdependent and interrelated elements that develops over time. Consequently, it can only be understood in view of this development. Therefore, although the descriptive lexicology of modern English has its own special tasks, different from those of historical lexicology, it still cannot exist in isolation from this latter. For these reasons, in this course of descriptive lexicology of modern English, not only the current state of its vocabulary is considered, but also, in part, the ways of its formation.

The study and description of a language system at a certain stage of its development is called synchronic study, the study of the historical development of its elements is called diachronic. The correct distinction between synchrony and diachrony and the choice of a rational relationship between them is of great importance for any linguistic research.

Consideration of the vocabulary of the modern English language as a system characterized by certain specific features and developing over time includes a description of various types of words and ways of their formation, a description of word equivalents, i.e. various stable combinations; description of the fate of foreign borrowings and their role in enriching the vocabulary of the English language; analysis of various lexical groups and layers in modern English: book and colloquial vocabulary, terms, slang words, neologisms, archaisms, etc. and, finally, an analysis of the semantic relationships between words (synonyms and antonyms).

As is well known, English vocabulary has received a detailed description in numerous and varied dictionaries. Familiarization with rich English lexicography and an understanding of the principles of compiling dictionaries are therefore also indispensable when studying the vocabulary of the English language.

It should be noted that lexicology does not equally study all the words of a given language in general, but pays primary attention to the so-called significant words. Significant words include words that name objects and phenomena of objective reality, their signs and actions. For example: child, face, pen, big, new, nice, past, look, love, mean, well. Service words denote relationships and connections between objects and phenomena. These include prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and connective verbs, particles. The difference between significant and functional words will be considered in detail by us in Chapter IV; here it suffices to point out that significant words necessarily have one or more lexical meanings, and in functional words the lexical meaning is subordinate to the grammatical meaning, often, although not always, weakened, and in some cases may be completely absent (as, for example, in the infinitive particle to). Therefore, service words are considered mainly in grammar, and lexicology focuses on significant or, as they are also called, full-meaning words.

2. Tasks of lexicology and its methodological base

§ 3. The tasks of the lexicology of modern English, built on the methodological basis of Marxist-Leninist philosophy, are to establish, on the basis of an in-depth and comprehensive study of specific facts of vocabulary: a general characteristic of the current state of the vocabulary of the English language, its specific features and structural models of its constituent words; productive and unproductive types and means of word formation in modern English; the systemic nature of the English vocabulary and the patterns that determine its national identity.

In each of these problems there are a lot of unresolved issues, the study of which has only just begun, many sections are still waiting for their inquisitive researchers. The least studied is the last of the problems listed above, namely the problem of consistency, which attracts more and more attention of scientists both here and abroad. Of great importance for the solution of this problem is the teaching of Marxist dialectics on the universal connection and interdependence of phenomena. Lexicology has to reveal both intra-linguistic and extra-linguistic connections of words.

§ 4. Since language is the direct reality of thought, the vocabulary of a language is inextricably linked with thinking and, like thinking, develops in connection with the development of society and, therefore, must be studied in connection with the history of society.

Each word of a language is a generalized reflection of a piece of reality, and it is impossible to understand the changes taking place in it without knowing those changes in the social system, production, culture, science or everyday life that it reflects.

So, for example, from the history of the language it is known that English. farm OE feorm comes from the Latin word firmus strong and is therefore a doublet for the adjective firm, which retained the meaning that this word had in Latin. But how to explain the emergence of a new meaning? The answer to this question can be obtained if we take into account the historical conditionality of the change in the meaning of this word. It turns out that in popular Latin the word firma meant fixed, fixed payment and from here land rent, then - rent or give away the land Further - leased land and necessary buildings on it and finally dwelling of the tenant and of every farmer in general. Knowledge of the history of land relations helps to understand the evolution of the word, because. the change in meaning is historically conditioned.

The word town in OE and Middle English. meant first fenced area, homestead, feudal estate and later became village, city. Its German counterpart is Zaun - fence, and Russian, perhaps tyn. The change in meaning will become clear if we remember that the early Middle Ages did not know cities in the full sense of the word. Cities arose from fortified, walled settlements that served as the residences of feudal lords, but otherwise did not differ much from the village.

The above examples illustrate the extralinguistic relationships of words.

§ 5. Lexicology also explores intralinguistic connections.

The forms of the linguistic connection of words are extremely diverse and manifest themselves, for example, in speech - as a dependence of the meaning of a word on the context and grammatical structures, in vocabulary - as a dependence of the meanings of words on the meanings of other words of the same semantic group or synonyms. All words of the language are connected with each other and with other aspects of the language by a variety of threads and represent a single whole - the lexical system of the language. Everything new in the language often causes a redistribution of the meaning of the word. Because words and the changes occurring in them cannot develop as single and independent of each other. When considering lexical units, it is necessary to take into account their dependence on other words and their own influence on other words.

A typical manifestation of the systematic nature of vocabulary is, for example, the rearrangements that also took place in the global composition of the English language in connection with borrowings. So, if in other English. the word haerfest (modern harve t, cp. German Herbst autumn) mattered: autumn, harvest, harvest, then, starting from the end of the XIV century, its main meaning becomes harvest; meaning autumn disappears because shortly before this, the word of the Roman root autumne >n.-a. is borrowed. autumn, which, having firmly entered the English language, demarcated from its synonym heruest in meanings, so that in modern English harvest means only harvest and harvest as a result of this cleaning.

Dictionaries provide, so to speak, an inventory of the vocabulary of a language. Lexicology must give a description of his system. The systemic nature of the vocabulary of a language is due to its main function as a means of communication, it is necessary for the language to be understandable and serve to communicate thoughts and feelings.

§6. So, the main methodological principles on which this course is based is the consideration of the vocabulary of the English language in its national identity, in its development, in its conditionality by the history of the English people, on the one hand, and the whole structure of the English language, on the other. The task of lexicology is to establish the causes of each lexical phenomenon, determine its place in the language system and reveal the objective patterns to which it is subject.

Since the vocabulary of a language exists and gradually develops over time, there are always new, emerging, obsolete and dying phenomena in it, and they are typical for a given era of its development. Therefore, the synchronic description of the English vocabulary system should be carried out taking into account diachrony, i.e. the evolution of the entire lexical system over time and the trends of its further changes.

3. Literature on the lexicology of modern English

§ 7. The science of vocabulary - lexicology arose on the basis of the real needs of the language practice of society, especially lexicography, literary creativity, literary criticism and the development of scientific terminology. The doctrine of the word and its meaning developed within the framework of philosophy. Questions of the theory of the word, the connection between the name and the signified have been throughout the history of philosophy one of the important elements of the problem of the relationship of thinking to being, and therefore turned out to be key issues in the struggle between materialistic and idealistic trends in philosophy.

The lexicology of the English language as a whole is a little developed area, although there is a rather extensive literature on certain issues in Russian and English, as well as in German, French, Danish and other languages. Much attention is paid to vocabulary in works on the history of the English language, although the leading place in them, as a rule, is occupied by historical phonetics and morphology.

The etymological composition of the English vocabulary, i.e. the origin of words is the subject of the fundamental work of a prominent representative of the older generation of English philologists Walter Skeat, the compiler of the most famous English etymological dictionary. 12

As mentioned above, lexicology has been part of grammar for a very long time, as its integral part. In particular, grammarians dwell on word formation, which is quite understandable, since this latter is essentially a border area between grammar and lexicology. In particular, the problem of word formation is analyzed in great detail in one of the books of the multi-volume work of the famous Danish linguist Otto Jespersen and in the book of the English grammarian Henry Suit. 3 The work of the German scientist Herbert Kotsiol, specially devoted to word formation in the English language and containing very rich factual material, is very famous. 4

The principles of considering lexical phenomena naturally changed in connection with the change in the general theoretical views of linguists. In the 19th century, the attention of vocabulary researchers focused on the morphological, phonetic, and semantic changes that occur in individual words and on the causes of these changes, which were seen in phenomena of an extralinguistic order. Thus, representatives of the school “Words and Things” (“Sachen und Wörter”) founded by the Austrian scientist Schuchardt were mainly interested in the emergence of new words in connection with a change in the culture and way of life of the people. Representatives of the neo-grammatical direction interpreted changes in the vocabulary as a set of losses and additions due to individual psychological factors. In the field of semantics, the main attention was paid to the classification of types of change in meaning, their causes and the conditions under which they occur. In the 20th century, after the works of the Swiss scientist F. de Saussure 1 , who proposed the separation of the historical study of language (diachrony) from the study of the static state of the language system, in which all elements are interconnected and interdependent (synchrony), various schools and directions appeared that set as their task the study of language only in synchronic terms and in the system. 2

In Soviet linguistics, both the confusion of descriptive and historical linguistics and the gap between them have been overcome, and the vocabulary is considered as a kind of system operating at a given historical stage, which, however, is in a state of continuous development.

There are many monographic works and dissertations written by Soviet, English, American, French, German and Danish scientists and devoted to various individual problems of the development of the vocabulary of the English language, for example: borrowings, word formation, semantics (i.e. changing the meanings of words, polysemy, classification of types of change in meaning) and even the history of individual words or groups of words.

As for general works on the lexicology of modern English, such works are not numerous and are of a rather elementary nature. Such, for example, are the well-known books of the pioneer of English lexicology Trench, Greenough and Kitridge, McKnight, Partridge, Weekly, Sherd and many others. 3

These works provide a lot of valuable factual material, but for all their entertainment they cannot satisfy the Soviet reader due to some methodological shortcomings common to all of them, namely:

1) They deny the regularity in the development of vocabulary and ignore the consistency and national identity of the language, including on equal grounds the changes that took place in the word in the English language and beyond. They consider the history of a language mainly as an accumulation of separate interesting or amusing facts, and limit themselves to stating them. This is confirmed even by the titles that the authors give to their books: E. Partridge - "The Fun of Word History", E. Weekley "The Romance of Words".

2) They distort the connection between the history of the language and the history of society, put the development of the dictionary in connection with the history of culture, but little connect it with the economic and political life of the people, exaggerate the importance of the individual psychological factor.

3) They reduce the process of enriching the vocabulary of the language to the penetration of all kinds of foreign borrowings into it, and when studying, from which this or that word got into the language, not paying attention to the features of its assimilation in the language that borrowed it.

§ eight. The vocabulary of the modern English language and its formation are increasingly attracting the attention of Soviet scientists. Over the past two or three years, a number of textbooks and monographs on the lexicology of modern English have come out of print. 4 Individual phenomena and lexical groups are studied and described in numerous dissertations.

Abroad, lexicology is currently being developed little. Among the sciences into which modern descriptive linguistics of the American school breaks up, lexicology is not mentioned at all. Its place is taken by lexicography, which is understood as a science that registers and describes all the meaningful elements of the language system and indicates their meaning. In this case, the significant elements of the language include not only words, as they are usually included in dictionaries, but also all morphemes and all indicators of grammatical gender, number, case and tense. one

4. Place of lexicology among other linguistic disciplines

§ nine. The objective connections of the word with other aspects of the language and with the phenomena of reality named in it determine the connection of the science studying it with other branches of knowledge as linguistic, i.e. with grammar, phonetics, language history and stylistics, as well as non-linguistic ones: philosophy, psychology, history of the native speaker of a given language.

The doctrine of the word is an essential part of general linguistics, where the word is no longer considered in relation to any particular language, but in a generalized way, i.e. as the basic unit of the language, which has all the properties that are indicated by the classics of Marxism-Leninism for the language as a whole.

Like a language, a word has both an external sound side and a meaning. The communicative function of language, i.e. its ability to serve as a means of communication is provided by the nominative function of the word, i.e. the ability of the word to name objects, phenomena and connections of reality.

The expressive function of the language, i.e. its ability to form and express a thought corresponds to the significative function of the word, i.e. its ability to reinforce the concept.

Being the most mobile part of the language, the vocabulary, as well as the entire language, was created by the entire course of the centuries-old history of society and reflects not only social changes, as N.Ya. Marr and other vulgarizers of Marxism, but also the history of culture, production, everyday life, because the vocabulary is directly related to all, without exception, spheres of human activity.

It goes without saying that the most intensive changes in the vocabulary occur during periods of major socio-political events and under their influence. But it does not follow from this that only a change in social formations, revolutions and wars lead to the creation of new words and changes in the vocabulary. The emergence of neologisms can be, for example, the result of such insignificant facts as changing the fashion of clothes.

In addition, the vocabulary serves to satisfy the needs of the whole society, and not one of its classes, so words that originally arose in one social group may later become more widely used. Such, for example, is the fate of many military terms: alarm anxiety, originating from the Italian all "arme to arms; attack, battle, brigade, expedition, salary; pioneer from french pionnier infantryman, sapper, clearing the way for the army by building roads and bridges, and many other words were originally military terms, and then entered the general literary language, denoting concepts that had nothing to do with war.

§ ten. Relationship between lexicology and grammar. As already mentioned above, lexicology has only relatively recently emerged from grammar as an independent discipline. The close connection between grammar and lexicology is due to the inextricable and diverse connection of the objects they study.

By itself, the vocabulary does not yet constitute a language: words are combined and formed in speech according to the laws of grammar of a given language. Isolated words are found only in the dictionary or in the textbook, but even there they are usually grammatically designed, because. presented in the original, basic forms of parts of speech. For example: teacher is a singular and common noun.

The manifestations of the connection between vocabulary and grammar are very diverse and only the main cases will be considered below.

§ eleven. Although a word in English may be devoid of grammatical design, being isolated, in speech it always performs a certain grammatical function, which often affects its meaning. The meaning of a word that has changed in connection with its grammatical function is called the grammatically related meaning of the word.

It is very convenient to explain this provision using the example of the verb to go. Its main meaning go changes if it is used in a long aspectual-temporal form followed by an infinitive; in this case it means going to and conveys a temporary meaning: I am going to be gone a long time. I'm going to be away for a long time. In the participle form II with the same auxiliary verb to go means disappear, be absent the gardens are gone the gardens have disappeared, the gardens are no more.

§ 12. Lexicology and grammar are especially closely intertwined in the field of word formation.

All changes in the vocabulary occur in accordance with the peculiarities of the grammatical structure of a given language. So, for example, the predominantly analytical nature of the structure of the English language contributed to the strong development of conversion, constituent parts of speech and stable combinations in it.

§ thirteen. To form new words, the language constantly uses the same methods as for the formation of grammatical forms of words, namely: the connection of words, the addition of morphemes and the change in the vowel of the root (see table 1).

Table 1

The commonality of methods of word and form formation
Way	word formation	shaping
Word connection	will + power = willpower (Compound word)	will + work = (he) will work (Future tense)
Joining morphemes	power + ful = powerful (derivative)	work + ed = (he) worked (Past tense)
Root vowel change	food (n) - to feed (v)(Distinguishing parts of speech)	foot (sing.) feet (plur.)(Distinguishing number)

At the same time, the affixes involved in word formation according to the type of derivation, i.e. additions of morphemes often turn out to be homonymous with grammatical affixes. (See Table No. 2 , where the most typical examples are given).

table 2

Homonymy of suffixes of word and form formation

Suffix	Its use
	in word formation	in shaping
-er	Suffix of the name of the noun denoting the figure: teacher, singer	Comparative suffix for adjectives: longer, shorter
-ing	Noun suffix: farthing, herring, building	Participle suffix I and gerund: standing, breaking
-ed	Suffix for adjectives, mostly compound ones: long-legged, knot-ted, black-haired	Past tense and participle suffix II of standard verbs: loved
-en	Suffix of adjectives denoting material: wooden, golden and causative verbs: strengthen, lengthen	Participle suffix II: taken, broken Plural suffix: oxen

§ fourteen. Sometimes it happens that a form, which at first was only an exponent of grammatical meaning, and then served as the basis for the emergence of a new grammatically connected meaning in a word, is fixed in this new nominative function as a separate word, in the end, as it were, breaks away from the system of grammatical forms into which entered, and already conveys only the lexical meaning. Such new meanings have evolved into the plural form of some nouns. For example: arm hand, arms weapon; authority authority; authorities authorities; board board, boards scaffolding, stage; boot boot, boots corridor; class Class, classes lessons; custom custom, customs customs; look sight, looks appearance; manner way, manners behavior, morals; picture painting, pictures cinema; work Job, works plant.

“And even the Boots were not up when our alarm went. The shoes stood on parade all down the corridor...” (Gr. Greene) - “Even the bellboy had not yet got up when our alarm clock rang. Shoes stood along the entire corridor. The bellboy in English hotels is metonymically called Boots because it is his duty to clean the boots of the guests. The suffix -s is no longer associated with a grammatical difference in the forms of the same word boot, but expresses a lexical meaning, creates another, new word, homonymous to the plural form. One of the word forms comes off and is thus isolated into an independent lexical unit, i.e. lexicalization of the inflectional suffix takes place.

In other cases, the presence of two forms for expressing one grammatical meaning leads to a demarcation of lexical meanings or a stylistic delimitation, for example: the parallel existence of an archaic and a new plural form of nouns, as in brothers and brethren.

The two plural forms of the word genius mean: geniuses brilliant people, genius geniuses(good spirits). Antenna (pl. antennae) is a natural science term and means insect antennae, antennas radio antennas.

§ fifteen. The connection between the grammatical structure and the vocabulary of the language appears especially clearly if we consider them in the process of development.

Each language has its own system of means for expressing grammatical categories, and these means partly go back to lexical units. This happens because, in search of ways to express itself, a new emerging grammatical category sometimes turns to vocabulary.

So, for example, it is the lexical meaning of the verbs sculan (shall) should and willan (will) to want allowed them to become auxiliary verbs expressing the future tense, after which they largely lost their original lexical meaning.

The extreme generalization of the lexical meaning of the verb do allowed it to become an auxiliary verb involved in the formation of interrogative and negative forms of simple tenses.

The formation in the Early New English period of many verbs as connectives, i.e. their transition from the category of significant words to the category of service words is also associated with the generalization of their meanings. Such verbs as fall, get, grow, keep, etc., combined with adjectives, participles, gerunds and infinitives, due to the uncertainty of their lexical meaning, are firmly semantically combined with the second element of the phrase, which clarifies them. It is natural at the same time that the verbs denoting a change of place fall, turn, etc. become spokesmen for an initiatory look: to fall to talking - to speak. to fall lame limp to turn pale turn pale and verbs expressing the preservation of some state, such as keep, remain begin to convey the meaning of "long form": to keep coming constantly come; to remain sitting keep sitting.

In every language there are words that are used either to express lexical or grammatical meanings, i.e. sometimes as significant, sometimes as service.

For example:

Here the verb have appears once in its lexical meaning have and twice only as an auxiliary verb to form the perfect.

§ sixteen. Relationship between lexicology and phonetics. Language does not exist without sounds. Therefore, phonetics, as the doctrine of the sound system and sound changes in the language, is closely related to lexicology. Expression of meaning in a word is carried out with the help of sound means due to the articulation of speech, depends on the phonemic composition of the word, the sequence of phonemes and stress: cf. ten, name, ´present, and men, mane, pre´sent.

The semantic effect of longitude, brevity and sound quality is easy to show in the following phraseological units: a sheep among wolves sheep among wolves(about a gullible man who finds himself among dangerous people), and a great ship asks deep waters a big ship requires deep waters, those. big ship big sailing. It is easy to imagine how the meaning of both figurative expressions will be distorted if in the first case you pronounce vowel No. 2, and in the second No. 1: [∫p], [∫i:p]

§ 17. Each language has its own peculiarities of separability of a word according to phonetic features. The beginning and, in particular, the end of a word can be characterized by certain features, for example, the use, or vice versa, the non-use of any sounds or sound combinations. So, in English, [ŋ] cannot occur at the beginning of a word, but [h], [w], [r] at the end. An English word cannot begin with the combinations: , , [∫l], [θl], and in general cannot be combined with sonorous plus noisy combinations. 1 Since these features are directly related to the definition of the boundaries of the word, they cannot but be of interest to the lexicologist.

§ eighteen. Connection of lexicology with historical phonetics and history of language. Although the vocabulary of the modern language is the product of a number of epochs, at the same time, as already mentioned above, it is the most mobile and changeable element of the language, most quickly reflecting the changes taking place in the history of the people. The history of vocabulary is both an important part of the history of the language and the foundation of lexicology. Regular or regular sound correspondences between the individual stages of development of each language make it possible to restore those elements or words from which the word historically arose, and the study of language monuments and comparison of the contexts in which the word under study occurs help to restore the history of the word's meanings.

From the history of the language, for example, we learn that coup. English teach learn goes back to OE, tæcan direct, direct, whence as a derived value arises teach 2 . Historical phonetics supports this etymology, indicating that one of the sources of the modern English phoneme is the Middle English long open [ё], which also has several sources and, in particular, the long open Old English [æ], which narrowed into [ё] in the Middle English period. It is these vowels that we find in successive changes in the word teach.

Considering the evolution of consonants, it is necessary to take into account that sibilants were absent in Old English. The process of their formation ended only in the XI century. The hissing phoneme arose from the middle language, which was in certain positional conditions, and was depicted by the digraph ch. Hence: teach
§ nineteen. Phonetic changes in words often lead to their morphological rearrangement. Thus, for example, a number of phonetic processes caused fundamental changes in the structural features of the English word. Phonetic destruction of endings has led to the fact that the stem and even the root of the English word coincide in sound form with the word itself and that words formed from the same root and belonging to different parts of speech can coincide in sound form. Wed English saga, P. saga, with. and Russian: care, take care.

Many phenomena in the vocabulary of modern English can only be explained with the help of the facts of the history of the language. For example, changing the root vowel when forming verbs from adjectives and nouns: full, a. - fill, v.; food, P. - feed, v.

§ 20. connection with style. Lexicology is closely related to stylistics. The same thought can be expressed in different ways and get different shades of meaning depending on the conditions of communication, on the attitude of the speaker to the subject of the statement and to the interlocutor, on what kind of reaction they want to evoke in the listener. The upbeat poetic farewell, formerly solemn but now only playful adieu, neutral good-bye, familiar colloquial ta-ta and colloquial so-long mean the same thing, i.e. all of them are an expression of farewell greetings, but they are completely unequal stylistically.

Stylistics, as a science about the methods and ways of selecting and using the expressive means of a language, which can be lexical, grammatical and phonetic, should be based on the sciences that are specifically involved in the study of these means themselves, i.e. on lexicology, grammar and phonetics.

Both lexicology and stylistics pay much attention to the figurative use of words (metaphor, metonymy, etc.). But lexicology is interested in such phenomena as a means of forming new words and the reason for the development of polysemy, and stylistics studies figurative usage as figurative usage of words in the analysis of the form of a work of art.

The section of vocabulary has long occupied one of the first places in stylistics, and just as some parts of lexicology used to be part of grammar, its other sections, in particular the doctrine of synonyms, stood out precisely from stylistics.

5. The value of lexicology in the practice of teaching foreign languages

Section 21. The practical significance of lexicology for teaching foreign languages ​​is that it helps to more rationally select the vocabulary, group and systematize the lexical material to be learned, show the connections between words, thereby facilitating their understanding and memorization.

Knowledge of lexicology helps the teacher systematically and consistently reveal the features of the words of a foreign language in comparison with the words of their native language. For example, to indicate discrepancies in the meaning system, different compatibility of the corresponding words, differences in the morphological structure, show the features of the use of synonyms, give their stylistic characteristics, show similarities and differences in the form and meaning of international words. All this helps to avoid literalism in translation, allows you to implement the principle of consciousness in learning.

When reading and translating a text, the teacher should draw students' attention to the ambiguity of words and teach them to choose the right meaning on their own, depending on the lexical and grammatical context. To do this, students need to be given some information about phraseology, the role of postpositions and prepositions, grammatically and lexically related meanings, etc. In some cases, it is useful to reveal the motivation of a word, as this may help to remember it.

Lexicology also turns out to be necessary in the analysis of the language, analyzed literary works. So, for example, in order to convey to students Dickens' humor, often built on the basis of a discrepancy between the form of expression and the essence of what is being expressed, the teacher must be familiar with the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary.

When reading and interpreting poetic works, the teacher indicates which words are used in their direct meaning, which are figurative, what is the stylistic and emotional coloring of the words chosen by the author, how the choice of words is connected with the idea of ​​the work or passage.

Lexicology can provide a teacher with especially significant help in organizing, explaining and consolidating vocabulary. Word-formation exercises are of great importance. A good acquaintance with the principles of word formation helps students to guess the meaning of new words from familiar elements, helps to connect new material with the old, previously learned.

2. The relationship between the word and the signified (The problem of signs)

3. Motivation of the word

4. Isolation of words in the flow of coherent speech (Problem of separate words)

5. Identification of words in the language (Problem of word identity)

§ 36. The problem of distinguishing between different words in the language has one more side - semantic, this is the problem of distinguishing between polysemantic words and homonyms.

Chapter Three Meaning of the Word

1. Semasiology

2. Lexical meaning of the word

§ 39.1. The word is a necessary condition for the emergence and existence of the concept, but not every word is based on the concept, although every word has a meaning.

3. Polysemy, semantic structure of the word and types of lexical meanings

§ 44. Recently, in Soviet linguistics, the proposed acad. V.V. Vinogradov, a scheme for classifying meanings depending on the conditions for their implementation in speech.

§ 45. A shade of meaning is a feature of meaning that appears due to the existence in the language of several words of synonyms expressing the same concept.

4. Lexico-semantic word formation

§ 46. Different meanings of a polysemantic word are closely connected with each other, often grouped around one central main meaning and form a single system.

5. Reasons for changing the meaning of words

§ 50. Words can change their meaning in connection with the development of society, social relations, and the mode of production.

§ 53. Linguistic reasons for changing the meanings of words have been studied much less than extra-linguistic ones. There are only separate statements about them in the works of the French scientist A. Meillet and some Soviet scientists.

6. The problem of classifying the change in the meanings of words

Chapter Four Types of words in the lexical system of modern English

1. Various possible principles for grouping words

§ 57. In order to give a clearer idea of ​​the groups listed above, it is necessary to give a brief description of each of them.

2. Functional and significant words

3. Nests of words

4. Semantic grouping of vocabulary

5. Expressive vocabulary

6. Division of vocabulary according to the territorial-dialect basis. Dialectisms

Chapter Five Affixal word production

1. Morphological structure of the word

2. Types of word formation

§ 69. Under the general name word-building (word-building), very different ways of enriching the vocabulary of the language are combined.

3. Morphological analysis of the word

4. Affixes of word formation and inflection

5. Affixal word formation a. Suffixation

§ 76. In modern English, the following suffixes are most common:

§ 77. Both the ways and means of word formation are historically changeable. Some of them remain productive in the modern language, others are unproductive.

B. Prefix

Chapter six conversion or non-affix word formation

1. General characteristics of the conversion

2. Reasons for the widespread use of conversion in modern English

§ 86. The widespread use of conversion as a way of word formation is closely related to the peculiarities of the grammatical structure of the English language and its history.

3. Substantiation of various parts of speech

4. On the nature of the first component in stonewall formations

§ 90. The question of whether formation by conversion of adjectives from nouns is observed in English is the subject of much debate.

§ 91. Each of the points of view listed at the beginning has its pros and cons, has its supporters and opponents.

§ 93. Summarizing briefly all of the above, we can draw the following conclusions:

Chapter Seven - Compounding

1. General characteristics of compound words

2. Classification of compound words

§ 96. When grouping by parts of speech within each group, not only the part of speech to which the whole word belongs is taken into account, but also the bases of the parts of speech that form it, i.e. Its structural type.

3. Historical development of compound words

4. Criteria proposed for distinguishing between a compound word and a phrase

§ 101. Phonetic criterion. For many complex words, the unity of stress can serve as a criterion for unity. Compare, for example:

5. Components of speech

6. The problem of formations of the standup type

§ 110. Postpositions are homonymous with prepositions and adverbs, but fundamentally differ from them in function. Compare:

§ 111. By their stylistic reference, compound verbs belong to colloquial speech. They often have synonyms among single-word verbs, mostly loanwords. For example:

2. Alternation

§ 114. Alternation (soundinterchange, rootinflexion) is called word formation by changing the phonetic composition of the root:

3. Doubling

§ 116. Of the rarer types of morphological word formation, we should mention doubling (repetition of sound composition), redistribution, contraction and reverse word formation.

4. Redistribution

5. Reverse word formation

§ 118. With the same misunderstanding of the morphological composition of the word, the reverse word formation (backformation) is also connected.

6. Constriction

Chapter Nine Enrichment of the English vocabulary through the formation of stable phrases

1. Free and stable combinations

2. Self-stable combinations and phraseological units

§ 121. Stable phrases, in turn, are divided into two large groups: a) proper stable combinations and b) phraseological units.

3. Classification of phraseological units by grammatical structure

4. Classification of phraseological units developed by Acad. V.V. Vinogradov and its application to the English language

§ 125. The least numerous type of phraseological unions has the greatest cohesion of elements:

§ 126. A much larger group are phraseological units:

5. Ways of occurrence of phraseological units

6. Proverbs and winged words

Chapter Ten Enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language through foreign borrowings

1. The role of borrowings in the development of the vocabulary of the English language

2. Classification of borrowings

3. International words

§ 141. Borrowings from the language of the Celts turned out to be very few and relate mainly to toponymy, i.e. For geographical names:

§ 142. In Old English, two layers of Latin borrowings are distinguished.

§ 146. Along with borrowings from classical languages, in the Xv-xvI centuries. There were also borrowings from living languages, mainly Italian, Spanish and Dutch.

§ 149. The abundance of borrowings in English led to the formation of a large number of doublets.

5. The problem of assimilation of loanwords

§ 150. Assimilation of borrowed words is their adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic relation to the system of the host language.

Chapter Eleven English in America

1. The theory of the American language and its reactionary nature

2. Origin of Americanisms

Chapter Twelve Stylistic Differentiation of Vocabulary

1. Book and colloquial vocabulary

2. Terms and terminology

3. Poetic vocabulary

4. Colloquial vocabulary

§ 161. The main features of vernacular relate to grammar and phonetics. In the field of vocabulary, it is necessary to note only a certain number of dialectisms and archaisms.

5. Slang

Chapter Thirteen Synonyms and Antonyms

1. Definition of the concept of "synonym"

2. Ideographic synonyms

3. Stylistic synonyms

§ 166. Stylistic synonyms, on the contrary, are generally recognized. These are words that are close, and sometimes identical in meaning, but are used in different styles of the language:

4. Ways of occurrence of synonyms

5. Euphemisms

6. Antonyms

Chapter Fourteen Homonymy

1. Homonymy and polysemy

2. Classification of homonyms

3. Origin of homonyms

Chapter Fifteen Vocabulary Classification by Historical Reference

1. The variability of the vocabulary of the language

2. Neologisms in modern English

3. Archaisms and historicisms

4. The concept of the main vocabulary of the language

§ 179. Not all vocabulary is equally changeable and mobile. Its stable part is called the main vocabulary fund.

5. The problem of identifying a stable part of the vocabulary

6. Characteristic features of modern English vocabulary

Chapter Sixteen English Lexicography

1. Dictionary types

§ 182. The word lexicography comes from the Greek words: lexikos, related to the word, vocabulary, and grapho-writing.

2. History of English lexicography. English explanatory dictionaries

§ 183. The practical lexicography of the English language is one of the most developed in the world and is therefore of great interest.2

Arnold I.V. Lexicology of Modern English

USSR Ministry of Higher Education

as a teaching aid

for pedagogical institutes

and faculties of foreign languages

PUBLISHING HOUSE OF LITERATURE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Moscow 1959

From the author

The linguistic material presented in the book is partly drawn from Soviet and foreign lexicological and lexicographic literature, and partly is the result of the author's own observations. The book uses material from a number of dissertations defended in recent years, in particular doctoral dissertations by V.A. Zvegintseva and E.I. Klimenko and candidate dissertations of N.G. Guterman, N.I. Eremeeva, S.A. Kostenko, L.V. Malakhovskiy, O.A. Melnik, N.G. Oleksenko, O.S. Simonova and others.

The presentation of the course is illustrated by literary examples, taken mainly from English literature of the 20th century, since the author sought to describe the vocabulary of the English language in its current state. Translation is not given for all examples, because it is assumed that the reader already has a considerable vocabulary and some translation skills.

Considering it very important to teach the student to reason independently, comparing different points of view, and to draw their own conclusions and generalizations, the author sought to show the problems of lexicology, and not be limited to the most common point of view on certain issues. At the same time, a complete critical coverage of all debatable issues in a textbook is impossible and unnecessary. The main difficulty, therefore, was not to overload the textbook with excessive polemics and theorizing, on the one hand, and not to fall into dogmatism, on the other.

The textbook is a revision of a course of lectures on the lexicology of modern English, read by the author at the 2nd Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages ​​and at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A.I. Herzen. In creating the course, the author owes a lot to Assoc. I.P. Ivanova, whose lectures on the lexicology of the English language he happened to listen to.

The author considers it his duty to express his heartfelt gratitude to all his comrades at work, who rendered him great help during the discussion of the first edition of the book, and especially to Prof. B.A. Ilyish and candidates of philological sciences V.G. Vilyuman and N.G. Guterman.

Chapter one introduction

1. Subject and sections of lexicology. 2. Tasks of lexicology and its methodological base. 3. Literature on the lexicology of modern English. 4. The place of lexicology among other linguistic disciplines, the connection between vocabulary and grammar. 5. The value of lexicology in the practice of teaching foreign languages

1. Subject and sections of lexicology

§ one. Each language is characterized by its own special grammatical structure, a special vocabulary and a special sound system, which constitute its main three sides, each subject to independent theoretical research.

The study of the three sides of the language developed unevenly. Before others began to study the grammatical structure. Since ancient times and until very recently, practical rules and scientific laws were established only for grammatical phenomena, and therefore there has long been a false idea that the main theoretical problem of a language is the study of its grammatical structure. Some information about the vocabulary and sound system was included in the grammar as secondary parts. Only in the 19th century did a deeper study of these latter make it possible to single out lexicology and phonetics as independent branches of linguistics.

At present, the science of language has sufficient data to, in accordance with the three main aspects of the language, consider the theory of each individual modern language as consisting of three main parts: grammar, lexicology and phonetics.

Lexicology (from the Greek lexis word, lexicos verbal and logos teaching) - department of linguistics, and studying the word and the vocabulary of the language. The vocabulary of any language is the totality of all the words and equivalents of words in this language. Word equivalents are understood as stable combinations, which, like words, are not created anew in speech, but are introduced into it in finished form.

The terms "lexicon" and "lexicology" should not be confused. Lexicology is a collection of words, for example, the vocabulary of a language or some part of it, alexicology is a science that studies vocabulary.

§ 2. Lexicology, as the science of the word and the vocabulary of any language, is part of general linguistics. The specifics of the vocabulary of each individual language is considered by the private lexicology of this language. This course outlines the lexicology of modern English, i.e. private lexicology. Each private lexicology is based on the provisions of general lexicology, therefore, in the first chapters of the course, some general lexicological problems are considered, namely: the theory of the word, and the main provisions of the science of the meaning and semantic structure of the word - semasiology.

The lexicology of each language, including English, can be divided into historical lexicology, which considers the origin and development of its vocabulary, and descriptive lexicology of the modern language, which studies its vocabulary at a given historical stage of its development in all its originality, which distinguishes it from the vocabulary of other languages.

It should be taken into account that the vocabulary of the modern language exists as a system of interdependent and interrelated elements that develops over time. Consequently, it can only be understood in view of this development. Therefore, although the descriptive lexicology of modern English has its own special tasks, different from those of historical lexicology, it still cannot exist in isolation from this latter. For these reasons, in this course of descriptive lexicology of modern English, not only the current state of its vocabulary is considered, but also, in part, the ways of its formation.

The study and description of a language system at a certain stage of its development is called synchronic study, the study of the historical development of its elements is called diachronic. The correct distinction between synchrony and diachrony and the choice of a rational relationship between them is of great importance for any linguistic research.

Consideration of the vocabulary of the modern English language as a system characterized by certain specific features and developing over time includes a description of various types of words and ways of their formation, a description of word equivalents, i.e. various stable combinations; description of the fate of foreign borrowings and their role in enriching the vocabulary of the English language; analysis of various lexical groups and layers in modern English: book and colloquial vocabulary, terms, slang words, neologisms, archaisms, etc. and, finally, an analysis of the semantic relationships between words (synonyms and antonyms).

As is well known, English vocabulary has received a detailed description in numerous and varied dictionaries. Familiarization with rich English lexicography and an understanding of the principles of compiling dictionaries are therefore also indispensable when studying the vocabulary of the English language.

It should be noted that lexicology does not equally study all the words of a given language in general, but pays primary attention to the so-called significant words. Significant words include words that name objects and phenomena of objective reality, their signs and actions. For example: child, face, pen, big, new, nice, past, look, love, mean, well. Service words denote relationships and connections between objects and phenomena. These include prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and connective verbs, particles. The difference between significant and functional words will be considered in detail by us in Chapter IV; here it suffices to point out that significant words necessarily have one or more lexical meanings, and in functional words the lexical meaning is subordinate to the grammatical meaning, often, although not always, weakened, and in some cases may be completely absent (as, for example, in the infinitive particle to). Therefore, service words are considered mainly in grammar, and lexicology focuses on significant or, as they are also called, full-meaning words.

Name: Lexicology of the English language - textbook - 2003.

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word (Greek leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching). Thus, lexicology considers the dictionary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. It is customary to distinguish between general and particular lexicology. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, that which refers to lexical universals. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the features of English synonyms or antonyms.

Introduction LEXICOLOGY AS A LINGUISTIC DISCIPLINE

Chapter 1 MEANING OF THE WORD
1. General definition of meaning
2. Types and types of value
2.1. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word
2.2. Denotative and connotative meaning
3. Internal form (motivation) of the word
3.1. Types of motivation
3.2. Loss of motivation (deetymologization)
3.3. False etymologization

Chapter 2 CHANGING THE MEANING OF A WORD
1. The essence of rethinking the meaning of the word
2. Extralinguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word
3. Linguistic reasons for changing the meaning of a word
3.1. Reasons for changing the volume of the meaning of the word
3.2. Name transfer - the basis of the value shift
3.2.1. Implication type of transfer
3.2.2. Transfer qualification type
4. Results of changing the value

Chapter 3 POLYSEMY (POLYSEMY) OF WORDS
1. The concept of polysemy
1.1. Polysemy and broad meaning
1.2. Polysemy and context
1.2.1. General definition of context
1.2.2. Context types
2. Polysemy as a synchronous phenomenon
2.1. Multi-valued word value types
3. Polysemy in diachronic coverage
3.1. Source and Derived Values
3.2. Ways of development of ambiguity
3.3. The collapse of polysemy

Chapter 4 SYSTEM RELATIONS IN VOCABULARY
1. Homonymy
1.1. The concept of homonymy
1.2. Homonym types
2. Synonymy
2.1. The main signs of synonymy of words
2.2. Synonym types
3. Antonymy
3.1. The concept of antonymy
3.2. Antonym types
4. Paronymy
4.1. The concept of paronymy
4.2. Paronymy and paronomasia

Chapter 5 Phraseological Fund of the Vocabulary of the English Language
1. The concept of a phraseological unit
2. Types of phraseological units
2.1. Structural types of phraseological units
2.2. Functional types of phraseological units
2.3. Semantic types of phraseological units
3. Borders of the phraseological fund
3.1. Traditional phrases
3.2. Units like to have a smoke
3.3. Postpositive verb combinations like give in

Chapter 6 STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD
1. Morphological structure of the word
1.1. Types and types of English morphemes
1.2. Morphological articulation of the word
2. Word-building structure of the word
2.1. The basis of the word: concept and types
2.2. Word-building model

Chapter 7 WORD FORMATION
1. Basic concepts of word formation
1.1. The concept of generating basis
1.2. Classifications of word formation methods
2. Linear models of word formation
2.1. Affixation
2.2. Composition
2.3. Differentiation of complex words and phrases
3. Nonlinear models of word formation
3.1. Reversion
3.2. Conversion
3.3. Reduction
3.4. word fusion

Chapter 8
1. The genetic composition of the vocabulary of modern English
1.1. The concept of native English word
1.2. Borrowing in English vocabulary
1.2.1. Classification by source of borrowing
1.2.2. Classifications according to the degree of assimilation of borrowings
2. Ways to replenish the vocabulary of modern English.

General definition of the meaning of the word.

The complexity of the task is obvious already because scientists have tried to give a definition of the meaning of the word for centuries, but still have not come to a consensus. Various interpretations of the essence of the meaning of the word are known - functional, set forth, in particular, in the works of L. Wittgenstein; behavioristic, the main provisions of which are found in L. Bloomfield, and others. Researchers who proceed from the correlation of a word as a two-sided sign with an object or phenomenon adhere to the referential or conceptual theories of meaning. The first focuses on the referent and, according to some linguists, does not fully reveal the complexity of the nature of the meaning of the word. Conceptual theory proceeds from the connection of a word with a notion (concept), and within its framework, the meaning of a word is defined as a reflection of an object, phenomenon or relationship in the mind of the bearer enclosed in some material shell.

The word can name various referents - objects, phenomena, fantastic creatures, etc., that is, that which exists or seems to exist in connection with some concept. The term refers to the generalization in the mind of a native speaker of the most essential features of a fragment of reality. The semantic (semantic) structure of the word is in the center of attention of the science of its meaning, semasiology. Naming, the word appears as a unity of three components - the sound-graphic form, the object or phenomenon itself and the concept of it.

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