BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF TRAINING AND EDUCATION Theory of active formation of mental processes and personality traits. The most important concepts of modern psychology are based on the idea associated with the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky that a person should actively

2.2. Psychological theories of personality At the present stage of development of psychological thought, the secrets of the human psyche are not yet fully known. There are many theories, concepts and approaches to understanding the personality and essence of the human psyche, each of which

e (“psyche” - soul, “logos” - teaching, knowledge). This is a science, first of all, about the patterns of mental life and human activity and various forms of human communities. Psychology as a science studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche.
Psychology is the science of the laws of origin, formation, development, functioning and manifestations of the psyche of people in various conditions and at different stages of their life and activity.
The main tasks of psychology:
1. Knowledge of the origins and characteristics of the human psyche, the patterns of its occurrence, formation, functioning and manifestations, the capabilities of the human psyche, its influence on human behavior and activity.
2. Development of recommendations for people to increase their stress resistance and psychological reliability in solving professional and other problems in various circumstances of life and activity.
The main functions of psychology:
1. As a fundamental science, it is called upon to develop a psychological theory, to reveal the laws of the individual and group psyche of people and its individual phenomena.
2. As an applied field of knowledge - to formulate recommendations for improving the professional activities and everyday life of people.
Psychology studies the patterns of mental activity in order to better understand a person and thereby skillfully influence him. Therefore, the importance of psychology is great in all types of practical activities, where people enter into complex relationships with each other, influence each other. Knowledge of psychology is necessary for the proper organization of the moral and mental self-education of a person. Psychology helps a person to understand his own mental life, to understand himself, to realize his strengths and weaknesses, his shortcomings. Knowledge of psychology opens up ways of self-improvement of mental activity: knowing how to improve your attention and memory, how to properly assimilate educational material, you can learn to achieve the highest results with the least amount of time and effort.

What is the meaning of the term "psychology" in the minds of the layman, the ordinary average person?
For example, a common expression: "He has such a psychology." What implies a set of character traits, the inner world of a person or a group of people. In the latter case, the psychology of the group is the views, rules, customs, traditions, various internal processes that take place in it.
In everyday life, each of us performs certain psychological work, being, as it were, an everyday psychologist, observing patterns and drawing appropriate conclusions (for example, how carefully we observe the facial expressions of other people, their actions and reactions in various situations, and then draw certain conclusions, shape our behavior accordingly.
However, there are professional psychologists, specialists. Why are their services still in demand?
Indeed, a professional psychologist owns all the scientific experience accumulated by generations of scientists, has a rich practice, owns specific proven methods for determining the condition and therapy. A professional psychologist is already an everyday psychologist, but a scientific one.
Psychology as a science uses experiment, information is checked, proved, scientific conclusions are drawn. The adopted solutions are widely applied in practice. What is the creation of one test! A lot of preliminary studies on a large sample of people, the application of mathematical methods, analysis, comparison, etc. Only if the test passes all samples is it considered scientific. Therefore, one should be critical of various pseudoscientific tests.
What questions do people turn to a psychologist? These are questions of self-development, ways to resolve conflict situations, ways to maintain relationships. There are many specializations of a psychologist: children, family, military, etc.
However, the types of activities that a psychologist carries out are almost similar.

Activities of a psychologist:

1. Psychological education.
2. Diagnostics.
3. Prevention.
4. Correction.
5. Development.
6. Therapy.
7. Consultation.

Particular attention in the preparation of a specialist psychologist is given to their knowledge of their rights, duties and professional ethics. A psychologist who violates professional ethics may lose the right to practice forever.

Ethical principles of the activity of a psychologist:

1. Unconditional respect for the personality of the client.
2. Honesty, sincerity.
3. Confidentiality of information, except in cases where its concealment could harm the client.
4. Protection of the client's rights.
5. Psychoprophylactic presentation of results.
6. The psychologist is obliged to communicate the purpose of psychodiagnostics and name the persons to whom the results of the diagnostics will be available.
7. The psychologist is obliged to accept the client's refusal from psychological work with him.
8. The psychologist is obliged to prevent the use of psychological techniques by incompetent persons.
9. A psychologist should not make such promises to clients that he is unable to fulfill.
10. The psychologist should not give advice, specific instructions. The main thing is to expand the perception of the situation by the client and instill in him confidence in his abilities.
11. The psychologist is responsible for the use of certain psychological methods and techniques and for giving recommendations. The client is responsible for the choice of actions and the result (if the client is a child, then the parent).
12. Professional independence of the psychologist. His final decision cannot be overruled by the administration. Only a special commission, consisting of highly qualified psychologists and endowed with appropriate powers, has the right to cancel the decision of a psychologist.

What do you think, for what purpose is such a subject as "Psychology" introduced into the curriculum for painters and sculptors? This is explained by the fact that these specialties in the school have an additional specialization - pedagogical, and in accordance with the new requirements, teachers must have psychological training.
We can say that you are lucky, because. you have a great opportunity to get in touch with this interesting science. In addition, in addition to the theoretical course, you will have practical classes where you will get to know yourself and each other, open your eyes to some things, and maybe even make a big discovery for yourself.

The term "psychology" is formed by two Greek words « psyche" - soul and « logos" word, doctrine. Those. - the doctrine of the soul. However, over the centuries, people have discovered where this very soul is located. And if not found, then what kind of scientific research can we talk about? Therefore, gradually it came to the study of what could be more material in this regard. This subject was the psyche.
The psyche is the quality of the brain and it is responsible for the reflection, processing, accumulation of information and the issuance of behavioral reactions. An elementary example of the work of the psyche is sensations. Sensations of the outer world and the inner world of our body.
The brain and in particular and especially the nervous system are the base for the psyche. All mental phenomena, including emotions, are explained by the work of the psyche. Character, abilities are more complex concepts, however, they also grow and form on a mental basis.

PSYCHOLOGY - the science of the laws of the emergence, formation and manifestation of the psyche.
The focus of attention in different historical periods was a different subject of psychology:
- from ancient times to the 17th century. – psychology is the science of soul ;
- from the 17th century at the beginning 20th century – psychology is the science of consciousness ;
- in the beginning. 20th century – psychology is the science of behavior , the science of unconscious manifestations of the psyche, etc.;
- modern understanding - psychology - the science of the patterns of occurrence, formation and manifestation psyche ;
- in the future - psychology - the science of soul .

In the course "Psychology" you will get acquainted with the main categories of psychology:

Exercise. "Branches of Psychology"
Before you proceed to consider the categories of psychology, you can talk about the methods by which these categories are actually studied.

Methods of psychological research.

Psychological research is based on general methodological principles that determine the types of psychological techniques used:
1. The principle of determinism- the dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that produce them (biological and social).
2. The principle of the unity of the psyche and activity.
3. The principle of consistency- all components depend on the whole and appear as a whole.
4. The principle of integrity- all mental processes are interconnected, so the psyche should be studied comprehensively, from all sides.
5. Principle of development- accounting for dynamic qualitative changes in the psyche.

Scientific research methods- these are the techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable data for building scientific theories and developing practical recommendations.
Thanks to scientific methods, psychology has become able not only to assume, but also to prove causal relationships between mental phenomena.
To collect primary data, psychology uses basic and auxiliary methods.
Main methods:

1. Observation - scientifically purposeful and in a certain way fixed perception of an object without interfering with its course.
2. Zhiteiskoe- disorganized, random.
3. Scientific- organized, with a clear plan and fixing the results in a special diary.
4. Included- with the participation of the researcher
5. Not included without the participation of the researcher.

Advantages - naturalness.
disadvantages - passivity, subjectivism, inaccessibility of some manifestations of the psyche.

1. Experiment - active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create the best conditions for the study of specific psychological phenomena.
2. Natural- proceeds in natural conditions, with minor changes to them (for example, in order to study the factors that contribute to reducing the fear of exams, the experimenter gives different settings to groups of students and analyzes the success of passing the exam depending on them).
3. Laboratory- proceeds in specially organized conditions of isolation of the studied phenomenon from external influences.

Natural and laboratory experiments can be ascertaining and formative.

1. stating- reveals facts, patterns that have developed in the course of human development. Those. facts are established.
2. Formative- reveals the conditions and mechanisms for the development of certain qualities, abilities through their active formation. In the process, certain qualities of the subjects develop. It is supposed to implement the results of the study with the subsequent study of possible changes and effects.

Advantages – activity of the researcher, the possibility of repetition, control of conditions.
disadvantages - artificiality of conditions, high costs.

Helper methods.

1. Product Analysis- this is a method of studying psychological phenomena according to practical results and objects of labor, in which the creative forces and abilities of people are embodied.
2. Generalization of independent characteristics- identification and analysis of opinions about certain psychological phenomena and processes received from different people.

3. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods (according to A.A. Bodalev).

1. Objective Tests - methods in which the correct answer is possible (for example, intelligence tests).
2. Standardized self-reports - focused on the use of the verbal abilities of the subjects, addressed to his thinking, imagination, memory.

- test questionnaire - involves a set of items (questions, statements), regarding which the subject makes judgments. Two- or three-alternative choice of answers. The same psychological variable is represented by a group of questions.
- open questionnaire (questionnaire) - does not have a suggested answer. All responses belong to certain categories (eg agree/disagree).
- scale techniques - the assessment of phenomena is carried out on scales (for example, "warm - cold") according to the degree of severity of the specified quality. For example, the technique "Personal differential".
- individually oriented techniques - the parameters are not set in them, but are allocated according to the answers of the subject. Allows for statistical processing. For example, For example, the technique of "Repertory Grids" by J. Kelly.
3. Projective Methods - they are based on the principle of projection, according to which the subject projects, reflects on insufficiently structured material (colors, spots of indefinite shape, etc.) his unconscious or hidden needs, experiences. The task of the subject is to organize the stimulus material or give it a personal meaning.
4. Dialogue Techniques - in them, the effect is achieved through contact with the subject.
- verbal DT : conversation - obtaining information in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of the issue; interview - obtaining information by oral answers to oral questions.
- non-verbal DT - diagnostic games (game with a child, role-playing game).
The involvement of the researcher is maximum in dialogic methods, average in projective methods and rep tests, and minimal in objective tests and questionnaires.

Characteristics of tests.

Workshop. Test for self-doubt.
In terms of popularity in educational and professional psychodiagnostics, the test method has been holding the first place in the world psychodiagnostic practice for about a century.
Testing refers to diagnostic methods that are characterized by an emphasis on the measurement (i.e., numerical representation) of some psychological variable.
The test is a short-term task, the performance of which can serve as an indicator of the perfection of some mental functions.
Usually the test consists of a series of questions with a choice of ready-made answers. Then, when counting, the answers are summed up, the total score is compared with the test norms, and then standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.
Types of tests:

1. Personal
2. Intelligence tests.
3. Achievement Tests

Advantages of tests:

1. Standardization of conditions and results, i.e. uniformity of the procedure for conducting and evaluating the performance of the test. Includes:

- precise instructions;
- temporary restrictions;
- preview of the task;
- taking into account the way the questions are interpreted by the subjects
and etc.
2. Efficiency. Economy(a large number of subjects in a short period of time).
3. Optimum difficulty, i.e. accessibility for the average person. If during the piloting about half of the subjects cope with the task, then the task is successful and it is left in the test. Also, the tasks of medium difficulty that are available in the test can help increase the confidence of many subjects.
4. Reliability. Any well-designed study test covers the main sections of the curriculum as a whole, and the chances of "failing" for excellent students or "breaking out" for those who are lagging behind are reduced.
5. Justice. Protected from experimenter bias. There is no "it's easier for one's own, harder for others".
6. Possibility of computerization.
7. Differentiated nature of the assessment, i.e. the assessment is fractional, usually several (rather than two) categories are distinguished. For example, "hopeless - not hopeless - just capable - very capable - talented."
Test Disadvantages:

1. The danger of "blind" (automatic) errors. It should be remembered that shifts may occur in the procedure, for example, the subject did not understand the instruction.
2. The danger of profanity- the use of tests by unqualified people: the use of 2-3 tests for everyone and everything, "for all occasions." For example, MMPI was used for the selection of personnel in our country at one time. As a result, the scale "Schizophrenia" was interpreted as "original thinking", "Psychopathy" - as "impulsivity", etc.
3. Loss of individuality. Individual differences can lead to biased results, and it is important for the examiner to notice such reactions to the test (for example, excitement can lead to random errors).
4. Difficulties in the manifestation of individuality, because test answers are standard.
5. Formalized nature of the environment, testing procedures. In this regard, the researcher is obliged to establish a trusting environment, show participation, reduce the resistance and protection of the subjects.

In any case, it is necessary to use tests in combination with other methods - written work, interviews, conversation, projective techniques.

Projective techniques.
Workshop. Psychogeometry, Definition of the dominant instinct.
Classification of projective techniques:

1. Associative PT. They consist in the presentation of some disordered material that needs to be given a subjective meaning (Rorschach spots. Here the content of the interpretation, color, shape of the spots, originality of the answers are evaluated).
2. Interpretive PTs. The task of the subject is to interpret any events depicted in the pictures (it is assumed that everyone interprets them in connection with their attitude towards them) (for example, TAT (thematic apperception test). The subject identifies himself with the hero. His characteristics are detected. The pressure of the environment is revealed The forces of the hero and the environment are compared (the combination of the hero and the environment forms a “theme” as the structure of their interaction)).
3. Add-on based PTs. The subject's task is to complete a story, a sentence (for example, a test of reaction to Rosenzweig's frustration. The type of reaction to an obstacle is determined: extrapunitive reaction - the external cause of frustration is condemned and resolution of the situation is required from another person; intrapunitive reaction - directed at oneself with acceptance guilt and responsibility for solving the situation).
4. PT construction. Separate details are presented, from which the subject makes up various kinds of integral pictures (in connection with his own taste, experience, interests), and also comes up with a story in separate fragments or after listening to sounds, noises.
5. Choice-based PTs from the presented material of such decisions that are indirectly related to hidden inclinations, sympathies, intentions (for example, the Szondi test, Luscher's eight-color test, "Psychogeometry" (determines the type of personality along the contour of the figure)).

Distinctive features of projective techniques:

1. The relative freedom of the subject in choosing the answer and tactics of behavior.
2. The absence of external indicators of the evaluative attitude towards the subject on the part of the experimenter.
3. Comprehensive diagnostics of personal properties and relationships of the individual with the environment.

The most common form of PT is drawing tests: "Non-existent animal", "Draw a man", "Self-portrait", "House-tree-man", "My family".

Appendix
Color values ​​and positions in M. Luscher's eight-color test.
Blue- the need for rest.
Green- the need for self-assertion.
Red- the need for purposeful activity.
Yellow- the need for spontaneous activity.
Violet- the victory of red over blue.
Brown- sensual basis of sensations.
Black- negation of the colors of life and being itself.
Grey- shelter from external influences, release from obligations, fencing.
Position value:
1st- the main way of action, a means to an end.
2nd- the goal to which the subject aspires.
3rd and 4th- indicate the current situation or the course of action arising from this situation.
5th and 6th- unused at the moment reserves of the personality, its features.
7th and 8th- a suppressed need, or a need that should be suppressed, because. there may be adverse effects.

The task is to draw houses "House-Tree-Man". At the next lesson, discuss and receive a printout of the interpretation.
- draw a person (interpretation according to the Machover drawing test).

The concept of the psyche.

The psyche, namely the patterns of its occurrence, formation and manifestation, is the subject of study of modern psychology.
The psyche is a systemic quality of the brain that provides humans and animals with the ability to reflect the effects of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
The main quality, function of the psyche, as well as one of the basic categories of psychology is reflection. Reflection is a multi-level active process of processing information about the reflection object and creating an adequate model of this object. The psyche is a “subjective image of the objective world”, because we reflect reality through the prism of our inner world.
The physiological basis of the psyche- the brain, namely the nervous system and the features of its work. At the same time, it is important not only the presence of certain parts of the brain, but most importantly, multiple connections between them. The more these connections, relationships, the more complex they are, the more perfect the psyche, the richer the experience of a person.
For the full functioning of the psyche, the following conditions are necessary:

1. Full activity of the brain;
2. Constant influx of external information;
3. Interaction with people and objects of culture, in which the experience of mankind as a whole is concentrated.

Functions of the psyche:

1. Active reflection of the influences of the surrounding reality;
2. Regulation of behavior and activity. Behavior is an external form of manifestation of the psyche;
3. A person's awareness of himself and his place in the world around him, and, consequently, adaptation and correct orientation in it.

The nervous system is central(brain and spinal cord) (CNS) and peripheral(nerve endings - receptors- which perceive various types of energy (mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic) and convert it into a nerve impulse.
The youngest and most perfect part of the nervous system - bark brain. Here the thinking and consciousness of man, the highest levels of thinking in animals, are formed.
The unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell. neuron. It consists of a body (soma) and processes - dendrites and an axon. They transmit nerve impulses. Axon - the longest process - the most important. It is covered with a myelin sheath, which provides a very fast passage of an impulse (several tens of m / s). All cells are connected by synapses. These are enlarged plaques containing neurotransmitters - impulse transmitters on a biochemical basis. Under the action of external and internal biochemical substances, the transmission of an impulse can be accelerated or slowed down, thereby regulating and determining the mental state of the body.
The neuron is enveloped by glial cells that serve the metabolism, as well as blood capillaries.
Neurons, glia and blood capillaries form nerves.
Neurons and nerves are sensitive (sensory), motor (motor), as well as impulse conductors from one part of the nervous system to another (local network neurons).
The brain is also made up of two hemispheres- left and right.
The cerebral cortex is made up of shares- frontal lobes (responsible for goal setting and activity), parietal lobes (responsible for sensations), occipital lobes (responsible for vision), temporal lobes (responsible for hearing) and from zones- primary zones (carry out the analysis of information from receptors), secondary zones (carry out the synthesis of information from receptors), tertiary zones (carry out a complex synthesis of information from various zones (neurons are located on their borders)).
With the defeat of the occipital, temporal, parietal lobes, the reception of information is disturbed, and individual signs of the stimulus fall out. Moreover, with the defeat of the right hemisphere, a person is not aware of his defect. A person cannot name an object, is not oriented in space.
When the frontal lobes are damaged, muscle paralysis occurs, motor skills decay, the goal setting of the activity, voluntary memorization, etc. are violated, there is no activity program, criticism of one's actions is violated, the same actions are performed, cycling occurs (perseveration of movements). The frontal lobes begin to develop intensively at the age of 6-7 years and finally mature by the age of 15-16.
Analyzer is a system for processing information at all levels of its passage through the central nervous system. Thus, the analyzer is visual, auditory, gustatory, skin, etc. Each analyzer has 3 sections:

1. Peripheral department - represented by a receptor (for example, the receptor of the eye - the retina);
2. Conductive department - represented by a nerve (for example, the optic nerve);
3. Central department - represented by the corresponding zones in the cerebral cortex (for example, the occipital zone).

General patterns.

1. All human organs have a strictly defined representation in the cerebral cortex (at the same time, the more developed and involved the organ, the larger the area occupied by its projection in the cerebral cortex);
2. As a result, the entire nervous system and the brain take part in the processing of information (the principle of systemic activity of the brain);
3. The cerebral cortex is hierarchically organized (from primary to tertiary zones).

The psyche is diverse in its forms and manifestations:

1. mental processes- mental phenomena that provide primary reflection and subsequent awareness of the effects of the environment by a person. They are divided into cognitive processes (sensation, perception, etc.) and emotional-volitional processes.
2. Mental properties- the most stable and constantly manifesting personality traits that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of behavior and activity that is typical for a given person. These are orientation, abilities, temperament, character.
3. mental states- this is a certain level of efficiency and quality of the functioning of the human psyche, characteristic of him at the moment. These are activity, passivity, fatigue, apathy, cheerfulness, anxiety, etc.
4. Psychic formations- these are mental phenomena that are formed in the process of acquiring a person's life and professional experience, the content of which includes a special combination of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Stages of development of the psyche in phylogenesis.

1. Elementary sensory psyche(protozoa, worms, gastropods). At this level, organisms are able to reflect individual properties of the environment. Based on feelings. Organisms purposefully move towards biologically useful substances and avoid harmful ones. This happens due to the property irritability. Irritability is the ability to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by changing the state of the body.
2. Perceptual psyche(fish, cephalopods, insects; at its highest level - birds, mammals). There is an ability to reflect the environment in the form of holistic images, the ability to learn. Behavioral responses are expanding. Behavior is plastic. Organisms can transfer skill to new conditions.
3. Intellectual psyche(monkeys, dolphins). Behavior is very flexible. Animals can solve complex problems, change behavior in the event of obstacles by identifying regular relationships between objects. Thus, the presence of figurative and visual-effective thinking is noted (i.e., for learning, manipulation of animal objects and observation is necessary). Monkeys understand the relationships "more - less", "shorter - longer", "more often - less often", various shapes of geometric shapes. The animal cannot abstract from a specific situation, and there is also no idea of ​​time.

The concept of consciousness.

The psyche is represented by different levels. This is consciousness- the highest level of development of the psyche - and the deepest layer of the psyche - unconscious. The unconscious is a form of reflection of reality, during which its sources are not recognized, and the reflected reality merges with experiences.
Consciousness.
Consciousness is the highest and generalized form of reflection of the world. There are several factors in the development of consciousness:

1. Manufacturing and use of tools. Fine motor skills, thinking develop;
2. Development of the sense organs;
3. Joint activity and communication through language. Language is a system of signs-symbols. Animals also have vocal responses, but they are primitive and generalized (for example, they do not convey which particular predator is approaching). Thanks to language, an image arises in the mind - a person designates an object in his speech or mentally reproduces it. If he passes it on to another, then, thanks to the social nature of his consciousness, the same image also arises in him. There is a meaning of the word - it has a social nature. And there is the meaning of the word - it has a subjective nature.
4. Production of objects of material and spiritual culture.

All these conditions are provided work.
CONSCIOUSNESS is the general quality of all mental functions of a person, the result of the socio-historical formation of a person in labor activity with constant communication with other people through language.

Signs of Consciousness:
1. Conditionality by social conditions (historical era, class, team, company). Consciousness reflecting social relations is social consciousness. Individual consciousness is the spiritual world of individual people. public consciousness
refracted through the individual. Forms of social consciousness - science, art, religion, morality, etc.

1. Reflection of the world in its essential connections and relations - highlighting the main characteristics of phenomena, what characterizes them and distinguishes them from others similar to them. For example, a table, a chair, a wardrobe, a hanger, a notebook.
2. Predictive character (imagination of reality).
3. Creative transformation of reality.
4. The presence of intellectual schemes (mental structures that contain concepts, rules, logical operations of information processing, etc.).
5. The presence of self-consciousness, reflection (i.e., knowing oneself through knowing others; self-knowledge by analyzing one's own activities and behavior; self-control, self-education).

Some scientists call intentionality of actions, focus on an object, purposefulness, a hallmark of consciousness. But animals have it too. If the behavior of a bird that dismisses a predator from the nest by pretending to be injured can still be called instinctive, then the behavior of higher primates provides interesting information. The ability of chimpanzees to intentionally communicate by creating situations in which a person and a monkey forage together was studied. They informed each other of her whereabouts. When a person helped a chimpanzee, gave it all the food he found, the monkey also sent the right signals about the place. If a person took all the food he found for himself, then the monkey misled him, not giving the necessary signals and not taking into account the “false” signals from him.
In addition, monkeys are capable of deceiving (monkey Beata).
A purely human sign of consciousness can be called altruism, when the central point of behavior is the interests of another person.
It can be said that animals have the preconditions for consciousness, but only a person is able to generalize his experience, create joint knowledge, which is fixed in speech, samples of material and spiritual culture.
Disturbances of consciousness.
Loss of consciousness occurs in a dream, during an illness, in a state of hypnosis.

Self-awareness.
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS is the process by which a person comes to know himself and relates to himself. It is based on separation, opposing oneself to the surrounding world.
Components of consciousness (according to V.S. Merlin):

1. Consciousness of distinguishing oneself from the rest of the world;
2. Consciousness of "I" (as an active subject of activity);
3. Consciousness of one's mental properties, emotional self-esteem;
4. Socio-moral self-esteem, self-respect based on experience.

In the scientific literature, you can find the concept of the image of "I", or "I-concept". This is the central link of self-consciousness. It includes:
1. Intellectual component - self-knowledge (knowledge of oneself, the ability to characterize oneself);
2. Emotional component - self-attitude, self-esteem;
3. Behavioral component - a set and selection of characteristic, typical behavioral strategies and tactics.
Self-esteem is formed with experience, with an assessment of the reactions of other people to the subject. Self-esteem can be adequate (with a slight discrepancy between the "I-real" and "I-ideal") and inadequate (overestimated and underestimated).
Self-consciousness disorders.

1. Depersonalization - loss of "I", observation of oneself as a stranger, an outsider;
2. Split personality, split;
3. Violation of body identification - parts of the body are perceived as something separate;
4. Derealization is the loss of a sense of the reality of one's life, of the whole world.

The concept of the unconscious.

The first ideas about the unconscious go back to Plato. He metaphorically represented the unconscious as two rushing horses - black and white - ruled by consciousness. Thus, he first spoke about intrapersonal conflict.
The UNCONSCIOUS of a person is those phenomena, states that are not realized and not controlled by him, but they exist and manifest themselves in a variety of involuntary actions:

1. Erroneous actions- Mistakes, slips of the tongue, errors in hearing. They arise from the collision of a person's unconscious desires and a consciously set goal. When the unconscious desire, motive, wins, a reservation arises;
2. Involuntary forgetting names, intentions, events (indirectly related to a person with unpleasant experiences);
3. Dreams, dreams, dreams. Dreams are a symbolic way to eliminate unpleasant sensations, experiences, dissatisfaction. If consciousness and censorship are strong in a person, then the content of dreams becomes confusing and incomprehensible.

Unconscious levels:

1. preconscious- sensations, perception, memory, thinking, attitudes;
2. Phenomena that were previously conscious– motor skills and abilities (walking, ability to write, etc.);
3. Personal unconscious- desires, thoughts, needs, ousted from consciousness by censorship. This is the deepest layer of the unconscious.

Methods for studying the unconscious:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Free association method(the man relaxed and said whatever came into his head).
3. Dream interpretation.
4. Transfer Analysis(a person transfers his images to the doctor, associates him with loved ones).
Workshop. Image of a mandala. The goal is self-knowledge, self-consciousness, achievement of personal harmony.

Stages of development of psychology

1. Pre-scientific (before the 6th century BC)

Primitive society.

2. Philosophical (6th century BC - 19th century)

Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern times.

3. Scientific (since the 19th century).

The latest time.

pre-scientific stage.

The riddles of human life and behavior have excited people since primitive times. The ancient man tried to explain why he sees and hears, why one is brave, another is strong, one is more capable, acquires knowledge faster, the other is slower.
Among the ancient peoples, the soul is explained within the framework of various mythological, religious beliefs. In most cases, ideas about the soul arise along with funeral rites.
The soul is represented as a double of a person, a terrible demon or a disembodied foggy image. The soul was often depicted as a winged creature. The soul was regarded as something supernatural, like an animal in an animal, a person in a person. The activity of an animal or a person is explained by the presence of this soul, and calm in sleep or death is explained by its absence. Sleep or trance is the temporary absence of the soul, while death is permanent. You can protect yourself from death either by closing the soul's exit from the body, or, if it left it, to achieve its return. Taboos are used to achieve these goals. The soul of the tribe, in particular, is contained in the totem.

philosophical stage.

Antiquity.
The first more or less coherent teachings about human psychology appear in the era of antiquity. The ancient Greek philosophers represented the soul as a movement of air (Anaksimene) or a flame (Heraclitus), or a faint imprint of the world soul - Cosmos.
Heraclitus, for example, called the Cosmos "an ever-burning fire", and the soul - its spark. Defined the difference between the souls of a child and an adult. As you grow older, the soul becomes drier and hotter. The degree of humidity of the soul affects its cognitive abilities. The soul is wet in a child and a drunk.
Aristotle He believed that all objects where there is movement and warmth have a soul, and singled out the vegetative, animal and rational souls. His teaching about the universal spirituality of the world is called animism.
About 2 thousand years ago, in the era of antiquity, the human psyche was explained by 2 concepts:

Materialistic doctrine (Democritus).

Everything that exists on Earth has a soul, or rather, elements of the soul. Everything is made up of atoms of varying size and mobility. And the smallest and most mobile are the atoms of the soul. Those. the soul began to be understood as a material organ that animates the body. The atoms of the soul are independent and mobile, and with their help Democritus explained the processes of knowledge, sleep, death (by the dynamics of the movement of these atoms).
After death, the soul dissipates in the air. Tried to explain the nature of sensations. Feelings are contact, because. in the sense organs, the atoms of the soul are very close to the surface and can come into contact with microscopic copies of the surrounding objects invisible to the eye - eidols - which are carried in the air, falling on the sense organs. Eidols expire from all items (the "expiration" theory).

Idealistic doctrine (Plato).

There is an ideal world where souls are born and are, as well as ideas - perfect prototypes of all things. All things, objects, incl. and man aspires to this perfection, being, as it were, variations of these ideas, concepts.
The soul is not material, and the knowledge of the world is not the interaction of the psyche with the outside world, but the memory of the soul about what it saw in the ideal world before it entered the body. Therefore, thinking is reproductive.
Plato classified mental phenomena into reason (in the head), courage, "will" (in the chest) and lust, "motivation" (in the abdomen). The predominance of one or another part determined the individuality of a person and correlated with his social position (mind - for aristocrats, courage - for warriors, lust - for slaves).
The soul is immortal, permanent, it is the guardian of morality. Only the rational part of the soul is good, and all feelings and passions are evil.
Plato imagined the soul as a wagon, where a wild and ugly horse is the lower soul, malleable and beautiful is the higher, and the driver is the rational part of the soul, the mind.

The materialistic understanding of the soul was supported by the successes of ancient doctors. So, thanks to the permission to open the corpses of “rootless” people, various parts of the brain were described in detail, a connection was established between the number of convolutions and the perfection of the brain, the connection between the sense organs and the brain, the difference between sensory and motor nerves, the types of temperament were determined (Hippocrates determined temperament as the predominance of one of the body's juices - bile, black bile, blood, mucus), etc.

Middle Ages.

Knowledge about the soul during this period becomes an integral part of the doctrine of God, i.e. lose their intrinsic value. The Church forbids any experiments. Attempts are being made to combine ancient ideas about the soul with religious ones.
For example, the teaching of the Christian Platonist Aurelius Augustine the Blessed. According to Augustine, the basis of the soul is not reason, but will. All knowledge is embedded in the soul, which lives and moves in God. They are extracted by directing the will. Any mental processes are also controlled by the will, for example, from the "imprints" of the external world that the sense organs preserve, the will creates memories.
The will works in two directions:

1. Receives and accumulates external experience;
2. Provides an inner experience of the highest value—i.e. the soul has the ability to turn inward and comprehend itself (in modern terms, this is self-consciousness).

Renaissance.

The Renaissance freed all sciences and arts from the dogmas and restrictions of the church, and they began to develop actively.
In the Renaissance, the materialistic explanation of the soul continues to develop. Issued affect theory, or emotions: mental is a certain state of matter, subject to the law of self-preservation. In positive emotions, the strength of the soul striving for self-preservation is manifested, and in negative emotions, its weakness.

New time.

One of the main questions that worried philosophers was the problem of the connection between the soul and the body. For a very long time, the point of view dominated that the nature of the soul and body is completely different, and their relationship is similar to the relationship between the puppeteer (soul) and the puppet (body), i.e. it was believed that the soul can influence the body, but not vice versa.
French philosopher R. Descartes He also believed that the body and soul have a different nature and act according to different laws. One of the leading exact sciences, which had a strong influence on the development of other sciences, was mechanics. It led to the creation of complex machines capable of performing all kinds of movements, reminiscent of the behavior of humans and animals. There was a temptation to apply the laws of mechanics to explain human movements. The first mechanical principle was implemented by R. Descartes in the concept of "reflex". A reflex is a mechanical motor response of a biological machine to an external mechanical, physical impact. In the organic needs of man, natural scientists saw an analogue of the energy source of the machine, and in the anatomical structure of the body, the joints of the joints - something resembling the system of levers of the machine. Thus, the body, according to Descartes, is material and acts according to the laws of mechanics. The soul is non-material, and its main property is the ability to think, remember and feel.
In the 18th century English philosopher J. Locke put forward an empirical-sensualistic concept, according to which the sensual principle prevails over the rational, over the mind. There is nothing in the mind that is not in the senses. The consciousness of a child at birth is tabula rasa, a “blank slate” on which life leaves its writings. Feelings are formed in us according to the principle of association (connection between mental units). This is how experience is formed. This idea formed the basis of many theories based on the idea of ​​the leading role of external influences for the development and upbringing of a person. So, Locke attached great importance to education, including the formation of a positive attitude towards good deeds and a negative attitude towards bad ones.
In the 18th century in thanks to the development of medicine, physiology, a connection is established between the soul, the psyche and the brain. C. Bell opens two types of fibers - sensory and motor, confirming the idea of ​​a reflex.
For the first time, psychological phenomena and processes receive a reflex interpretation in the book THEM. Sechenov"Reflexes of the Brain".
Over time, it turns out that the principle of the reflex cannot explain the variability of human movements, their dependence on the mental state, thinking.

Scientific stage.

In the 19th century experiment is gaining more and more value in many scientific branches. Introduction to the psychology of a scientific laboratory experiment belongs to a German scientist W. Wundt. First psychological experimental laboratory opened in 1979 under the direction of Wundt. Sensation and perception were mainly measured.
For example, the psychophysical law of sensations was derived: “The intensity of sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus” (in order to get an increment in sensation in an arithmetic progression, it is necessary to increment the effect of physical stimuli in a geometric progression, i.e. the stimulus must be several times stronger, than the previous time to evoke the same feeling). As regards thinking, Wundt proposes to use method of introspection(self-observation), as well as the study of cultural monuments, language, myths, art, etc.
During this period, the subject of psychology changed. Thanks to the experiment, it becomes consciousness, which is understood as the ability to think, feel, desire. Psychology is taking shape as an independent science. Industries are developing:
- experimental psychophysiology of sense organs;
- The psychology of individual differences. F. Galton introduced the twin method to determine the relationship between heredity and environment in the determination of individual differences.
A natural experiment is developing (under natural conditions) ( A.F. azure- psychology of Personality, V.M. Bekhterev– psychology of small groups).

The main directions of development of psychology after the crisis early. 20th century

The shortcomings of the method of introspection lead to a crisis in psychological science. As a result, at the beginning 20th century a number of new directions appear, each of which offered its own subject of psychology and methods for studying it.

Behaviorism

The name comes from English. behavior - "behavior". American psychologists are considered the founders E.L. Thorndike and J. Watson.
Behaviorists believed that consciousness is too subjective and hidden from us and therefore cannot be measured. They proclaimed the psyche "a black box where a person hides his problems, creating the appearance of their solution." It is possible to measure and fix the external manifestation of the psyche - behavior.
Behavior schema has been described by behaviorists as a formula: S-R(“stimulus-response”). A stimulus is any external influence on the body, and a reaction is any response. The meaning of the formula - knowing which stimulus causes a certain reaction, you can control the behavior of humans and animals. To do this, it is necessary to observe human behavior, establish patterns, and later use the appropriate stimulus to evoke the desired response. To enhance the action, you need to use reinforcements. Reinforcement can be positive (reward, praise, etc.) and negative (punishment, etc.), as well as direct (immediate) and indirect (when a person or animal observes the behavior of another individual and what such behavior can lead to). This is how it goes learning, the process of acquiring individual, personal experience ( A. Bandura).
Neobehaviorists ( E. Tolman, B. Skinner) supplemented the formula S - R: S - O -R, where O - cognitive processes: thinking, memory, imagination.
The development of behaviorism was greatly influenced by the teachings of I.P. Pavlov and V.M. Bekhterev on the nature of the reflex.
Critics of behaviorism draw attention to the mechanistic approach to the psyche, its rigid determination by external circumstances, and the blurring of the boundaries between human and animal psychology.

Psychoanalysis

The founder is the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Z. Freud. One of his biographers notes: "Copernicus moved humanity from the center of the world to its outskirts, Darwin forced him to recognize his relationship with animals, and Freud proved that the mind is not the master in its own house." Z. Freud made a revolution in the ideas about the human psyche - human behavior is determined not only and not so much by consciousness, but more by the unconscious (hidden, suppressed feelings, desires).
Z. Freud made this conclusion based on his medical practice. He was engaged in the treatment of hysteria, neuroses. He noted that these diseases are caused by the suppression of various kinds of psychotraumas that took place, for the most part, in early childhood. These psychotraumas do not disappear, but wander in a person, periodically crawling out in dreams, slips of the tongue, drawings, jokes, etc. According to Freud, in order to get rid of them, it is necessary not to suppress, but to remember in all colors, to relive and, most importantly, to react. For this purpose, Freud used:
1. Hypnosis.
2. The method of free associations (the person relaxed and said whatever came into his head).
3. Interpretation of dreams.
4. Transference analysis (a person transfers his images to the doctor, associates him with loved ones).
Thus, psychoanalysis is carried out.

Gestalt psychology

Founders - German scientists K. Koffka, W. Koehler, M. Wertheimer. The name comes from him. gestalt - "form, image, structure." From their point of view, the psyche is an integral structure, not reducible to a set of separate elements. The whole is not the sum of its parts, the parts do not determine the whole, but on the contrary, the properties of the whole determine the properties of its individual parts. Thus, a musical melody cannot be reduced to a sequence of different musical sounds. It is important to study the structure of connections between them.
Whole structure is what it is. gestalt.
concept "figure-background"- one of the key in Gestalt psychology. For example, perception is not the sum of sensations, it is holistic. Figure and ground are hard to see together. Usually one integral part is allocated - either a figure or a background.
In psychotherapy, Gestalt techniques are also aimed at establishing wholeness. So, a well-known exercise is the “Circle of subpersonalities”, the task of which is to bring individual manifestations of personality to harmony (“I want”, “need”, etc.). The Mandala exercise is also a typical example.

cognitive psychology

Name from lat. сognitio - knowledge, knowledge. Cognitive psychology considers the dependence of a person's behavior on his cognitive maps (schemes) that determine his worldview. Associated with names A. Beck, A. Ellis.
Critics of cognitive psychology note the simplification of the inner world of a person, the action according to schemes and models, the identification of the brain with a machine. It is not for nothing that the emergence and development of this direction are associated with the rapid development of computer technology and the development of cybernetics (the science of the laws governing the process of controlling and transmitting information).
The structure of cognitive schemas includes beliefs and rules through which people sort and use incoming information. At the same time, beliefs can be dysfunctional and cause cognitive errors that lead to inappropriate behavior.
Error examples:
1. Arbitrary inference. Drawing conclusions in the absence of evidence. Example is the working mother who concludes at the end of a hard day, “I am a terrible mother.”
2. Electoral abstraction. Selective attention to an insignificant detail while ignoring a more significant one. Example- a lover who becomes jealous when he sees that his girlfriend tilts her head to the interlocutor at a noisy party in order to hear him better.
3. Overgeneralization. Deriving a general rule from one or more isolated cases. Example- a woman who, after a disappointing date, comes to the conclusion “All men are the same. I will always be rejected."
4. Exaggeration and understatement.Example the first is a student who predicts disaster: "If I become even a little nervous, I will certainly fail." Example the second is a man who says that his terminally ill mother "has a slight cold."
5. Personalization. The tendency to associate external events with oneself in the absence of adequate evidence. Example- a person sees an acquaintance walking on the opposite side of a busy street, who does not notice his greeting waving, and thinks: "I must have offended him with something."
6. dichotomous thinking."Black and white", "either-or", etc., maximalism. Example– the student thinks: “If I don’t pass this exam with excellent marks, I am a loser.”

A. Beck believes that reasons such cognitive errors are:
1. Psychological trauma received in childhood.Example- a five-year-old boy went on a journey and, upon returning, found out that his beloved dog had died; as a result, the boy formed an attitude: "When I am physically at a great distance from others, something bad happens to them."
2. Maltreatment in childhood. This hurts self-esteem and makes the child vulnerable. Often, people significant to the child model offensive behavior, which he will later use against other people, or overly criticize himself.
3. Negative life experience, learning.

Humanistic psychology

Originated in the 1960s. in the USA. Founders A. Maslow, K. Rogers. The name is from the Latin humanus - "human". Humanistic psychology studies only humans and argues that animals should not be studied. This direction is based on an optimistic approach to understanding human nature: faith in the creative powers of each person, in the fact that he is able to consciously choose his own destiny and build his life. Humanists argue that a person is initially good, and his aggression is the result of environmental influences. The focus is on a healthy, self-actualizing personality.
The highest human need is the need for self-actualization, i.e. in unlocking your personal potential. At the same time, this higher need arises and can be satisfied by satisfying the lower (physiological, for example).

Domestic psychology

Russian psychological thought has its roots in the 19th century. One of the most significant claims for the construction of psychological knowledge at that time was the work THEM. Sechenov"Reflexes of the Brain".
I.P. Pavlov- the great Russian scientist-physiologist, the founder of the doctrine of higher nervous activity (HNA).
Bekhterev V.I.- the great Russian physiologist, psychiatrist and psychologist, founder of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia and the Psychoneurological Institute (1908) - the world's first center for the comprehensive study of man. Developed a natural science theory of behavior.
Rubinshtein S.L.- an outstanding domestic psychologist and philosopher. He developed the activity principle in psychology, the principle of determinism, the principle of a personal approach.
Luria A.R.- an outstanding domestic psychologist, the founder of neuropsychology in our country. He paid the main attention to the experimental study of the localization of higher mental functions (HMF).
Vygotsky L.S.- the founder of the cultural and historical concept of the development of the psyche, according to which the mental development and formation of the child's personality occurs when interacting with society, culture, in the process of appropriating culturally given ways of acting with objects, getting acquainted with the achievements of culture and science. Thus, the psyche is culturally and historically conditioned.
Leontiev A.N.- an outstanding domestic psychologist. He developed a psychological theory of activity, which is a recognized theoretical trend in domestic and world psychological science. According to it, the psyche is born, formed and manifested in activity. At the same time, at each stage of growing up, the leading activity that has the greatest impact is singled out. For example, in preschool age - this is a game, in primary school - teaching, in adolescence - intimate personal communication.

In the XX century. several psychological theories and concepts took shape that analyzed the essence of the human psyche and the laws of its development and functioning from different angles: psychoanalysis or Freudianism, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, humanistic psychology, transpersonal psychology, etc.

Behaviorism: The American psychologist Watson proclaimed in 1913 that psychology would gain the right to be called a science when it applied objective experimental methods of study. Objectively, one can study only the behavior of a person that occurs in a given situation. Each situation corresponds to a specific behavior that should be objectively recorded. "Psychology is the science of behavior", and all concepts related to consciousness should be expelled from scientific psychology. “The expression “The child is afraid of dogs” in scientific terms does not mean anything, objective descriptions are needed: “tears and trembling in a child increase when a dog approaches him.” New forms of behavior appear as a result of the formation of conditioned reflexes (conditioning) (Watson). “All behavior is determined by its consequences” (Skinner). Human actions are formed under the influence of the social environment, a person is completely dependent on it. A person is also inclined to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation can be for himself (Bandura).

Important merits of behaviorism are: the introduction of objective methods of registration and analysis of externally observed reactions, human actions, processes, events; discovery of the patterns of learning, the formation of skills, behavioral reactions.

The main drawback of behaviorism is the underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity, the convergence of the psyche of animals and humans, ignoring the processes of consciousness, creativity, and self-determination of the individual. Behaviorism (or behavioral psychology) considers a person as a kind of biorobot whose behavior can and should be controlled using psychological laws.

Freudianism considers a person as a contradictory biosocial sexual being, inside which there is a constant struggle between the unconscious sexual desires of a person, his consciousness and his conscience, as a result of which the person himself often does not know how he will act in the next moment and why he will do so. Behavior, mental states, human health significantly depend on the unconscious processes of the psyche, in particular on unconscious sexual aspirations and unconscious complexes. 3. Freud introduced a number of important topics into psychology: unconscious * motivation, defense mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality in it, the impact of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc. However, his closest students came to the conclusion that it was not sexual drives, but advantage, and the feeling of inferiority and the need to compensate for this defect (A. Adler), or the collective unconscious (archetypes), which has absorbed universal human experience (K. Jung), determine the mental development of the individual.

The psychoanalytic direction paid increased attention to the study of unconscious mental processes. Unconscious processes can be divided into 2 large classes: 1 - unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions (unconscious automatic actions and automated skills, phenomena of an unconscious attitude); 2 - unconscious stimuli of conscious actions (this is what Freud intensively studied - the impulses of the unconscious area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe psyche (drives, repressed desires, experiences) have a strong influence on the actions and states of a person, although a person does not suspect this and often does not know why he does this or other action. Unconscious ideas hardly pass into consciousness, practically remaining unconscious due to the work of two mechanisms - the mechanisms of repression and resistance. Consciousness provides: resistance to them, that is, a person does not let the whole truth about himself into consciousness. Therefore, unconscious ideas, having " a large energy charge, break through into the conscious] life of a person, taking a distorted or symbolic form (three forms of manifestation of the unconscious - dreams, erroneous actions - slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting things, neurotic symptoms).

Cognitive psychology considers a person, first of all, as a rational cognizing being, capable of independently knowing the world around him and himself, able to find a solution to any complex problems, discover his mistakes and correct them, capable of self-learning and self-government. Representatives of cognitive psychology W. Neisser, A. Paivio and others assign a decisive role to knowledge (from Latin cognito - knowledge) in the behavior of the subject. For them, the central issue is the organization of knowledge in the memory of the subject, the relationship between verbal (verbal) and figurative components of the processes of memorization and thinking.

Humanistic (existential) psychology considers a person as an initially good being, who potentially has the highest human qualities and the highest human needs (the need for self-development and self-improvement, the need for understanding the meaning of life and actualizing one’s purpose in the world, the need for beauty, knowledge, justice and etc.), and only unfavorable living conditions can temporarily block the manifestation of higher human qualities in real human behavior. The most prominent representatives of humanistic psychology G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, K. Rogers, A. Maslow consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research.

The goal of such a person is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-fulfillment, self-actualization, the growth of the constructive beginning of the human "I". A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - these and similar concepts characterize the basic needs of a person. As V. Frankl, the author of the concept of logotherapy, notes, in the absence or loss of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, he is struck by severe failures.

Transpersonal psychology considers a person as a spiritual cosmic being, inextricably linked with the entire Universe, space, humanity, having the ability to access the global information cosmic field, as a result of which a person can receive information about any event that was, is and will be in the universe. Through the unconscious psyche, a person is connected with the unconscious psyche of other people, with the "collective unconscious of mankind", with cosmic information, with the "world mind". At the unconscious level, there is a constant information-energetic interaction of a person with the Universe, with the global information field, with the "collective unconscious of mankind", but a person most often does not consciously know anything about this. At the conscious Level, the informational interaction of a person with the global information field becomes possible either spontaneously or on the basis of special psychological methods: meditation, rebirthing, etc.

The psyche and personality of a person are so multifaceted and complex that at the present stage of development, psychology has not yet reached the final complete knowledge of the secrets of the human soul. Each of the existing psychological theories and concepts reveals only one of the facets of the human psyche, reveals certain real patterns, but not the whole truth about the essence of the human psyche. Therefore, it is unacceptable to absolutize any one psychological theory and reject all other psychological concepts. In order to know the human psyche as fully and comprehensively, comprehensively as possible, it is necessary to know and take into account all existing psychological theories and approaches, it is necessary to consider the human psyche from different angles, identifying and studying its various facets (it is possible that not all facets of the human psyche are known to modern science ). Most modern psychologists agree that when analyzing the psyche and the structure of a person's personality, it is necessary to take into account the biological nature (body, innate instincts) and the social nature of a person (social relations, internalized social norms), the conscious and unconscious spheres of the psyche, the unity of the cognitive-intellectual, emotional-motivational, behavioral-volitional spheres, the essence of personality, its center, "selfhood".