Basic psychological theories of will. Distinctive features of projective techniques
10. Basic psychological theories and their relationship
Basic psychological theories:
The structure of personality according to Freud (Psychoanalytic theories of personality);
The theory of sexual development 3. Freud;
Defense mechanisms according to Freud;
Behaviorism;
Behavioral concept of B. Skinner;
Typology of behavior according to McGuire;
Cognitive theories of personality;
A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs;
Self-actualization of personality;
Transpersonal psychology. Views of K. Jung;
Transpersonal approach to a person by Stanislav Groff;
The genetic approach of Champion Teutsch.
K. Jung introduced the concept of the collective unconscious and its primary formation (archetype). He created a typology of personality, which is based on the focus of a person on himself (introverts) or on an object (extroverts).
A. Adler considered the basis not of natural instincts, but of an innate social feeling.
humanistic theory considers personality as a product of life in society, the assimilation of social forms of behavior and the development of human experience. The core of personality is its self-esteem and self-actualization. Human behavior is explained by the presence of innate humanistic, altruistic needs. Creative self-realization is the basis for the formation of personality.
Domestic theories of personality. By S.L. Rubinstein personality has a complex multi-level structure. It is internally determined by the external circumstances of life. By Vygotsky, the main driver of personality development is the discrepancy or contradiction between the operational and technical capabilities of a person and the development of his motivational-required sphere. A.N. Leontiev the central place in the structure of personality assigned activity. The motivational sphere and "personal" meaning are the main internal characteristics of the personality, which determine the relation of the purpose of the action to the motive.
Defense mechanisms (according to Freud).
Protective behavior allows a person to protect himself from those problems that he cannot solve yet, allows you to relieve anxiety from threatening events (loss of a loved one, favorite toy, loss of love from other people, loss of love for yourself, etc.), allows " get away from a threatening reality", sometimes transform this threat. For some time, a protective mechanism is necessary, since a person cannot solve the problem at the moment, but if time passes, and the person does not solve the problem, then this protective mechanism can be an obstacle to personal growth, a person’s behavior becomes difficult to predict, he can harm himself himself, he escapes from reality and from those problems that he needs to solve, i.e. the defense mechanisms themselves often give rise to more and more new problems, and a person hides his real problem, replacing it with new "pseudo-problems". Freud identified seven defense mechanisms:
Suppression of desires - removal of desires from consciousness, since it "cannot" be satisfied; suppression is not final, it is often the source of bodily diseases of a psychogenic nature (headaches, arthritis, ulcers, asthma, heart disease, hypertension, etc.). The psychic energy of repressed desires is present in the body of a person, regardless of his consciousness, finds its painful bodily expression. The result of suppression is a demonstrative indifference to this area, reality;
Denial - withdrawal into fantasy, denial of any event as "untruth". "This cannot be" - a person shows a vivid indifference to logic, does not notice contradictions in his judgments;
Rationalization - building acceptable moral, logical justifications, arguments to explain and justify unacceptable forms of behavior, thoughts, actions, desires;
Inversion is the substitution of actions, thoughts, feelings that meet a genuine desire with diametrically opposite behavior, thoughts, feelings (for example, a child initially wants to receive his mother's love for himself, but, not receiving this love, begins to experience the exact opposite desire to annoy, anger his mother, cause quarrel and hatred of the mother towards herself);
Projection - attributing to another person one's own qualities, thoughts, feelings, i.e. "detachment of the threat from oneself." When something is condemned in others, it is precisely this that a person does not accept in himself, but he cannot recognize it, does not want to understand that these same qualities are inherent in him. For example, a person claims that "some Jews are deceivers", although in fact this may mean: "I sometimes deceive";
Isolation - separation of the threatening part of the situation from the rest of the mental sphere, which can lead to separation, split personality, to an incomplete "I";
Regression - a return to an earlier, more primitive way of responding; stable regressions are manifested in the fact that a person justifies his actions from the position of a child’s thinking, does not recognize logic, defends his point of view, despite the correctness of the interlocutor’s arguments, a person does not develop mentally, and sometimes childhood habits return (nail biting, etc.) .
Behavioral concept of B. Skinner.
The behavioral concept considers personality as a system of reactions to various stimuli (B. Skinner, J. Homans and others). A separate line in the development of behaviorism is represented by the system of views of B. Skinner, who put forward the theory of operant behaviorism.
In accordance with Watson's concept of classical behaviorism, Skinner explores the behavior of an organism. Retaining the two-term scheme of behavior analysis, he studies only its motor side. Based on experimental research and theoretical analysis of animal behavior, Skinner formulates a position on three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex and operant. The latter is the specificity of the teachings of B. Skinner.
Unconditioned reflex and conditioned reflex types of behavior are caused by stimuli (S) and are called respondent, responding behavior. This is a type S reaction. They make up a certain part of the behavioral repertoire, but they alone do not provide adaptation to the real environment. In reality, the process of adaptation is built on the basis of active tests - the effects of the animal on the world around it. Some of them may accidentally lead to a useful result, which, by virtue of this, is fixed. Such reactions (R), which are not caused by a stimulus, but are allocated (“emitted”) by the body and some of which turn out to be correct and are reinforced, Skinner called operant. These are R-type reactions. According to Skinner, it is these reactions that are predominant in the adaptive behavior of the animal: they are a form of voluntary behavior.
Based on the analysis of behavior, Skinner formulates his theory of learning. The main means of forming new behavior is reinforcement. The whole procedure of learning in animals is called "successive guidance on the desired response."
Skinner transfers the data obtained from the study of animal behavior to human behavior, which leads to an extremely biological interpretation of man. So, on the basis of the results of learning in animals, a Skinnerian version of programmed learning arose. Its fundamental limitation lies in the reduction of learning to a set of external acts of behavior and reinforcement of the correct ones. At the same time, the internal cognitive activity of students is ignored, and as a result, learning as a conscious process disappears. Following the installation of Watsonian behaviorism, Skinner excludes the inner world of a person, his consciousness from behavior and produces a behaviorization of his psyche. Thinking, memory, motives, etc. he describes mental processes in terms of reaction and reinforcement, and he describes a person as a reactive being exposed to external circumstances. For example, interest corresponds to the likelihood that results from the consequences of the "showing interest" behavior. Behavior associated with friendship with a person changes as that person changes the reinforcements they provide. The biologizing approach to man, characteristic of behaviorism in general, where there is no fundamental difference between man and animal, reaches its limits in Skinner. All culture - literature, painting, stage - turns out to be in his interpretation "cunningly invented reinforcements." Taken to the extreme, the behaviorization of man, culture and society leads to absurdity, which was especially expressively manifested in the sadly sensational book Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). Skinner's transformation of the concepts of freedom, responsibility, dignity actually means their exclusion from the real life of a person.
To solve the social problems of modern society, B. Skinner puts forward the task of creating a technology of behavior designed to control some people over others. Such a means is the control over the regime of reinforcements, which allows manipulating people.
Theory of activity. Activity theory associated with name L.S. Vygodsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other domestic psychologists. The main postulate of this theory is the postulate that "being, human activity determine his consciousness."
Human activity consists of several non-equilibrium levels:
The level of psychophysiological functions (the lowest level). Psychophysiological functions - physiological provision of mental processes of activity. Since a person is a biosocial being, the course of mental processes is inseparable from the processes of the physiological level, which provide the possibility of the implementation of mental processes. A feature of psychophysiological functions is that they are given to a person “from nature”. Psychophysiological functions include the ability to sense (sensory functions), to form and fix traces of past influences (mnemonic functions), motor abilities (motor functions), etc. Motor functions play a special role, which are divided into innate (based on unconditioned reflexes) and acquired (based on conditioned reflexes);
The level of operations (the level of automatic actions and skills). Operations - a way to perform an action. Different operations can be used to achieve the same goal under different (internal and external) conditions. A goal given under certain conditions is called a task in activity theory. The peculiarity of operations is their low awareness.
Action level (the core of the hierarchical construction). Action - the main unit of activity analysis - a process aimed at achieving the goal, implemented in the external and internal plan. At the same time, the goal is an image that a person, performing a certain activity, constantly keeps in his mind. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of a person's activity, with the exception of those cases when, for certain reasons or circumstances, the adequacy of the mental regulation of behavior is violated in a person, for example, in case of illness or in a state of passion;
The level of special activities (the highest level; a set of actions that are caused by one motive). At this level, activity unfolds in its own personal problems, actualizing the problems of individual style and personal meaning. Personal meaning is understood as the experience of the subjective significance of an object, action or event that is in the field of action of the leading motive. With a high intensity of the leading motive, the range of objects that acquire personal meaning increases. In some cases, very strong motives can give meaning to a person's entire life. With the loss of this motive, life and activity lose their meaning.
Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation.
Moscow Automobile and Road Institute
(State Technical University).
Faculty of Economics. Specialty: Economics of road construction.
Subject: Business Psychology.
On the topic: "Personality, character, will."
Performed by a student of group No. 2 EMF 1 S.N. Golev.
Head: A.I. Shcherbakov.
Moscow.
2005 academic year.
1. The concept of personality in psychology.
2. Character.
List of used literature.
1. The concept of personality in psychology.
In a broad sense, a person's personality is an integral integrity of biogenic, sociogenic and psychogenic elements.
The biological basis of personality covers the nervous system, the glandular system, metabolic processes (hunger, thirst, sexual impulse), gender differences, anatomical features, the processes of maturation and development of the organism.
The social "dimension" of the personality is determined by the influence of the culture and structure of the communities in which the person was brought up and in which he participates. The most important sociogenic components of a person are the social roles performed by her in various communities (family, school, group of peers), as well as the subjective "I", that is, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe self created under the influence of others, and the reflected "I", that is, the complex ideas about ourselves, created from other people's ideas about ourselves.
In modern psychology there is no single understanding of personality. However, most researchers believe that a personality is an in vivo forming and individually unique set of features that determine the way (style) of thinking of a given person, the structure of her feelings and behavior.
The personality is based on its structure - the connection and interaction of relatively stable components (sides) of the personality: abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions and motivation.
A person's abilities determine his success in various activities. A person's reactions to the world around him - other people, life circumstances, etc. depend on temperament. A person's character determines his actions in relation to other people.
Volitional qualities characterize a person's desire to achieve their goals. Emotions and motivation are, respectively, people's experiences and motivations for activity and communication.
Orientation and stability of personality.
Almost none of the researchers object to the fact that the leading component of the personality structure, its backbone property (feature, quality) is orientation- a system of stable motives (dominant needs, interests, inclinations, beliefs, ideals, worldview, etc.), which determines the behavior of the individual in changing external conditions.
Orientation has an organizing effect not only on the components of the personality structure (for example, on undesirable traits of temperament), but also on mental states (for example, overcoming negative mental states with the help of positively dominant motivation) and cognitive, emotional, volitional mental processes (in particular, high motivation in the development of thinking processes is no less important than abilities).
Orientation, along with dominant motives, has other forms of flow: value orientations, attachments, sympathies (antipathies), tastes, inclinations, etc. It manifests itself not only in various forms, but also in various spheres of human life. For example, we can talk about the orientation of the moral - political (liberal or conservative), professional ("humanitarian" or "technical") and domestic (a person for home, for family or "for friends and girlfriends").
The orientation of the personality is characterized by the level of maturity, breadth, intensity, stability and effectiveness.
Most psychologists believe that a person is not born as a person, but becomes. However, in modern psychology there is no unified theory of the formation and development of personality. For example, the biogenetic approach (S. Hall, Freud, etc.) considers the biological processes of maturation of the body to be the basis for the development of the personality, the sociogenetic approach (E. Thorndike, B. Skinner, etc.) considers the structure of society, methods of socialization, relationships with others, etc. ., psychogenetic (J. Piaget, J. Kelly and others). - without denying either biological or social factors, it highlights the development of psychic phenomena proper. It seems more correct to consider that a personality is not just the results of biological maturation or a matrix of specific living conditions, but a subject of active interaction with the environment, during which the individual gradually acquires (or does not acquire) personality traits.
A developed personality has a developed self-consciousness. Subjectively, for an individual, a person acts as his I (“image of I”, “I am a concept”), a system of self-image, which reveals itself in self-assessments, a sense of self-esteem, a level of claims. The correlation of the image of the Self with the real circumstances of the individual's life allows the individual to change his behavior and achieve the goals of self-education.
Personality is in many respects a vitally stable formation. The stability of a person lies in the consistency and predictability of her behavior, in the regularity of her actions. But it should be borne in mind that the behavior of the individual in individual situations is quite variable.
In those properties that were acquired, and not laid down from birth (temperament, inclinations), the personality is less stable, which allows it to adapt to various life circumstances, to changing social conditions. Modification of views, attitudes, value orientations, etc. in such conditions is a positive feature of the personality, an indicator of its development. A typical example of this is the change in the value orientation of the individual in the modern period, during Russia's transition to a market economy.
2. Character.
Definition of character, its main features.
In the most general form, character can be defined as a system of stable personality traits that are manifested in a person’s relationship to himself, to people, to work performed, to leisure, etc.
In the character, a number of subsystems or properties (features) can be distinguished, just expressing the different attitude of the individual to certain aspects of reality. The first subsystem contains features that are manifested in activity (initiativity, efficiency, diligence, or, conversely, lack of initiative, laziness, etc.). The second subsystem includes personality traits that are manifested in a person’s relationships with other people, that is, in communication (tactfulness - tactlessness, politeness - rudeness, sensitivity - callousness, etc.). The third subsystem consists of traits that are manifested in a person's attitude towards himself (self-criticism - overestimated conceit, modesty - arrogance, etc.). The fourth subsystem is a set of human relations to things (neatness - carelessness, generosity - stinginess, etc.).
Another classification of character traits is also possible, for example.
1. Properties that determine a person's actions in choosing the goals of activity and communication (thrift, rationality, etc., or alternative features to them);
2. Properties related to actions aimed at achieving the set goals (persistence, purposefulness, consistency, etc., as well as their opposite qualities);
3. Properties that have a purely instrumental meaning, directly related to temperament (introversion - extraversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsiveness, plasticity - rigidity, etc.).
Typology of characters.
In world psychological science there is no single typology of characters, but the vast majority of psychologists proceeded from the following basic general ideas:
1. Having formed quite early, the character of a person manifests itself in the period of later life as a more or less stable mental formation;
2. Combinations of traits included in the character are not random. Together they represent systems that are clearly distinguishable by types, which allows us to build a typology of characters;
3. In accordance with the typology of characters, most people can be divided into certain groups.
The most famous are the following typologies of characters.
1. Constitutional theories, connecting character traits with the appearance of a person, with his constitution, habitus (Rostan, Lombroso, Seago, Kretschmer, Sheldon, etc.).
2. Accentual theories, connecting the features of the character with its accentuation - the excessive severity of individual character traits and their combinations, representing extreme variants of the mental norm, borderline with psychopathy (Leonhard, Lichko, etc.).
3. Social typology of characters, which is based on a person's attitude to life, society, moral values (Fromm).
Let us consider a description of some types of people's characters, which does not pretend to be complete and systematic.
Hyperthymic type- such people are characterized by extreme contact, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions. These are energetic, enterprising, optimistic people. At the same time, they are frivolous, irritable, it is difficult to endure the conditions of strict discipline, forced loneliness.
Disty type. These people are characterized by low contact, taciturnity, and a tendency to pessimism. They lead a secluded life, rarely conflict. Serious, conscientious, devoted in friendship, but excessively passive and slow.
cycloid type. They are characterized by frequent periodic mood swings. During a spiritual upsurge, they behave according to a hyperthymic type, while during a recession, they behave according to a distimic type.
Lecture plan:
- The system of schools and directions in psychology.
- Characteristics of schools and directions.
- Prospects for the development of psychology.
Basic concepts:
psychological school, psychological direction, activity psychology, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, gestalt psychology, psychodynamic direction, psychoanalysis, analytical psychology, neopsychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, existential psychology, depth psychology, psychology of spirituality.
Psychological direction- an approach to the study of the psyche, mental phenomena, due to a certain theoretical base (concept, paradigm).
psychological school- a certain trend in science, founded by its major representative and continued by his followers.
So in the psychodynamic (psychoanalytic) direction there are schools of classical Z. Freud, school of C. Jung, Lacan, psychosynthesis R. Assagioli, etc.
Psychology of activity- a domestic trend in psychology that does not accept purely biological (reflex) foundations of the psyche. From the standpoint of this direction, a person develops through interiorization(transition of external to internal) socio-historical experience in the process of activity - a complex dynamic system of interaction of the subject with the world (society). The activity of a person (and the person itself) is understood here not as a special kind of mental activity, but as a real, objectively observed practical, creative, independent activity of a particular person. This direction is primarily associated with the activities of S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya and A.V. Brushlinsky.
Behaviorism- a behavioral approach learning as the leading mechanism for the formation of the psyche, and the environment as the main source of development. Behaviorism itself falls into two directions - reflex(J. Watson and B. Skinner, who reduced mental manifestations to skills and conditioned reflexes) and social(A. Bandura and J. Rotter, who studied the process socialization a person and taking into account certain internal factors - self-regulation, expectations, significance, accessibility assessment, etc.).
cognitive psychology- considers the human psyche as a system of mechanisms that ensure the construction of a subjective picture of the world, its individual model. Each person builds (constructs) his own reality and builds his relationship with it on the basis of "constructs". This direction gives preference to the study of cognitive, intellectual processes and considers a person as a kind of computer. To one degree or another, J. Kelly, L. Festinger, F. Haider, R. Shenk and R. Abelson contributed to it.
Gestalt psychology- one of holistic(holistic) directions, considering the body and psyche as an integral system interacting with the environment. The interaction between a person and the environment is considered here through the concepts of balance (homeostasis), the interaction of a figure and a background, tension and relaxation (discharge). The whole is viewed by Gestaltists as a structure qualitatively different from the simple sum of its parts. People do not perceive things in isolation, but organize them through perceptual processes into meaningful wholes - gestalts(gestalt- form, image, configuration, integral structure). This trend has taken root both in general (W. Keller, K. Koffka, M. Wertheimer), social (K. Levin), and personality psychology and psychotherapy (F. Perls).
Psychodynamic direction laid the foundation for a number of psychological schools. Its “father” is Z. Freud, who developed the principles of the classical psychoanalysis, and his closest students and associates subsequently founded their own schools. This is K.Jung - analytical psychology, K. Horney - neopsychoanalysis, R. Assagioli - psychosynthesis, E.Bern - transactional analysis and others. This direction considers the "vertical structure" of the psyche - the interaction of consciousness with its unconscious part and "superconsciousness". This direction made the greatest contribution to the psychology of personality, to motivational theories, and its influence can be traced in humanistic,
and in existential psychology. Without this direction, it is now impossible to imagine modern psychotherapy and psychiatry.
Humanistic psychology- a personality-centered direction, which considers human life as a process of self-actualization, self-realization, maximum development of individuality, the inner potential of the individual. The task of a person is to find his own natural path in life, to understand and accept his individuality. On this basis, a person understands and accepts other people and achieves inner and outer harmony. The founders of this direction are K.Rogers and A.Maslow.
existential psychology- The psychology of "existence", the being of a person is one of the most modern trends, most connected with philosophy. This direction is sometimes called phenomenology , since it gives value to every moment of a person’s life and considers the inner world of a person as a unique universe that cannot be measured by any instrument, but can only be known through identification, that is, by becoming this person. The development of this direction is primarily associated with L. Biswanger, R. May, I. Yalom, but K. Rogers and A. Maslow also contributed to it.
Depth psychology- a direction that unites currents and schools that study the processes of the unconscious, the "inner psyche". The term is used to designate the specifics of the "vertical" study of the psyche in contrast to the "horizontal".
Psychology of Spirituality- a holistic direction that combines "purely" scientific and religious approaches to man. This direction is the future of psychology and is to some extent connected with all others. Psychological interpretation of the concept spirituality still being developed. However, in any case, spirituality is connected with what unites people, makes a person whole and at the same time with the manifestation of human individuality.
Test questions:
- What is the difference between psychological schools and directions?
- What psychological schools and trends meet modern requirements?
- Which school and direction would you choose as the leader at the present time?
- How should the psychology of the future differ?
- 21.
Answers to the exam in general psychology
Questions Psychology - 22.
Organizational Psychology Exam Answers
Questions Psychology - 23.
Parapsychology. Nature of Psi-phenomena
Questions Psychology - 24.
Pathological affect
Questions PsychologyUsually p.a. appear when ascending. sudden and sharp irritation, to which it is difficult to immediately adapt. symptoms, character disorganized behavior and disruption of Y processes. Actions are "reflex in nature, lose the imprint of arbitrary acts, although they may consist of complex acts." There are a number of symptoms from the blood circulation (nar-e to. in the brain by a number of authors are considered the cause of impaired consciousness), D breathing, facial expressions. Behind the violent manifestations of p.a., - Y and physical exhaustion, amnesia about events related to the period of p.a. (considered as an expression of a former disturbance of consciousness).
- 25.
pathopsychology
Questions PsychologyFor a long time, the method of quantitative measurements of mental processes dominated psychological research. This method reached its extreme expression in the test studies of Binet-Simon, which were aimed at identifying mental abilities. But this method reveals only the final results of the work, the process itself, the attitude of the subject to the task, motives, personal attitudes are not revealed. Systematic qualitative analysis is the main principle of pathopsychological research. It is aimed not at the measurement of individual processes, but at the study of a person performing a real activity. Namely, on a qualitative analysis of various forms of the disintegration of the psyche, the disclosure of the mechanisms of disruption of activity and on the possibility of its restoration. The pathopsychological experiment is a mutual activity of the experimenter and the subject. Therefore, its construction cannot be rigid. The main difference between such an experiment and a general psychological one is that we cannot always see the peculiarity of the patient's attitude to the experiment, which depends on his morbid condition. From this we can conclude the following: 1. Mentally ill often not only do not try to complete the task, but also misinterpret experience or actively oppose instructions; 2. The peculiarity of the pathopsychological experiment also lies in the diversity, a large number of methods used; 3. The fulfillment of experimental tasks has a different meaning for different patients; 4. The pathopsychologist has to operate in his conclusion with a system of concepts that characterize the personality of the patient as a whole, along with the characteristics of individual processes; 5. A pathopsychological study reveals the real layer of the patient's life because the presented activity, the experimenter's remarks cause an equally real experience of the subject. Usually, 89 methods, selected in accordance with the objectives of the study, are sufficient to examine one patient. In the course of the study, the methods are usually applied from simpler to more complex (with the exception of patients with expected aggravation or simulation).
- 26.
Periodization of the history of psychology
Questions PsychologyIn the history of psychology, two large periods are distinguished: the first, when psychological knowledge developed in the depths of philosophy, as well as other sciences, primarily natural science; the second when psychology developed as an independent science. They are incommensurable in time: the first period (VI century BC - the middle of the XIX century) covers about 2.5 thousand years, the second a little more than a century; (mid-19th century - present). According to G. Ebbinghaus, psychology has a long past, but a very short history. The allocation of these two periods does not require special justification, since its criteria are obvious, but since each of them stretches over centuries, a more fractional periodization is necessary. It can be carried out according to purely formal chronological signs (one can distinguish between the history of psychology in the 17th century, the history of psychology in the 18th century, etc.), one can distinguish between the periodization of world and domestic psychology. Given the conditionality of any periodization and taking into account the lack of development of this problem, the periodization of the history of psychology proposed below should be considered only as one of its possible variants. In it, the history of Russian psychological thought is included as an integral part in the history of the development of world science. As a basis for dividing this process into stages, substantive criteria were chosen that determined the change in views on the nature of the mental and distinguished each of the stages (see diagram).
- 27.
Useful tips when using cheat sheets
Questions PsychologyDeprived of such opportunities, young men do not despair. In addition to public methods ("smuggling" in pockets, behind lapels), all kinds of equipment are used, electronic books, an audio player with tickets read on cassettes, and even radio communications (remember "Shurik's Adventures" and a festive carnation in the loop of a poor student with a sore ear)! But preferences are still given to written sheets - cheat sheets and "bombs". By the way, these two concepts should be distinguished. A "bomb" is not at all like being in the combat compartment of a military aircraft. "Bomb" is a cheat sheet multiplied by insolence. The principle of the "bomb" is simple, like everything ingenious: before the exam, detailed answers to each question are written on separate sheets. Then this whole bale must be packaged according to the elements of clothing so that the student has free access to each sheet. At the exam, the necessary "bomb" is removed and placed on the desk as a just written answer. The most important thing is to determine the right moment. Otherwise, you will snatch out a "bomb" like a cowboy revolvers, in a split second when the teacher blinked, and sow doubt in his own mind in his soul. Indeed, I saw a blank sheet of a student, blinked, and here it is! - at that it is already written in neat handwriting, in every cell, and besides - double. He will then be tormented, remembering how long ago such falling out of time began ...
- 28.
The concept of personality in psychology. "Man", "individual", "personality", "individuality"
Questions PsychologyThe orientation of the personality is its integral and generalized property. Orientation is expressed in the harmony and consistency of knowledge, relationships and the dominant motives of behavior and actions of the individual. This property is manifested in the worldview, spiritual needs and practical actions of a person. In the structure of orientation, an important role belongs to ideological conviction, which reflects not only the knowledge of objective reality, but also the recognition of their correct and subjectively important for the individual. Ideological conviction is a synthesis of knowledge, intellectual, emotional and volitional manifestations of the personality, the basis of the unity of ideas and actions.
- 29.
The subject and tasks of child psychology
Questions PsychologyNeurotic reactions- relatively short-term affective experiences in response to the action of psychotraumatic factors. Neurotic reactions include: increased excitability, capriciousness or lethargy during the first visit to a preschool institution; fears that temporarily worsen mood and sleep; a state of depression (depression) at parting; acute feelings in connection with the presence of a disease or a physical defect, etc. Neurotic reactions do not require treatment, but a correct pedagogical and psychological approach on the part of adults. It is important to understand the sources of children's experiences, which is impossible without the ability of parents to analyze and self-criticize. In the presence of emotional contact with children and the authority of parents, mutual understanding in the family, neurotic reactions pass quickly enough. If they are repeated and tend not to decrease with age, but to increase in intensity, then a state of chronic emotional stress is not excluded, which easily develops into a neurotic state (when neurotic reactions merge with each other) and neurosis as a neuropsychiatric disease, implying a certain uniqueness of the emerging personality. In this case, professional psychological and psychotherapeutic assistance is required. Reasons for the emergence of psychopathological habits. Masturbation, constant thumb sucking and compulsive nail biting, sometimes these habits are regarded as bad, which is not true, because they can be one of the expressions of nervousness and acquire a stubborn, difficult to correct character. Therefore, it would be more correct to designate them as pathological, which, moreover, often acquire an involuntary and painful (obtrusive) character. Masturbation as a pathological habit has physiological, psychological and clinical (painful) preconditions. In physiological terms, this is, first of all, an active, often indomitable temperament and the corresponding increased need to discharge the accumulated mental stress. Other things being equal, this habit is more common in girls who do not play with dolls and who prefer to communicate with boys, and in boys with pronounced boyish behavioral traits. The psychological prerequisites for onanism can be reduced to improper upbringing (treatment of the child) and not always conscious psychological infection of the child from the people around him. In terms of education, excessive strictness, restriction of activity, numerous prohibitions and frequent physical punishment should be noted. Spanking, spanking with a belt contribute to a rush of blood to the genital area, which acts in an irritating way. Attention is drawn to the problems of emotional contact with parents, which increase with a lack of affection, an early exit of the mother to work, the transfer of the child to relatives and nannies, or even to round-the-clock nurseries and kindergartens. It is not surprising that such children are not frank with their parents. Contributes to the onanism and force-feeding, literally - pushing food, despite the unwillingness of the child to eat. Thumb sucking, occurs in 13% of preschool children, being most pronounced in the 1st year (in 30% of boys and 26% of girls). In physiological terms, thumb sucking is more common in children with a phlegmatic temperament: unhurried, slow and thorough, as their parents say about them. The pathophysiological prerequisite for thumb sucking and its leading cause will be the dissatisfaction of the sucking instinct, mainly due to difficulties with difficult feeding: its absence, insufficient duration, tight nipples, mastitis, early transition to a nipple with a wide opening, as a result of which the child absorbs food too quickly and does not have time suck as much as he wants. Acting as a means of compensating for an unsatisfied instinct, thumb sucking is fixed under the influence of adverse psychological factors, the most important of which is a feeling of anxiety. At a hormonally mediated level, anxiety can also manifest itself in the fetus if the mother worries a lot during pregnancy, gets tired, or is often sick. Of the psychological factors contributing to the emergence of a pathological habit, the unwillingness of the mother to have a child attracts attention. Unwantedness adversely affects both the pregnancy itself, in which there is no proper self-control, and breastfeeding, when the mother does not seek to fully use it and switches to feeding through the horn and spoon early. The lack of affection, warm treatment, the transfer of the baby to the upbringing of relatives, to round-the-clock nurseries and kindergartens - all this affects the emotional state of the child. The optimal tactic for preventing and eliminating this habit should not be to fight it, but to establish trusting contact with children, timely calm and relieve anxiety, reasonable use of the pacifier, rocking the crib, lulling, singing a lullaby before going to bed, as it has been from time immemorial, and , of course, the absence of unnecessary restrictions, as well as excessive stimulation of children's activity, the creation of conditions for a variety of impressions and emotionally saturated mobile. Nail biting - onychophagia- more typical for senior preschool age (16% of boys and 27% of girls). Contributing to the reduction of increased excitability and feelings of anxiety, it is involuntary, automatic in nature and appears in a state of any excitement or excitement, including when talking, waiting, speaking, watching interesting TV shows, etc. Despite the constant control of parents and the threat of punishment, children themselves cannot give an account when they have bitten their nails, and sometimes the skin around them. Adults, on the other hand, think that children are acting to spite them, and increase control. However, children always find the right moment, and the game of "cat and mouse" begins again. A great effect is the reduction of excessive parental demands, the rejection of prodding and inconsistent attitude towards children. It is impossible to allow one-sided intellectual overload to the detriment of the emotional aspects of development and unnecessarily demand from children unrealistic expectations of parents. Stubbornness . In the most general terms, by stubbornness, parents mean disobedience, the desire of the child to do everything in his own way, the desire to insist on his own and say no when, in their opinion, you need to say yes. The peak of stubbornness falls on 2.5 years and coincides with the strong-willed development that is maximally represented at this age. Often, parents complaining about the stubbornness of their child forget about the acute need of this age for self-affirmation, the expression of their newly appeared "I", that, perhaps, their own opinion, different from them, reflecting the individual characteristics of temperament and character formation. When a child cannot be what he wants, he, one way or another, expresses his disagreement with the obstacles in the way of asserting his own, and stubbornness is one of the ways to express this disagreement. Interestingly, the parents themselves tend to focus on stubbornness at the age of 3 years of children. Still, parents to a certain extent have already fought with the opposition of children and, not having won a complete victory (in the root, it is impossible), they declare publicly about the harmfulness of the child. Stubbornness most often occurs in proud, self-esteem, pride, and at the same time active and energetic children by nature. The child of the first years of life retains spontaneity in expressing feelings and desires, and it depends on adults how naturally and firmly the conscious need to obey socially acceptable norms of behavior will enter his life. Excessive severity, pressure, forcing unconditionally and immediately to obey not always the same timely, fair and consistent requirements, can serve as a breeding ground for the emergence of protest reactions, one of the variants of which will be stubbornness. For example, overly early accustoming the baby to the skills of tidiness, independent eating, and self-care may not be realized as quickly as overly principled, overbearing or restless parents want. Then the child will be stubborn for them, which, however, reflects only a subjective assessment of his behavior. It may not be a whim at all, but a real necessity, a protection against excessive and not always thoughtful demands of adults. The range of manifestation of stubbornness is very extensive and may include: the desire to express one's own opinion, passive (resentment, silence) and active (outrage), protests against infringement of self-esteem and vital needs; nervous fatigue with excitability or lethargy and inability to respond in a timely manner to the demands of adults; evasion of the need to make a decision or ignoring the requests of adults, as well as aggressively - negative (psychopathic) interpretation of current events and relationships of other people. Enuresis - incontinence urine at night is observed in some cases during the day, during wakefulness or daytime sleep. Night and daytime (during sleep) urinary incontinence occurs in 16% of preschool children. The leading factor in the origin of enuresis is neuropathy, the determining role in it in enuresis belongs to sleep disorders. As a rule, sleep is excessively deep (according to the parents, sleeps like a log) and at the same time restless. It is almost impossible to achieve awakening - the child continues to sleep, even when he is put on the potty. One of the factors of enuresis may be MMD and is most often associated with alcoholism preceding the birth of a child. The next neurotic factor - urinary incontinence during the day is associated with a state of acute fear or anxious expectation. Urinary incontinence in neurosis is not persistent and permanent and depends on emotional factors, and it can be considered as a result of existing emotional stress, including fears and anxieties, the awareness of which is so painful for the child that he, as it were, runs away from them into sleep, where is safe, but, unnecessarily relaxing at the same time, pays with involuntary urination. A special role in the formation of enuresis in neurosis has stress arising from the psychological incompatibility of the temperaments of parents and children, since most often their temperaments are opposite. The factor of pedagogical neglect or the family and household factor is a lack of parental care and love caused by the lack of parental feelings for the child or a lack of understanding of the significance of psychological factors in his mental development (an ugly attitude towards the child). The next factor is associated with a conflict situation in the family or kindergarten, when urinary incontinence opposes some traumatic living conditions (missing home, lack of contacts in kindergarten, harsh treatment in the family). The next factor is the protest against parents' attempts to teach neatness at an early age. Tiki - involuntary, often and the same type of repeated twitching of the muscles of the face (blinking, wrinkling the forehead, sniffing, opening the mouth, twitching the lips, cheeks, etc.). articulatory and respiratory muscles (sounds such as choking, coughing, squeaking, heavy sighs, intermittent, stuttering speech, etc.). Tics are observed in 7% of boys and 5% of girls of preschool age. Often, tics are regarded by adults as grimaces, deliberate antics and self-indulgence. Therefore, they try to eliminate them by continuous remarks, prohibitions and punishments. But if the child can delay the tics for a while, then they resume with greater force. Moreover, the conscious delay of ticks is far from indifferent and turns into a sharp increase in internal tension, manifested by headaches, irritability and aggressiveness. The most common tics on the basis of neuropathy. They are less stable, depend on the action of climatic and weather factors. They intensify in a situation of increased sound background, bright light, etc. The tics that occur during neuroses are largely due to the action of psychological factors, and primarily anxiety. All sorts of unrest associated with an unusual situation of communication, expectation of something, fear or internal contradictions and conflicts contribute to ticks. But this does not mean that in neuroses they are exclusively functional in nature, since the psychogenic factor can also lead to an increase in the underlying cerebro-organic or constitutional neuropathic insufficiency. If tics in organic disorders, as already noted, are caused by overexcitation, in neuropathy by overwork, then tics in neurosis are associated primarily with anxiety, anxiety and fears, and then with overwork and excitement. This confirms the dynamics of the mental state in neurosis in connection with the psychological impact on tics. Their reduction or termination under the influence of suggestion or hypnosis is accompanied by a temporary increase in excitability; as well as an increase in physical activity. This indicates that they are an additional, albeit pathological, form of psychomotor discharge, a response to accumulated and painfully processed internal stress. In addition to emotional sensitivity and vulnerability, children prone to tics differ from their peers in the internal nature of the processing of emotions - impressiveness. Possessing, moreover, high impressionability and a developed long-term memory, they do not reveal their experiences to others, do not share them, and only those close to them can guess what is happening in their souls. Stuttering occurs in 4% of boys and 3% of girls of preschool age. The causes of stuttering cannot be seen only in fear, which is an additional reason for the development of this complex neuropsychic and psychomotor disorder. A certain role in the occurrence of stuttering is played by the constitutional factor, or speech, motor and communication insufficiency shared with parents. The speech of at least one family member may be confused, pattering, with swallowing endings, or slow, detailed, with stretching of words, moreover, insufficiently distinct in sound pronunciation. These features of speech in children make it more vulnerable to any overstrain for the first years of life. Insufficiency of motor skills shared with any of the family members in children refers to poorly developed coordination of movements, stiffness, tension, or increased excitability of the muscles and ligaments of the articulatory apparatus. Certain difficulties are observed when translating internal speech into external speech, when the child cannot freely express his thoughts in words. The next factor m, contributing to stuttering, will be dysontogenesis, first of all, the disturbed pace of speech development, its unevenness. The uneven development of speech can serve as a reflection of the unevenness of the general mental development, for example, the development of the intellect, which is somewhat slow or accelerated at first. The next factor conducive to stuttering, there will be neuropathy. These are cases where stuttering is seasonal and varies depending on the presence of high humidity or dry air. Neuropathy is a background in stuttering that precedes the appearance of psychogenic conditioned neurotic states. Stuttering, which arose mainly under the influence of traumatic factors in the first years of life, is referred to as logoneurosis. If in the future it is predetermined by fear, there are many fears, the child is timid and unsure of himself, then the diagnosis of fear neurosis will be more correct, and then it is better to regard stuttering as one of its manifestations. We can also talk about neurasthenia if stuttering is caused by an overstrain of the child's psychophysiological capabilities under the influence of excessively early, intensive training and an inadequate educational approach. Stuttering is included in the structure of hysterical neurosis, when emotional disturbances, capriciousness, a not always conscious desire to attract attention to oneself, including stuttering itself, and the desire to use it to influence others predominate. Then stuttering is overcome with difficulty, because the child is not interested in being like everyone else and losing his exclusive influence on others. In most cases, stuttering in neuroses is difficult for children to experience. Often because of fear, stiffness or embarrassment, they refuse to make contact with strangers and are easily lost in a new environment. In the usual, established sphere of communication, they can speak quite freely, because they do not experience such a keen sense of responsibility, which is so characteristic of them, expressed by fears of looking ridiculous, awkward, awkward and fear of saying something wrong or not what is needed. Minimal Brain Failure (MMN)- the most common, although not the most severe type of nervousness. Its reasons are varied. This is a difficult course of pregnancy, especially the first half: toxicosis, the threat of miscarriage. This is a harmful effect on the body of a pregnant woman of chemicals, infectious diseases, as well as some microbes and viruses. These are premature or delayed births, weakness of labor activity and its long course, lack of oxygen (hypoxia) due to compression of the umbilical cord, entanglement around the neck. After childbirth, poor nutrition, frequent or severe illnesses and infections, accompanied by various complications, helminthic invasions and giardiasis, brain bruises, poisoning and, of course, the environmental situation have an adverse effect on the brain. Symptoms of MMN: increased mental fatigue, distractibility, difficulty in memorizing new material, poor tolerance to noise, bright light, heat and stuffiness, motion sickness in transport with the appearance of dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Headaches, overexcitation of the child by the end of the day in kindergarten in the presence of choleric temperament and lethargy in the presence of phlegmatic temperament are possible. Sanguine people are excited and inhibited almost simultaneously. To the maximum extent, the signs of MMN are manifested in the primary grades of the school. MMD-minimal brain dysfunction. The following complex of disturbed behavior belongs to MMD: increased excitability, restlessness, dispersion, disinhibition of drives, lack of restraining principles, feelings of guilt and feelings, as well as criticality accessible to age. Often these children, as they say, without brakes, cannot sit still for a second, jump up, run, not understanding the road, are constantly distracted, interfere with others. They easily switch from one activity to another without finishing what they started. Fatigue sets in much later and is less pronounced than in children with MMN. Promises are easily given and immediately forgotten, playfulness, carelessness, mischief, and low intellectual development are characteristic. The weakened self-preservation instinct is expressed in frequent falls, injuries, bruises of the child. Stress is caused by a number of adverse life circumstances: children with MMD do not necessarily have a choleric temperament, as it might seem at first glance. . neuropathy- another common type of nervousness in children, defined as painfully increased or pointed nervous sensitivity. It may be congenital, since neuro-somatically weakened parents are more likely to have children with such disorders. Can be inherited: affective instability and sensitive or extremely deep sleep; a tendency to headaches, fluctuations in blood pressure, allergies and spasms of the gastrointestinal tract on a nervous basis; increased sensitivity to the action of meteorological factors and much more, united by the neuro-vegetative constitution in the family. Another factor of neuropathy will be various deviations during pregnancy, mainly in its second half, in the form of late pregnancy toxicosis (high blood pressure, edema, protein in the urine), an acute or chronic stress factor during pregnancy. The most stable, pronounced manifestations of neuropathy are as follows: 1. Emotional instability- lability, including the ease of occurrence of affects, crying, anxiety, mood disorders. 2. Vegetovascular dystonia in the form of fluctuations in blood pressure, mainly in the direction of its decrease (hypotension), dizziness, increased sweating, chills, palpitations and pulse instability, poor health with fluctuations in barometric pressure (meteopathy). Vegetative instability is expressed by the ease of occurrence of spasms of the vessels of the face (redness or blanching), head (headaches), false croup, etc. . 3. Sleep disorders: difficulty falling asleep, light sleep, refusal to sleep during the day. 4. Metabolic disorder, mainly in the form of diathesis. 5. Weakness of the body due to a decrease in protective and immune forces. 6. Psychomotor disorders in the form of nervous tics, stuttering, enuresis. Many small children tend to aggressiveness. There are two most common causes of aggression in children. Firstly, it is the fear of being injured, offended, attacked, or injured. The stronger the aggression, the stronger the fear behind it. Secondly, it is an experienced resentment, or mental trauma, or the attack itself. Very often, fear is generated by disturbed social relations between the child and the adults around him. physical aggression can be expressed both in fights and in the form of a destructive attitude towards things. Children tear books, scatter and crush toys, break things, set them on fire. Sometimes aggressiveness and destructiveness coincide, and then the child throws toys at other children or adults. Such behavior is in any case motivated by the need for attention, some dramatic events. Some children are prone to so-called verbal aggression (insult, tease, swear), which is often an unsatisfied need to feel strong or recoup for their own grievances.
- 30.
Subject, tasks and methods of modern psychology
Questions PsychologyHighest (fourth) a possible level of assimilation is the creative assimilation of information about some activity. At this level, the student demonstrates the ability to carry out research and inventive activities that bring to humanity the so-called objectively new information, i.e. information enriching existing science. People who are able to engage in creative activities have a pronounced gift for any of its varieties: physics or literature, chess or basketball, drawing, singing or dancing. Such brightly gifted individuals appear as creators already in early childhood, improvising in this type of activity and successfully imitating the masters. Creative activity is the highest level of development of the human ability to apply previously acquired information by transforming it, improving it and creating its logically developing continuations. Objectively observed levels of assimilation as some stages in the development of a person's skill in the course of his training and gaining work experience show that creative activity is the logical result of climbing the stairs from the first to the fourth level. This rise, which is possible for any person, takes place only under the condition of a special giftedness of a person to master this type of activity and education, successfully developing his inclinations.
- 31.
Mental states of a person, their classification and properties
Questions PsychologyThe subject of special study in psychology is the mental states of people under stress under extreme circumstances (in a combat situation, during exams, if an emergency decision is needed), in critical situations (pre-launch mental states of female athletes, etc.). Pathological forms of mental states are also studied - obsessive states, in social psychology, mass-like psychological states.
- 32.
Psychodiagnostic methods for studying personality and its properties
Questions PsychologyExperiment is the main method of psychological research. experiment called active intervention in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which a psychological fact is revealed. Experiment there are two types:
- 33.
Psychological characteristics of the team
Questions PsychologyThe first level (stratum) of the structure of the collective is formed by the relations of its members to the content and values of collective activity, which ensure its cohesion as a value-oriented unity. The second level is interpersonal relations mediated by joint activities (collectivist self-determination, collectivist identification, etc.). The third level is interpersonal relationships mediated pricesnostalgic orientations, not associated with joint activities. The patterns that operate at the third level of the collective structure do not manifest themselves at the second, and vice versa, and therefore the assessments related, for example, to the facts experimentally obtained within the third level, cannot be transferred to the characteristics of the second level and the collective as a whole. This orients the psychologist, who diagnoses the development of the team, to refer to the parameters that reveal its essential, and not random (superficial) qualities.
- 34.
Psychological aspects of management and leadership
Questions PsychologyIn any group, there is a leader, a leader. He may be appointed officially, or may not occupy any official position, but actually lead the team by virtue of his organizational abilities. The head is appointed officially, from the outside, and the leader is put forward from below. The leader not only directs and leads his followers, but also wants to lead them, and the followers not only follow the leader, but also want to follow him. Studies show that the knowledge and abilities of a leader are always valued by people much higher than the corresponding qualities of the rest of the group members. Why does a person become a leader? According to the concept of traits, a leader has certain properties, traits, thanks to which he is promoted to a leader. The following psychological qualities are inherent in a leader: self-confidence, a sharp and flexible mind, competence as a thorough knowledge of one's business, strong will, the ability to understand the peculiarities of people's psychology, and organizational skills. However, an analysis of real groups showed that sometimes a person becomes a leader who does not have the listed qualities, and, on the other hand, a person can have these qualities, but not be a leader. A situational theory of leadership has arisen, according to which the leader becomes the person who, when a situation arises in a group, has the qualities, properties, abilities, experience necessary for the optimal resolution of this situation for this group. In different situations, the group puts forward different people as a leader. In the studies of B. D. Parygin, types of leaders are identified depending on the nature of the activity (universal leader, situational leader), its content (inspiring leader, executive leader, business leader, emotional leader) and leadership style (authoritarian leader, democratic leader) .
- 35.
Psychology
Questions Psychology - 36.
Psychology of management
Questions PsychologyIn enterprises, firms, institutions, organizations or teams, as a rule, there is a clear division of managerial relations: some - manage, manage; others are subject to leadership. The subject of management is most often the head of the team, but it can also be a committee. Sometimes an ordinary member of the team, who is an informal leader in it, becomes the subject of management. Recently, the idea of participatory management has been increasingly accepted, i.e. such management of the affairs of an organization, firm, when all members of the organization participate in the development and adoption of the most important decisions. In management science, psychologists distinguish between management and leadership. Leadership is always associated with power, it is a phenomenon derived from official relations. The head, as a rule, is appointed from the outside, by higher authorities, receiving from them powers of authority, including the right to apply positive and negative sanctions. The leader emerges spontaneously. Any informal leader has a personal attraction, which manifests itself in different forms. There are three types of leaders - the leader, the leader (in the narrow sense of the word) and the situational leader. The leader is the most authoritative member of the group, possessing the gift of suggestion and persuasion. He influences other members of the group with a word, a gesture, a look. The leader is much less authoritative than the leader, along with suggestion and persuasion, he often has to induce action by personal example (do as I do!). A situational leader has personal qualities that matter only in some very specific situation. There are leaders in any team, and they deserve special attention, because. it is they who influence the moral and psychological climate in the team, can become a source of conflict, but it is they who make up the reserve for the promotion of personnel. Despite the obvious differences between management and leadership, they have a lot in common. There are the following three common features: - the leader and the leader play the role of coordinators, organizers of the members of the social group; - the leader and the leader exercise social influence in the team, only by different means; - the manager and the leader use subordinate relations, although in the first case they are clearly regulated, in the second they are not provided in advance. There are at least three concepts of the origin of the personal qualities of a leader. According to the first - a person from birth with the makings of a leader, he is prescribed to lead people. According to the second - "theory of traits", the personality itself acquires the necessary set of qualities of a leader - high intelligence, extensive knowledge, common sense, initiative, etc. Proponents of this theory believe that it is enough to identify
- 37.
Psychology. Basic concepts
Questions PsychologyWhat are the types of memory they are of three types: 1) according to the nature of the mental activity that prevails in activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical; 2) by the nature of the goals of the activity into arbitrary and involuntary; 3) according to the duration of fixing and preserving the material - for short-term, long-term and operational.
- 38.
Speech, its main functions and properties
Questions PsychologyThe following main functions of the language are distinguished: 1) a means of subsistence, transmission and assimilation of socio-historical experience; 2) means of communication (communications); 3) an instrument of intellectual activity (perception, memory, thinking, imagination). Performing the first function, the language serves as a means of encoding information about the studied properties of objects and phenomena. Through language, information about the surrounding world and the person himself, received by previous generations, becomes the property of subsequent generations.
- 39.
Summary table for the course "Age psychology"
Questions Psychology(up to 1 year) It is determined by two points: a) the biological helplessness of the infant, the dependence of the satisfaction of his needs on adults; b) with this maximum dependence, the inclusion of the entire behavior of the child in the social, he is deprived of the main means of social communication of speech. Thus, the contradiction between the maximum social inclusion of the infant and the minimum opportunities for communication determine the basis for the development of the child at this age. Sensorimotor development, which consists in learning motor skills (mastery of the hand, the ability to sit and walk) and the emergence of cognitive (functional) actions (i.e., knowledge of the physical side of the object and imitation of actions by adults with this object). The main neoplasm is an instinctive mental life, which is characterized by two features: a) the inability to separate not only oneself, but also other people from a continuous situation that arises on the basis of one's instinctive needs; b) "non-existence" for the child of the object of experience, i.e. states are experienced, not objective contents. The latter speaks of such a feature of consciousness as "prama". Other neoplasms include the formation of "autonomous speech": words have the functions of naming and indicating, but do not have a meaningful function; the meaning of the word is not constant; there is no relation of generality between the individual meanings of words. and development of active sensorimotor skills. The development of autonomous speech is the central neoplasm of the crisis of the first year of life Early childhood
- 40.
Situational determinants of behavior
Questions PsychologyInitially, Festinger considered all cogn. formations S as dissonant in the sense of generating motivation aimed at reducing the CA. In 1962, Bram and Cohen concretized the CD: the necessary condition is added 2x: attributing to oneself the reasons for the rise of the CD and the socially open implementation of the J. and leading to a CD, when this D. comes into conflict with the self-image, deceiving expectations. Bramel (1968) further narrowed the scope: the condition of the CA is "-" deviations from the self-image. KD motivation of fear of social consequences. 1976, Wiklund and Brehm: necessary conv. reduction of CA experience of personal responsibility for coexistence unstable cogn. structures [expanded the term again when compared with Aronson]. (1975, Nutten generally denies the possibility of D attitudes based on red and CD, he explains the deviations of behavior from attitudes by "contamination of R")
Basic concepts and terms on the topic: psychology, psyche, reflection, mental processes, mental states, mental properties, sensitivity, instinct, skill, intellectual behavior, reflection, reflex, imprinting, skill, conscious, unconscious, intuition, insight, self-consciousness, self-esteem, Self-image, reflective consciousness .
Topic study plan(list of questions to be studied):
1. The subject of psychology. Communication of psychology with other sciences. Branches of psychology.
2. Stages of the formation of psychology as a science.
3. Tasks of modern psychology.
4. The concept of the psyche, the structure of the psyche.
5. Consciousness as a form of mental reflection. Psychological structure of consciousness.
Brief summary of theoretical issues:
Subject, object and methods of psychology.
Psychology, translated from Greek, is the doctrine, knowledge about the soul (“psyche” - the soul, “logos” - teaching, knowledge). This is the science of the laws of mental life and human activity and various forms of human communities. Psychology as a science studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche (A.V. Petrovsky). object In psychology, a person is not only a specific and individual person, but also various social groups, masses and other forms of human communities and other highly organized animals, the features of whose mental life are studied by such a branch of psychology as zoopsychology. However, traditionally the main object of psychology is a person. In this case psychology- this is the science of the laws of the emergence, formation, development, functioning and manifestations of the psyche of people in various conditions and at different stages of their life and activity.
Subject the study of psychology is the psyche. In the most general way psyche - this is the inner spiritual world of a person: his needs and interests, desires and inclinations, attitudes, value judgments, relationships, experiences, goals, knowledge, skills, behavioral and activity skills, etc. The human psyche is manifested in his statements, emotional states, facial expressions , pantomime, behavior and activity, their results and other outwardly expressed reactions: for example, redness (blanching) of the face, perspiration, changes in the rhythm of the heart, blood pressure, etc. It is important to remember that a person can hide his real thoughts, attitudes, experiences and other mental states.
All diversity forms of existence of mental usually grouped into the following four groups.
1 . ^ Mental processes human: a) cognitive (attention, sensation, perception, imagination, memory, thinking, speech);
b) emotional (feelings);
c) volitional.
2. ^ Psychic formations person (knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes, views, beliefs, etc.).
3. Mental properties person (orientation, character, temperament, personality abilities).
4. Mental states: functional (intellectual-cognitive, emotional and volitional) and general (mobilization, relaxation)
Main task psychology consists in the knowledge of the origins and characteristics of the human psyche, the laws of its occurrence, formation, functioning and manifestations, the possibilities of the human psyche, its influence on human behavior and activity. An equally important task of psychology is to develop recommendations for people to increase their stress resistance and psychological reliability in solving professional and other problems in various circumstances of life and activity.
In general, psychology as a science performs two main functions: as a fundamental science, it is called upon to develop a psychological theory, to reveal the laws of the individual and group psyche of people and its individual phenomena; as an applied area of knowledge- formulate recommendations for improving the professional activities and everyday life of people.
Methods of psychology: observation- purposeful perception of any pedagogical phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. Distinguish observation included, when the researcher becomes a member of the group being observed, and not included -"from the side"; open and hidden (incognito); complete and selective.
Methods survey- conversation, interview, questioning. Conversation - an independent or additional research method used to obtain the necessary information or clarify what was not clear enough during observation. The conversation is conducted according to a predetermined plan, highlighting issues that need to be clarified. It is conducted in a free form without recording the interlocutor's answers. The type of conversation is interviewing, introduced into pedagogy from sociology. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, the answers are recorded openly.
Questionnaire - method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire. Those to whom the questionnaires are addressed give written answers to the questions. A conversation and an interview are called a face-to-face survey, and a questionnaire is called an absentee survey.
Valuable material can give study of products of activity: written, graphic, creative and control works, drawings, drawings, details, notebooks in individual disciplines, etc. These works can provide the necessary information about the student's individuality, the level of skills and abilities achieved in a particular area.
plays an important role in pedagogical research. experiment- a specially organized test of a particular method, acceptance of work to identify its pedagogical effectiveness. Distinguish experiment natural(under the conditions of the usual educational process) and laboratory - creation of artificial conditions for testing, for example, a particular teaching method, when individual students are isolated from the rest. The most commonly used natural experiment. It can be long or short term.
The place of psychology in the system of sciences.
Psychology is a field of humanitarian, anthropological knowledge. It is closely related to many sciences. At the same time, two aspects of such interrelations are quite clearly manifested.
- There are sciences that act as a kind of theoretical basis, the basis for psychology: for example, philosophy, the physiology of higher human nervous activity. Philosophical sciences are primarily of theoretical and methodological significance for psychology. They equip a person with an understanding of the most general laws of the development of objective reality, the origins of life, the meaning of human existence, form in him a certain vision of the picture of the world, an understanding of the causes of processes and phenomena occurring in living and inanimate matter and in the minds of people, explain the essence of real events, facts. Philosophy makes a decisive contribution to the formation of a person's worldview.
- There are sciences in respect of which psychology is one of the basic, theoretical foundations. These sciences primarily include pedagogical, legal, medical, political science and a number of others. The development of their problems by these sciences at the present time cannot be sufficiently complete and justified without taking into account the human factor, including the human psyche, the psychology of age, ethnic, professional and other groups of people.
- 3. The history of the development of psychological knowledge.
The Doctrine of the Soul (5th century BC - early 17th century AD)
The doctrine of the soul developed within the framework of ancient Greek philosophy and medicine. New ideas about the soul were not religious, but secular, open to all, accessible to rational criticism. The purpose of constructing the doctrine of the soul was to identify the properties and patterns of its existence.
The most important directions in the development of ideas about the soul are associated with the teachings of Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Plato drew a line between the material, material, mortal body and the immaterial, immaterial, immortal soul. Individual souls - imperfect images of a single universal world soul - possess a part of the universal spiritual experience, the recollection of which is the essence of the process of individual cognition. This doctrine laid the foundations of the philosophical theory of knowledge and determined the orientation of psychological knowledge towards the solution of philosophical, ethical, pedagogical and religious problems proper.The main directions of psychology.
A person in his physiological and mental formation and development goes through various stages, participates in many areas of social life, and engages in various activities. The forms of human communities are also diverse: small and large social groups, age, professional, educational, ethnic, religious, family, organized and spontaneously formed groups and other communities of people. In this regard, modern psychological science is a diversified field of knowledge and includes more than 40 relatively independent branches. General psychology and social psychology are basic in relation to other branches of psychological knowledge: labor psychology, sports, higher education, religion, mass media (media), art, age, pedagogical, engineering, military, medical, legal, political, ethnic, etc.The concept of the psyche. Functions of the psyche.
Psyche- this is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, in the construction by the subject of an inalienable picture of this world and in the regulation of behavior and activity on this basis.Fundamental judgments about the nature and mechanisms of manifestation of the psyche.
the psyche is a property of only living matter, only highly organized living matter (specific organs that determine the possibility of the existence of the psyche);
the psyche has the ability to reflect the objective world (obtaining information about the world around it);
information about the surrounding world received by a living being serves as the basis for regulating the internal environment of a living organism and shaping its behavior, which generally determines the possibility of a relatively long existence of this organism in the environment.
Functions of the psyche:
- reflection of the influences of the surrounding world;
- a person's awareness of his place in the world around him;
- regulation of behavior and activity.
^ Development of the psyche in phylogenesis and ontogenesis.
The development of the psyche in phylogenesis is associated with the development of the nervous system. The level of development of the sense organs and the nervous system invariably determines the level and forms of mental reflection. At the lowest stage of development (for example, in intestinal cavities), the nervous system is a nervous network consisting of nerve cells scattered throughout the body with intertwining processes. This is the network nervous system. Animals with a reticulate nervous system mainly respond with tropisms. Temporary connections are formed with difficulty and are poorly preserved.
At the next stage of development, the nervous system undergoes a number of qualitative changes. Nerve cells are organized not only in networks, but also in nodes (ganglia). The nodal, or ganglionic, nervous system allows you to receive and process the greatest number of stimuli, since the sensory nerve cells are in close proximity to stimuli, which changes the quality of the analysis of the received stimuli.
The complication of the nodal nervous system is observed in higher invertebrates - insects. In each part of the body, the ganglia merge to form nerve centers that are interconnected by nerve pathways. The head center is especially complicated.
The highest type of nervous system is the tubular nervous system. It is a combination of nerve cells organized into a tube (in chordates). In the process of evolution in vertebrates, the spinal cord and brain, the central nervous system, arise and develop. Simultaneously with the development of the nervous system and receptors, the sense organs of animals develop and improve, and the forms of mental reflection become more complex.
Of particular importance in the evolution of vertebrates is the development of the brain. Localized centers are formed in the brain, representing different functions.
Thus, the evolution of the psyche is expressed in the improvement of the sense organs that perform receptor functions, and the development of the nervous system, as well as in the complication of forms of mental reflection, i.e., signal activity.
There are four main levels of development of the psyche of living organisms:
- Irritability;
- Sensitivity (feelings);
- Behavior of higher animals (externally conditioned behavior);
- Human consciousness (externally conditioned behavior).
The development of the psyche in ontogeny. Without assimilation of the experience of mankind, without communication with one's own kind, there will be no developed, actually human feelings, the ability to voluntary attention and memory, the ability to abstract thinking will not develop, the human personality will not be formed. This is evidenced by cases of raising human children among animals.
So, all children - "Mowgli" showed primitive animal reactions, and it was impossible to detect in them those features that distinguish a person from an animal. While a little monkey, by chance, left alone, without a herd, will still manifest itself as a monkey, a person becomes a person only if his development takes place among people.
The structure of the psyche. Relationship between consciousness and the unconscious.
The structure of consciousness and the unconscious in the human psyche. The highest level of the psyche, characteristic of man, forms consciousness. Consciousness is the highest, integrating form of the psyche, the result of the socio-historical conditions of the formation of a person in labor activity, with constant. communicating (using language) with other people. In this sense, consciousness is a "social product", consciousness is nothing but conscious being.
Characteristics of human consciousness:
1) consciousness, i.e., the totality of knowledge about the world around us.
2) fixed in it a distinct distinction between subject and object, i.e., what belongs to the “I” of a person and his “non-I”.
3) ensuring goal-setting human activity.
4) the presence of emotional assessments in interpersonal relationships.
A prerequisite for the formation and manifestation of all the above specific qualities of consciousness are speech and language as a sign system.
The lowest level of the psyche forms the unconscious. Unconscious - it is a set of mental processes, acts and states caused by influences, in the influence of which a person does not give himself an account. Being mental (since the concept of the psyche is broader than the concept of "consciousness", "conscious"), the unconscious is a form of reflection of reality in which the completeness of orientation in time and place of action is lost, speech regulation of behavior is violated. In the unconscious, unlike consciousness, purposeful control over the actions performed is impossible, and it is also impossible to evaluate their results.
The area of the unconscious includes mental phenomena that occur in a dream (dreams); responses that are caused by imperceptible, but really affecting stimuli ("subsensory" or "subceptive" reactions); movements that were conscious in the past, but due to repetition have become automated and therefore become unconscious; some impulses for activity in which there is no consciousness of the goal, etc. Some pathological phenomena that arise in the psyche of a sick person also belong to the unconscious phenomena: delirium, hallucinations, etc.
Functions of Consciousness: reflective, generative (creative-creative), regulatory-evaluative, reflexive function - the main function, characterizes the essence of consciousness.
The object of reflection can be: a reflection of the world, thinking about it, ways a person regulates his behavior, the processes of reflection themselves, their personal consciousness.
Most of the processes taking place in the inner world of a person are not realized by him, but in principle each of them can become conscious. subconscious- those ideas, desires, actions, aspirations that are now out of consciousness, but can later come to consciousness;
1. proper unconscious- such a psychic that under no circumstances becomes conscious. - sleep, unconscious urges, automated movements, reaction to unconscious stimuli
The epicenter of consciousness is the consciousness of one's own "I". self-awareness- It is formed in interaction with other people, mainly with those with whom particularly significant contacts arise. The image of "I", or self-consciousness (image of oneself), does not arise in a person immediately, but develops gradually, throughout his life under the influence of social influences.
Self-awareness criteria:
1. isolation of oneself from the environment, consciousness of oneself as a subject autonomous from the environment (physical environment, social environment);
2. awareness of one's activity - "I control myself";
3. awareness of oneself "through another" ("What I see in others, this may be my quality");
4. moral assessment of oneself, the presence of reflection - awareness of one's inner experience.
In the structure of self-consciousness, one can distinguish:
1. awareness of near and distant goals, motives of one's "I" ("I as an acting subject");
2. awareness of one's real and desired qualities ("Real Self" and "Ideal Self");
3. cognitive, cognitive ideas about oneself ("I am as an observed object");
4. emotional, sensual self-image.
5. Self-esteem - adequate, underestimated, overestimated.
I concept - self-perception and self-management
- I am spiritual
- I am material
- I am social
- I am bodily
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
Self-esteem - what is it: concept, structure, types and levels
Cassandra's Path, or Pasta Adventures War on Earth and Underground