Basic theories of personality in social psychology. Psychological Library

There are various socio-psychological theories of personality: American, European, Eastern, domestic. Among them, one can distinguish psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, role-playing theories of personality, Maslow's theory of self-actualization of the "I", the theory of the mirror "I" ("I-concept"), existential.

The content of these theories is described in more detail in the book by A. Hjell, D. Ziegler "Theories of Personality".

Among the domestic socio-psychological theories of personality, one can single out: the theory of relations by V.N. Myasishchev, the theory of installation by D.N.

These theories allow us to speak of personality not only as an individual, but also as a typical socio-psychological phenomenon.

Recently, an acmeological approach to learningness has been actively developed (acme is the pinnacle in the development of an adult). The greatest contribution to the development of this understanding of personality was made by such psychologists as A. A. Bodalev, A. A. Derkach, P. V. Kuzmina and others.

One of the important areas of socio-psychological analysis of personality types, in particular behavior in society, is a comparison of the relationship of some people to others by the parameter. The American psychologist A. Maslow in his works on the self-actualization of the "I" repeatedly
emphasized that one person can treat another as himself, and this other can perceive the people around him in the same way as he perceives things, and treat them accordingly.

Concretizing this statement by A. Maslow, the American scientist E. Shostrom called the first type of personality an actualizer, and the second a manipulator. Exploring the mental properties that actualizers, on the one hand, and manipulators, on the other, manifest both in business and in interpersonal communication, E. Shostrom discovered honesty and sincerity in the former.
relationships with people, a steady interest in them, independence and openness in expressing their position, believing in themselves and in those with whom they communicate. In the latter, he found carefully disguised falseness in contacts with people, imitation of experiences with actual indifference to people, deliberate prudence in the selection of means of influencing them, and again carefully concealed cynicism in relation to the basic values of life and culture.

Without denying the existence of socio-psychological personality types in life, which in some situations behave like actualizers, and in others - like manipulators, E. Shostrom evaluates pronounced actualizers as integral, original people. Manipulators, in his opinion, drive their identity deep and repeat, copy, replicate someone's behavioral models. Comparing the manipulators who adopted such models, he revealed differences between them, affecting the attitude characteristic of each of them both towards themselves and to other people, and most importantly, the form of expression of this attitude in everyday behavior. Based on this, E. Shostrom singled out eight varieties of manipulators, which he designated as “dictator”, “rag”, “calculator”, “sticky”, “hooligan”, “nice guy”, “judge”, “defender”.

For the first, according to the observations of E. Shostrom, in dealing with people, an openly forceful manner of behavior is characteristic, for the second - a seemingly endless game of giveaway, for the third - cold prudence, for the fourth - an imitation of defenselessness and a constant need for guardianship, for the fifth - terrorizing others in own interests, for the sixth - playing "one's own" person, for the seventh - demonstrating an accusatory position in relation to the objects of manipulation, for the eighth - hypocritical playing the role of their defender, but again with the aim of getting what they want from them.

It seems that the description of the main characteristics of the actualizers and manipulators by E. Shostrom is also applicable to our reality. The outstanding German-American psychologist E. Fromm back in the 50s of the XX century. argued that with the focus of society on the market of consumer knowledge, manipulating it becomes the paramount task of the moment. According to the scientist, the desire to manipulate people logically follows from the manipulation of the market.

The belonging of each of them to a particular group requires behavior that is taken for granted in society, so to speak, socially normal for a representative of this group - a man, a teacher, a husband, a father, etc. Demonstrating such behavior, a person constantly acts as a carrier of a social role or several social roles at the same time. Sociologist I. S. Kon, concretizing this provision, writes: “The belonging of an individual to a group is expressed in certain functions (roles), in which his duties and
rights in relation to the group. The expectations that determine the general contours of the social role do not depend on the consciousness and behavior of a particular individual: they are given to him as something external, more or less obligatory, and their subject is not an individual, but society or some specific social group. S. Sociology of Personality.-M., 1967.-S. 23).

The role is the expected behavior due to the status of a person. There are impersonal (social) and interpersonal roles. Interacting with each other in learning, work, at home and at the same time performing various roles, for example, teachers, bankers, investigators, mothers, people remain individuals. Therefore, any social role does not imply absolutely identical behavioral stereotypes for all in its implementation. She always leaves the opportunity for the performer to show their individuality. As a result, social relations become interpersonal or, as V.N. Myasishchev, psychological.

The result of the impact on a person by other people (communities) depends not only on the characteristics of the latter, but also on what kind of relationships this person has already managed to “acquire”, what needs, interests, inclinations are behind these relationships, and whether they are responsible
these people by their characteristics, needs, interests, inclinations of the individual. It is this last parameter that mainly determines the sign and magnitude of the subjective significance of another person or community for the individual, the result of their influence on it.

It is clear that the result of the influence of these factors, which is assessed by such indicators as character (content), breadth, depth, stability, effectiveness, cannot be the same for all people. If a person with whom a person has constant contacts, or a community to which he is a member, is positively significant and very authoritative for him, then, according to the study of E.B. it has new value dominants. Influence emanating from authoritative and significant people (communities) for the individual, prompting personal
ability to introspection and self-reflection, allows you to see yourself not only in the present, but also in the future, to build and implement programs for moving towards this future.

Acquiring greater or lesser autonomy in its development and reaching a higher level of socio-psychological maturity, a person can outgrow certain communities of which he was a member before, search for communities and create those that, with their characteristics, would meet his increased demands.

It should be noted that as a result of the impact of the individual on the individual or the community on the individual, the latter does not always advance along a progressive path of development. After all, her needs, interests and inclinations can also be negative, and then she is attracted to people (communities) like herself.

Thus, the attitude of the individual to external influences is characterized by selectivity and, as a rule, the unconventional nature of cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to them.

The content of people's activities, either as a whole or in its individual components, as a rule, to varying degrees, is adequate to their characteristics. This is due to the broad socio-cultural context in which people live, the exchange between them
various types of activities. At the same time, a person accumulates impressions about himself that help him answer the questions: “Who am I?”, “Why am I like this?”, “What can and should I achieve and how?”

A deeper penetration into the “I-concept” allows us to find in it, on the one hand, the real “I” (how a person displays himself, relates to himself and treats himself), on the other hand, the ideal “I” (whatever he wanted to become, focusing on moral norms), dynamic "I" (what he aspires and tries to become), fantastic "I" (what he would like to become if it were possible under especially favorable conditions). It should be noted that people differ greatly from each other in the "distances" separating their real, ideal, dynamic and fantastic "I". However, they differ just as strongly from each other in the degree of dominance of their “I” over others - “You” and “You” - in situations of interaction and joint decision-making.

Considering the characteristics of the "I", it is also impossible not to notice that in some people their "I" has greater autonomy in relation to external influences and a greater ability to move away from the experiences that they have in response to these influences. For others, their "I" poorly or does not distance themselves from these experiences at all. As a result, the former have the ability to self-regulate and self-control, while the latter have this ability very weakly expressed or completely absent.

Freud's (1856-1939) psychoanalytic approach to understanding personality The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, had a revolutionary influence on all psychotherapy and psychiatry. We can say that he opened a new era in these sciences and had a huge impact on the entire Western culture.

Z. Freud was a consistent determinist, he believed that everything in mental life has its own reason, each mental event is caused by conscious or unconscious intention and is determined by previous events. His main merit is that he first introduced the concept of the unconscious into science and created methods for working with unconscious motives.

He identified three areas of the mental: consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious. It is in the unconscious that the main determinants of personality are located - mental energy, urges and instincts. There are two basic instincts: libido, or the desire for sexual satisfaction, and the instinct of aggression and the desire for death. In the structure of personality, according to Freud, there are also three main components: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego). There is no exact correlation between the levels of consciousness and the components of the personality, but as far as the Id is concerned, this basic, original and central part of the personality is almost entirely unconscious. It includes mental forms that were never conscious, and those that were unacceptable to consciousness and were forced out of it. Id does not know values, good and evil, does not know morality.

I (Ego), on the one hand, follows the unconscious instincts, and on the other hand, obeys the requirements of reality. This part of the personality is responsible for voluntary behavior, can control and suppress instincts, strives to reduce tension and increase pleasure.
actions.

The Super-I develops from the Ego and serves as a repository of moral principles, norms of behavior, is a judge and censor of the activities and thoughts of the Ego. Motives, thoughts, etc. that do not correspond to the standards set by the Super-I are forced out into the area of the unconscious or preconscious.

The concept of repression or suppression of motives that are undesirable from the point of view of the Superego, proposed by Freud, is used in one form or another in almost any modern direction of psychotherapy.

However, despite the presence of protection, repressed desires (mostly associated with sexual experiences) break through into consciousness in the form of dreams, fantasies, "accidental" reservations, actions unexpected for oneself, etc. Suppressed motives continue to operate and significantly affect human behavior. Moreover, they intensify and go out of the control of consciousness.

When a strong but repressed motive breaks through into consciousness, the person may fall into a hysterical fit or have other neurotic reactions. According to Freud, the causes of any neurosis lie in the memories of a particular traumatic situation associated with
usually with sexual feelings that are unacceptable from the standpoint of moral institutions. For example, there are known cases of hysteria in girls associated with sexual abuse by their father.

Freud attached great importance to children's sexual experiences. The Oedipus complex proposed by him is well known, the basis of which is the forbidden love of the boy for his own mother and hence the hatred for his own father. In his psychosexual development, a person goes through various phases, which Freud considered in detail in the context of character formation and future psychological problems of the individual. Being stuck in one of these phases (oral, anal, phallic, and genital) can persist in an unconscious form into adulthood.

In all cases of neurotic disorders, it turns out that the libidinal energy is "incorrectly" attached (cathected) to the image of this or that person, idea or thing. Psychoanalysis helps to release misdirected energy that can be used more positively.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

"East Siberian State Technological University"

Department of "Anti-crisis management and personnel management"

Course work

By discipline: "Social psychology"

on the topic: "Socio-psychological theories of personality"

Completed by: Student of the West Federal District of the specialty "personnel management" 2010 n.

Kulikova Alina Igorevna

Checked: Ph.D. Ottens A.P.

Date of delivery: ___________________

Date of protection: _________________

Grade: ______________________

Ulan-Ude, 2011

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….3

1.1 The concept of personality…………………………………………………………….5

1.2 The social attitude of the individual………………………………………….7

1.3 Socialization of the individual (mechanisms, factors and stages,

personality adaptation)…………………………………………………………...9

1.4 Asocialization, desocialization and resocialization of the individual…………15

Chapter 2 Social Psychological Theories of Personality

2.1 Specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding

Personalities………………………………………………………………………….18

2.2 Characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality……….19

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….29

List of used literature…………………………………………31

Introduction

Several generations of social psychologists were formed under the influence of socio-psychological theories set forth in many textbooks by various authors. As favorable socio-political conditions arose, socio-psychological theory from mythology began to turn into science as such. But it was not easy to overcome the crisis in the field of socio-psychological theory. The fact is that here it is impossible to confine ourselves to the rejection of some principles, theories, terms and the transition to the use of others. The crisis is associated with deep processes in society, with a ossified mentality. Therefore, it is necessary to change views on life and attitude towards a person, understanding his value.

Social psychology as a direction of scientific knowledge can be created by those who know reality not theoretically, but from within. It is impossible in modern social conditions to proceed from the theoretical schemes that have developed in the past. At the same time, it is also necessary to understand why social-psychological theory is sociologized. At present, one cannot do without an analysis of those factors, often sociological ones, that determine the content of socio-psychological phenomena. When there is a change in social institutions, a new system of relations is formed, a new way of life is established, then the time will come for a more subtle and concrete socio-psychological analysis. So far, circumstances allow us to create only a “framework” of a socio-psychological theory that is adequate to today's reality. At the same time, it is necessary to release the socio-psychological theory of ideology and fill it with appropriate content. Many principles, the so-called scientific schools, which gained their fame in the past as a result of political speculations, turned out to be untenable. It so happened that a number of phenomena fell out of the field of view of the theory of social psychology, without taking into account which neither society nor the individual can be understood.

Without a close connection with theory, the normal development of applied areas of social psychology is impossible. Today, more than ever, society needs socio-psychological knowledge. At the same time, it should be emphasized that only when a capital, scientifically funded and truly practical socio-psychological theory is created, it can be a serious help in solving vital problems.

This course work consists of two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

The purpose of the study: to study the characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality.

Chapter 1 Social Psychology of Personality

1.1 The concept of personality

Social psychology studies the personality, the problems of the formation and socialization of the personality, its position in the group and in the system of communication.

The concept of “personality” reveals the socio-psychological essence of a person, which is formed as a result of the assimilation by a person of social forms of consciousness and behavior, the socio-historical experience of mankind. We become a personality under the influence of life in society, education, training, communication, interaction.

Sociology considers a person as a representative of a certain social group, as a social type, as a product of social relations. But psychology takes into account that at the same time, a person is not only an object of social relations, not only experiences social influences, but refracts and transforms them, since gradually a person begins to act as a set of internal conditions through which the external influences of society are refracted. Thus, a person is not only an object and product of social relations, but also an active subject of activity, communication, consciousness, self-consciousness.

A person is not only a purposeful, but also a self-organizing system. What does it mean to be a person? Being a person means having an active life position. To be a person means to make choices that arise due to internal necessity, to evaluate the consequences of the decision made and to be accountable for them to yourself and the society in which you live. Being a person means constantly building yourself and others, owning an arsenal of techniques and means with which you can master your own behavior, subordinate it to your power. Being a person means having freedom of choice and bearing its burden.

Personality (in the narrow sense) is a subject of problem solving, choice, capable of independently and responsibly solving problems, it is a subject of culture. Personality can manifest itself where a person encounters problems, conflicts. A person is not yet a person if he is not able to independently solve life problems and bear responsibility for his decisions and actions.

The freedom of the individual, or freedom of choice, will, is determined by the ability of a person to make a choice of one or another variant of behavior, sometimes contrary to social circumstances or his own attraction. “Man is the only being who can at any moment say “no” to his vital biological drives” (M. Scheler).

Socio-psychological phenomena arise in the interaction of the social environment, personality and groups. The social environment is everything that surrounds a person in his social life. The social environment depends on the type of socio-economic formations, on class and national affiliation, on intra-class differences of certain strata, on everyday and professional differences.

So, the socio-economic formation forms a given social environment that gives rise to a particular way of life and, following this, a way of thinking and behavior. Consequently, the socio-economic formation - social environment - lifestyle - personality - this is the fundamental way of personality formation.

The difference between people is multifaceted: these are differences in beliefs and interests, knowledge and experience, capable and skills, temperament and character. Nevertheless, the functioning of the psyche of all people is subject to general laws: everyone has a memory, emotions and other mental processes. K.K. Platonov, pointing out that for the socio-psychological analysis of personality, one should clearly distinguish between the concepts of "personality", "individual", "individuality", gives the following definition of personality. Personality is a person as a subject of vigorous activity, transforming the world, and, consequently, a carrier of consciousness and self-consciousness.

According to E.V. Shorokhova, the socio-psychological understanding of personality is based on the characteristics of the social type of personality as a specific formation, a product of social circumstances, its structure, the totality of role functions of the personality, and their influence on social life.

1.2 Social attitude of the individual

Social attitude is one of the main categories of social psychology of personality. Social attitude is associated with a number of mental properties and processes, such as perception and assessment of the situation, motivation, decision-making and behavior. The social attitudes of the individual are the product of a collision of needs and situations of their satisfaction, which are fixed in the personality structure as a result of experience.

In English, the concept of "social attitude" corresponds to the concept of "attitude", which was introduced into scientific use by W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki (1920). They gave the first definition of attitude: a state of consciousness that regulates the attitude and behavior of a person in connection with a certain object under certain conditions, and the psychological experience of the social value, the meaning of the object.

In modern social psychology, the definition of a social attitude given by G. Allport (1924) is more often used: “a social attitude is a state of a person’s psychological readiness to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by her past experience.”

The social attitude is formed on the basis of the individual's own life experience and the experience received from other people. The main way of transferring attitudes is the verbal verbal form.

The main function of the installation is the regulation of the individual's social behavior. When talking about the system of social attitudes of the individual, then, from the point of view of social and personal significance, individual social attitudes form a kind of hierarchical structure. This fact is reflected in the well-known dispositional concept of the regulation of the social behavior of a person by V.A. Yadova (1975). It identifies four levels of disposition as formations that regulate the behavior and activities of the individual. The first level is simply installations. In the understanding of D.N. Uznadze, which regulate behavior at the simplest, mainly everyday level, to the second - social attitudes, which, according to V.Ya. Yadov, come into action at the level of small groups; the third level includes the general orientation of the interests of the individual, reflecting the attitude of the individual to his main spheres of life (profession, social activity, hobby, etc.); on the fourth, highest level, there is a system of value orientations of the individual.

Finally, a few words should be said about certain kinds or types of social attitudes. First of all, the so-called perceptual attitude is often singled out as a special kind, meaning the predisposition of the individual to a certain interpretation of the perceived elements of reality. The other two important types of social attitudes are stereotype and prejudice. Stereotypes and prejudices differ from the usual social attitude, first of all, by the content of their cognitive component. A stereotype is a social attitude with a frozen, often depleted content of the cognitive component. When talking about stereotypical thinking, we mean the limited, simplistic and superficial ideas of a person about certain objects of reality or about ways of interacting with them. The reasons for the emergence of stereotypes are usually a lack of knowledge, dogmatic upbringing, underdevelopment of the personality or a stop for some reason of the processes of its development. Prejudice is a social attitude with a distorted content of its cognitive component, as a result of which the individual perceives some social objects in an inadequate way. The main reason for the formation of prejudices lies in the underdevelopment of the cognitive sphere of the individual, due to which the individual uncritically perceives the influence of the corresponding environment. Therefore, most often prejudices arise in childhood, when the child does not yet have or almost does not have adequate knowledge about a particular social object, but under the influence of parents and the immediate environment, a certain emotional and evaluative attitude towards it is already formed. The corresponding life experience of the individual, emotionally experienced, but not critically interpreted, can also influence the formation or consolidation of prejudice. If the object of a stereotype or prejudice is another person, then often the leading features are his appearance, gender, profession, nationality, and other features are unjustifiably ignored. The most characteristic feature of perception based on stereotypes and prejudices is the division of people into “us” and “them”, while differences in positive qualities are attributed to “us” (auto-stereotype), and “strangers” are endowed with negative assessments (hetero-stereotype).

1.3 Socialization of the individual

(mechanisms, factors and stages, personality adaptation)

In psychology, socialization is usually understood as the process and result of the assimilation and active reproduction of social experience by an individual, carried out in communication and activity. Socialization occurs under the influence of various factors - these are targeted educational influences on the individual from other people and social institutions, and spontaneous influences on him of various life circumstances. The concept of "socialization" is inextricably linked with ideas about the individual and the nature of its relationship with society. Hence the different interpretations of socialization processes. For some, it is teaching social behavior; for others, the modeling of personality in accordance with the requirements of the culture. If we focus on the theory of social attitudes, which explains the processes of regulation of human social behavior, then we can say that socialization is the formation, formation and development of a system of social attitudes of the individual.

According to many psychologists, socialization occurs in the following areas of human life: in activity, in communication and in the sphere of self-consciousness. Socialization in the field of activity of A.N. Leontiev defined it as "the expansion of the catalog of activities that the child owns." This refers to the gradual assimilation of those types of activities that the child can independently reproduce, i.e. mastering cultural patterns of behavior. In the field of communication, socialization occurs in the course of a gradual expansion of the circle of communication, deepening of the very process of communication associated with a change in its content and forms. In the sphere of self-consciousness, socialization acts in terms of the formation of an image of oneself. Identification is a process of emotional and other self-identification of a person with another person, group, model. This is a mechanism of socialization of the individual, carrying out the "appropriation" by the individual of his human essence. Identification is usually opposed to isolation - the mechanism of individualization of the personality, embodied in the desire of a person to stand out from among others, to close himself off. Identification has a double effect on personality development: on the one hand, it forms the ability to establish positive relationships with people, leads to the development of socially significant qualities, on the other hand, it can contribute to the dissolution of the individual in another person, the emasculation of the individual.

Based on the foregoing, we can offer such an understanding of socialization: it is the process of active assimilation by the individual of the values and norms of society and their formation into a system of social attitudes that determines the position and behavior of the individual as a person in the system of society.

The implementation of the process of socialization is influenced by a large number of various factors, which, in the most general form, can be represented in the form of two large groups: the first includes social factors that reflect the socio-cultural aspect of socialization and affect the problems of its group, historical, cultural and ethnic specificity , secondly, individual-personal factors, largely determined by the individual-psychological characteristics of the individual, the originality of her life path.

Social factors usually include macro-, meza- and micro-factors, reflecting socio-political, economic, historical, national, etc. features of personality development, including the quality of life, the ecological situation, the occurrence of extreme and other social circumstances.

Macro-factors are those social and natural conditions for the development and socialization of the individual, which are due to her living in large social communities, such as a country, a state. This also includes culture - a system of spiritual forms of life support and socialization of a person, which covers all aspects of life: biological (sleep, food, rest, sexual sphere, etc.), production (creation of means of material life support, tools, food, clothing , housing), spiritual (language, speech activity, worldview, aesthetic activity, etc.), social (communication, social relations).

Mezafactors are the determinants of the socialization of the individual, due to his living in the composition of communities of medium size. Ethnos (nation) can be included among these factors. Belonging to a particular nation, its traditions largely determines the specifics of the socialization of the individual. Another mezafactor is the regional conditions characteristic for the socialization of people living in one or another part of the country, the state, which has its own distinctive features (a single socio-economic system, a common historical past, cultural and social identity). The type of settlement (village, hamlet, settlement, city, region), for certain reasons, also gives the originality of the socialization of the people living in it. A huge influence on the process of socialization is exerted by the means of communication (press, radio, television, theater and cinema), with the help of which information (knowledge, spiritual values, moral and legal norms, etc.) is disseminated to quantitatively large audiences.

The microfactors that determine the course of socialization include those institutions of society that carry out the process itself and for which a person is, first of all, an object of influence. According to their social status, these institutions can be formal and informal. The former are the official institutions of society (the state), which, according to their functional purpose, are called upon to educate and educate each new generation (preschool institutions, schools, universities, cultural institutions, etc.). The second, informal institutions, have a socio-psychological basis. These are different social groups, from small to large, in which an individual is included (family, class, professional labor group, peer group, ethnic community, etc.)

In fact, socialization is a process of personality formation. It begins from the moment of birth of the individual and continues throughout his life, although in old age this process sometimes acquires a regressive character. At the same time, there are: the first or early period, covering the first 12 years of a person's life; the second period is between 12-18 years. The second period of socialization is psychologically distinguished by the completeness of the formation of mental abilities. By the third period, the main system of social attitudes of the individual is already formed and quite stable. The individual acquires greater independence and criticality in the perception of various social drives, his own life experience, including the experience of social relations, becomes his main institution of socialization.

According to Erickson, self-awareness requires psychological reciprocity—i.e. the correspondence between a person's idea of himself and how others perceive him and what they want from him. This statement emphasizes that if a young person is not accepted by society or even by any individual, this can greatly interfere with his assertion of his own Self.

One of the leading and determining mechanisms of socialization of the individual is psychological adaptation.

“Socio-psychological adaptation is the process of acquiring people of a certain socio-psychological status, mastering certain socio-psychological functions. At the same time, the status of a “social personality” is understood as the position of a person in a system of mixed relations that determine his rights, duties and privileges. In the process of socio-psychological adaptation, a person seeks to achieve harmony between the internal and external conditions of life and activity. As it is implemented, the adaptability of the personality increases, i.e. its degree of adaptation to life in society. Adaptability can be: internal, manifested in the form of a restructuring of the functional structures and systems of the personality with certain changes in the environment. External (behavioral), when the personality is not internally restructured and retains itself, its independence. Mixed, in which the personality partially changes and adapts internally to the environment, its values, norms, and at the same time partially adapts instrumentally, retaining its "I" and independence.

The opposite characteristic of adaptability - maladaptation of a personality can be of several types: stable situational maladaptation, characterized by a lack of adaptation mechanisms in a person when there is a desire, but there is no ability to adapt; temporary maladaptation, in which there is an imbalance between the personality and the environment, which gives rise to the adaptive activity of the personality; general stable maladaptation, which is a state of constant tension, dissatisfaction, activating unconscious pathological defense mechanisms of the psyche.

Thus, socio-psychological adaptation also acts as a means of protecting the individual, with the help of which internal mental stress, anxiety, and destabilization states that arise in a person when interacting with other people and society as a whole are weakened and eliminated.

Psychologists describe two types of socio-psychological adaptation: progressive and regressive. In the course of progressive adaptation, the unity of interests and goals of the individual, on the one hand, and society, on the other, is achieved. Regressive adaptation is formal, does not meet the interests of society, nor the development of a social group, nor the individual himself. According to the mechanism of implementation, socio-psychological adaptation can be voluntary (at the request of a person) or forced (causing damage, deforming a person).

So, we can conclude that socio-psychological adaptation is a process that occurs when the conditions of the social environment change and is associated with correction, completion, deformation, partial restructuring of individual functional systems of the psyche or the personality as a whole.

The main meaning of socialization lies in the actualization of the "I", the disclosure of the potentials of the individual, the development of her individuality as a social being. How socially mature and harmonious a person is, the breadth of his socialization is assessed. In a totalitarian state, such methods of socialization as masochism, sadism, destruction and conformism are observed. Masochism is the desire for submission, the rejection of one's "I", as if merging it with another person or social group, i.e. this is a kind of flight from freedom, caused by the fear of loneliness and responsibility. Sadism in this case refers to the setting of other people in a dependent position, the acquisition of unlimited power over them; exploitation and intimidation of others. Destruction as a way of socialization consists in delivering a person from the feeling of his own impotence through the violent destruction of the world around him, in particular, specific social institutions. Conformity means the individual's renunciation of his own "I" and his transformation into a man of the crowd, automatically following the majority, acting "like everyone else."

Any process of human development is the process of his individual development within the framework, in the context, in the conditions of society, social group, social contacts, communication. Each person himself - individually, personally, directly - goes through the path of social development. The assimilation of knowledge included in the public consciousness cannot replace a person's process of his personal social experience, accumulated as a result of individual comprehension of social patterns.

1.4 Asocialization, desocialization and resocialization of the personality

The concept of "socialization" means participation, connection with society, while the prefix "a" in the concept of "asocialization" means the process of assimilation by a person of antisocial, antisocial norms, values, negative roles, attitudes, behavior stereotypes that objectively lead to the deformation of social relations to the destabilization of society.

Speaking of asocialization, one cannot fail to mention two more terms related to this problem: “desocialization” and “lag in socialization”. The first means that at a certain stage of the normal socialization of the individual, some deformation occurs when he falls under the influence of a negative microsphere - a yard company of peers, a criminal group, etc. As a result, the personality is destroying the former positive norms of values, instead of which new antisocial norms and values, patterns of behavior are assimilated. The lag in socialization means untimely, belated assimilation by the personality of those positive norms, patterns of behavior that are prescribed by society for each stage of socialization. Over time, lagging behind can lead to the assimilation of the personality of negative norms or to the thoughtless submission of such a personality lagging behind in the socialization of the will of other antisocial elements.

Psocialization of the personality occurs in those chronological periods (childhood, adolescence and adolescence) as socialization, while desocialization can also be carried out in adulthood. For example, a person of mature age who has taken the path of stealing state property under the influence of a group of hidden criminals can simultaneously remain a good father to a family, be cultured, polite, and normally perform all other social roles.

At an early stage of asocialization, the main mechanism is imitation, when children or adolescents, unconsciously or partially aware, adopt negative patterns of behavior from adults leading an asocial lifestyle.

In relation to a person who has embarked on a criminal path of behavior, society, represented by socialization institutions, social control bodies, carries out resocialization, i.e. the process of social recovery of the individual, the assimilation by her again or for the first time of social norms and values, patterns of behavior that are positive from the point of view of society. The prefix "re" in the concept of "resocialization" means the dismantling, destruction of the negative, antisocial norms and values learned by the person in the process of asocialization (desocialization) and the instillation of positive norms and values approved by society.

Thus, some teachers believe that “the re-education of convicts is aimed at their re-socialization and return to an honest working life in freedom” (i.e., in this case, re-socialization is considered as a result of the re-education process). Lawyers also use this term, in particular, when studying issues of penitentiary policy in relation to young people, noting the greater ability of a young subject to resocialize compared to an adult (here resocialization is considered not only as a result, but also as a process).

The problem of resocialization is connected not only with the correction of convicts. It goes to the problem of including convicts and other categories of people in the normal process of socialization: patients, drug addicts, people who have experienced stress during accidents, military operations, natural disasters. Therefore, at present, along with the concept of "social adaptation" in social psychology, the term "social rehabilitation" is widely used. Social adaptation is necessary for both healthy and sick people. As for social rehabilitation, it is needed by people who are characterized by post-traumatic syndrome, in particular “avganup”, liquidators of the Chernobyl accident, people who have suffered natural disasters, refugees from the so-called “hot spots”, released from places of deprivation of liberty, disabled people, etc. These persons need not only social assistance, but also psychotherapy, psychocorrection (auto-training, etc.).

Socio-psychological theories of personality

2.1 The specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding the personality

Currently, there are a number of approaches to understanding personality: 1) biological; 2) sociological; 3) individual psychological; 4) socio-psychological, etc. In accordance with the first approach, personality development is the deployment of a genetic program.

From the point of view of the sociological approach, personality is a product of cultural and historical development. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote K. Marx that "personality is not an abstract inherent in an individual, in its reality it is a set of social messages."

From the point of view of an individual psychological approach, personality development is influenced by such features as the constitution of a person, the type of nervous system, etc. Here it is important to distinguish between close, but not identical concepts of "individual", "person", "personality".

In the West, the branch of psychology that deals with the study of personality is called personology. The fact is that in English a person is a person.

The etymology of the word "personality" helps to understand the socio-psychological nature of the concept. In Russian, the word "personality" means a mask, i.e. mask. This circumstance emphasizes the typical in personality, which allows us to speak of it as a sociotype, an archetype.

The specifics of the socio-psychological approach to understanding the personality is as follows:

He explains the mechanisms of socialization of the individual;

Reveals its socio-psychological structure;

It allows diagnosing this structure of personality characteristics and influencing it.

The socio-psychological structure of the personality includes: mentality, value-semantic sphere, motivational sphere (orientation, life goals, plans, life path), cognitive characteristics (pictures of the world); socio-psychological competence of the individual; status-role characteristics of the personality; emotional mental states, social feelings of the individual.

2.2 Characteristics of socio-psychological theories of personality

There are various socio-psychological theories of personality: American, European, Eastern, domestic. Among them, one can single out psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, role-playing theories of personality, Maslow's theory of self-actualization of the "I", the theory of the mirror "I" ("I am a concept"), existential. Among the domestic socio-psychological theories of personality, one can single out the theory of relations by V.N. Myasishchev, the theory of installation D.N. Uznadze, distance theory of personality, personality structure of K.K. Platonov, the theory of integral individuality. These theories allow us to speak of personality not only as an individual, but also as a typical socio-psychological phenomenon.

The American psychologist A. Maslow, in his works on the self-actualization of the “I”, repeatedly emphasized that one person can treat another as if he were himself, and this other person can perceive the people around him in the same way as he perceives things, and treat them accordingly . Concretizing this statement by A. Maslow, the American scientist E. Shostrom called the first type of personality an actualizer, and the second a manipulator. Exploring the mental properties of E. Shostrom, he identified eight varieties of manipulators, which he designated as “dictator”, “rag”, “calculator”, “sticky”, “hooligan”, “nice guy”, “judge”, “defender”.

For the first, according to the observations of E. Shostrom, in dealing with people, an openly forceful manner of behavior is characteristic, for the second - a seemingly endless game of giveaway, for the third - cold prudence, for the fourth - an imitation of defenselessness and constant need for guardianship, for the fifth - terrorizing others in his own interests, for the sixth - playing "one of his own" person, for the seventh - a demonstration of an accusatory position in relation to the objects of manipulation, for the eighth - hypocritical playing the role of a defender, but again in order to get what they want from them.

Back in the 1950s, the outstanding German-American psychologist E. Fromm argued that the desire to manipulate people logically follows from market manipulation. The belonging of each of them to one or another group requires behavior that is taken for granted in society, so to speak, socially normal for a representative of this group - a man, a teacher, a husband, a father, etc. Demonstrating such behavior, a person constantly acts as a carrier of a social role or several social roles at the same time. Sociologist I.S. Kohn, concretizing this provision, writes: "The belonging of an individual to a group is expressed in certain functions (roles), in which his obligations and rights in relation to the group are fixed."

The role is the expected behavior due to the status of a person. There are impersonal (social) and interpersonal roles. Interactions with each other in teaching, work, in everyday life and while performing various roles, for example, teachers, bankers, investigators, mothers, people remain individuals. Any social role always leaves an opportunity for the performer to show his individuality. As a result, social relations become interpersonal.

Psychoanalytic approach of Z. Freud (1856-1939) to the understanding of personality.

The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was a consistent determinist, he believed that everything in mental life has its own cause, each mental event is caused by conscious or unconscious intention and is determined by previous events. His main merit is that he first introduced the concept of the unconscious into science and created methods for working with unconscious motives. He identified three areas of the mental: consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious. It is in the unconscious that the main determinants of personality are located - mental energy, urges and instincts. There are two basic instincts: libido, or the desire for sexual gratification, and the instinct of aggression and the desire for death. In the structure of personality, according to Freud, there are also three main components: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego). The id, this basic, original and central part of the personality is almost entirely unconscious. It includes mental forms that were never conscious, and those that were unacceptable to consciousness and were forced out of it. Id does not know the values of good and evil, does not know morality.

In order to prevent the repressed material from penetrating the consciousness again, the “I” uses various methods of protection. Freud pointed mainly to such forms of defense as rationalization, sublimation, projection and avoidance. However, despite the presence of protection, repressed desires (mostly associated with sexual experiences) break through into consciousness in the form of dreams, fantasies, “accidental” reservations, actions unexpected for oneself, etc. Suppressed motives continue to operate and significantly affect human behavior. Moreover, they intensify and go out of the control of consciousness. When a strong but repressed motive breaks through into consciousness, the person may fall into a hysterical fit or have other neurotic reactions.

Freud conveyed great importance to children's sexual experience. The Oedipus complex he proposed is well known, the basis of which is the boy's forbidden love for his own mother and hence the hatred for his own father. In his psychosexual development, a person goes through various phases, which Freud considered in detail in the context of character formation and future psychological problems of the individual. "Stuck" in one of these phases (oral, anal, faile and genital) can persist in an unconscious form into adulthood.

In all cases of neurotic disorders, it turns out that the libidinal energy is "incorrectly" attached to the image of this or that person, idea or thing. Psychoanalysis helps to release misdirected energy that can be used more positively.

Psychoanalysis of Carl Jung (1875-1961)

Jung identifies several main archetypes: Persona, Ego, Shadow, Anima and Animus, Self.

Persona is how we present ourselves to the world: the character we adopt, our social roles, the clothes we choose to wear, our individual style of expression.

The ego is the center of consciousness and creates a sense of consistency in our conscious life.

The shadow is the center of the personal unconscious, in which

material repressed from consciousness. It includes tendencies, desires, memories and experiences that are denied by the individual as incompatible with his persona or contrary to social standards and ideals.

Anima and Animus are ideal unconscious structures reflecting the idea of femininity and masculinity, respectively. All relationships with the opposite sex are influenced by these archetypes.

The self is the central archetype of the order and integrity of the personality. According to Jung, consciousness and the unconscious are not necessarily opposed to each other, they complement each other, forming a wholeness, which is the self.

Psychoanalysis of Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

The main principles of the Austrian doctor - psychiatrist A. Adler - holism (integrity), the unity of the individual lifestyle, social interest and public feeling, and the orientation of behavior towards achieving the goal. Adler argued that goals and expectations influence human behavior more than past experience, and everyone's actions are motivated, first of all, by the goals of superiority and mastery of the environment.

A. Adler introduced the term "inferiority complex", believing that all children experience a feeling of inferiority due to their small physical size and lack of strength and capabilities.

The feeling of inferiority causes the desire for superiority, which directs thoughts and actions towards the "goal of victory." Adler emphasized the importance of aggression and the struggle for power in a person's life. However, he understood aggression not as a desire for destruction, but as a strong initiative in overcoming obstacles. Later, Adler considered aggression and the will to power as manifestations of a more general motive - the desire for superiority and self-improvement, i.e. the urge to improve oneself, to develop one's abilities and one's potentiality.

The goal of superiority can be either positive or negative. If it involves community service and an interest in the well-being of others, then we can talk about the constructive and healthy development of the individual. This is expressed in the desire for growth, for the development of skills and abilities, for work for a better life.

Each person chooses his own lifestyle, i.e. a unique way to follow your life purpose. A. Adler emphasized the creative active nature of the individual in shaping his own life, as well as the social nature of human behavior. He speaks of a sense of community, a sense of kinship with all of humanity. Adler believed that only through cooperation with others can we overcome our actual inferiority or sense of inferiority. A constructive striving for perfection plus a strong social feeling and cooperation are the main features of a healthy individual.

Behavioral approach to understanding personality.

The word "behaviorism" comes from the English behavior - behavior. Behaviorism uses two basic concepts to explain behavior: stimulus and response, consciousness and other subjective concepts are denied. Proponents of behaviorism tend to deal only with observable phantoms.

American psychologist, leader of behaviorism B. Skinner considers personality as an isolated self, which has no place in the scientific analysis of behavior. Personality is defined by him as the sum of patterns of behavior. Behavior patterns are called some integral set of behavioral reactions. Different situations evoke different patterns of responses.

I. Pavlov himself discovered the mechanism for the formation of conditioned reactions when an unconditioned reflex is combined with some conditioned signal, then B. Skinner significantly expanded this system by proposing a model of the so-called operant conditioning - rewarding for desired and punishing undesirable reactions. Reinforcing stimulus is given after receiving the desired responses, which contributes to their consolidation and repetition. Punishment (or a negative reinforcer) reduces the likelihood of certain responses.

An autonomous person, freedom, dignity, creativity, from the point of view of B. Skinner, are only fictions, he also denies the spontaneity of behavior and its sources that lie outside of life experience. Skinner is more interested in managing behavior than in predicting it.

Understanding personality from the standpoint of humanistic psychology.

A fundamental humanistic psychology, K. Rogers believed that a decisive role in the life and development of a person plays, his idea of himself thinks, especially since he does not help to judge what he really is. There is no objective image of oneself that can be used as a standard.

And Maslow, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, connected all his work with the problem of personal growth and development. He made a significant theoretical and practical contribution to the creation of an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which actually denied creativity, love, altruism and other great values of humanity. He believed that Freud's psychoanalysis presents us with a diseased part of the psyche, which is to be filled with its healthy part. The central concept for humanistic psychology is the language of self-actualization.

A. Maslow began by studying outstanding people who seemed to him the most spiritually healthy and creative.

A. Maslow names the following characteristics of a self-anualizing personality:

A more effective perception of reality and a more comfortable attitude towards it;

Acceptance of oneself, others, nature;

Spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness?

The need for privacy;

Constant freshness score.

Deeper interpersonal relationships;

Democratic character structure;

Distinguish between means and ends, good and evil;

Philosophical non-hostile sense of humor;

Self-actualizing creativity.

Another cardinal idea of A. Maslow was the concept of a hierarchy of fundamental needs that develop from the lowest to the highest. These are physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.), the need for security, the need for love and belonging, for respect, for self-actualization.

Understanding personality from the point of view of transactional analysis.

A transaction is a unit of communication that can be a transactional stimulus (addressing another person) or a transactional response.

Eric Berne argues that most people in their lives are mainly engaged in games, devoting very little time to authentic life, sincere human intimacy, which gives true satisfaction.

As a rule, the game is acquired in childhood, and in the future a person does not realize the real reasons for his behavior, acting according to a predetermined scheme. The main unconscious goal of the game is to stay in one or another state of "I" which brings inner satisfaction, sometimes "pathological".

In order to get to your problem and solve it, you need to abandon the game, the game was created as a means of avoiding the problem.

Understanding personality in the framework of existential psychology.

For the first time the term "existence" ("existence") was used by S. Kierkegaard, whose works formed the basis of this philosophy. Another source of existentialism is the phenomenology of E. Husserius. The greatest existentialist philosophers are Strat and Camus.

The object of following the existentialists is man as the subject of experiencing his existence. Naturally, the psychology and psychotherapy of the twentieth century. could not help being influenced by this teaching.

We will show the main features of existential psychotherapy using the example of the psychotherapy of its largest representative, V. Frankl. The main purely human desire, according to V. Frank, is the desire to find the meaning of one's existence, and a person feels frustration if this desire remains unfulfilled.

It is not a person who raises the question about the meaning of life - life itself raises this question before him, and a person has to constantly answer it not with words, but with actions. The meaning of life, in principle, is available to any person, regardless of gender, age, intelligence, character, environment and various beliefs. It is always unique, it cannot be taught, but a person can create it and is responsible for the implementation of his unique meaning of life. Moreover, a person can find and realize meaning under any circumstances.

In search of a signal, a person directs his conscience. Conscience is the organ of meaning. This ability of Franchi is called the self-transcendence of man. The meaning of a person is found outside of himself. The more he gives himself to the cause, to his partner, the more he becomes himself. The feeling of the found meaning of life gives a person tremendous spiritual strength to overcome life's difficulties.

A normal feeling of happiness, according to Frank, is a phenomenon that accompanies the achievement of a goal. Following the meaning of life. When a person does not have the meaning of life, the implementation of which would make him happy, he can try to achieve it "bypassing", for example, with the help of chemicals (alcohol, drugs), sexual and other pleasure. However, the more a person strives for pleasure and happiness, the more it eludes him and requires more and more artificial and sophisticated stimulation. Thus, turning on oneself, one's pleasures, i.e. reflection, which aims at personal happiness, leads to the loss of this happiness.

Conclusion

During the theoretical study of the topic, the following questions were considered:

the problem of socio-psychological properties of personality in modern social psychology is considered;

the socio-psychological characteristics of the personality are considered.

As a result, the definition of G.M. Andreeva: "these are properties that are formed in real social groups, in conditions of joint activity with other people, as well as in communication with them."

When considering the question of what constitutes a person, we proceeded from the definition of a professional (A.A. Derkach, V.M. Dyachkov) as “a civil servant who has reached a high level of qualification, consciously changing and developing himself in the course of professional activity, contributing his individual creative contribution to the profession, who has found an individual destiny in the profession, focused on high achievements, harmoniously combining personal interests and the interests of society.

As a result, a model has been built that allows you to comprehensively present and highlight those main blocks that ensure the success of an individual's activity. This model includes:

personality traits;

her abilities;

her professional skills;

activity motivation;

upbringing.

Our hypothesis that successful professional activity is hindered by such socio-psychological characteristics of a person as: externality, low level of communication and organizational skills, authoritarian style of behavior in relations with people, was only partially confirmed.

The study revealed an average level of development of communicative and organizational skills. This is probably due to rapidly changing conditions that require people to possess these abilities at least at an average level.

In addition, the study revealed gender differences in the level of development of communicative and organizational skills. The data obtained in the sample of men allow us to say that their level of development of these abilities in most cases is at a high level compared to the data obtained in the sample of women.

With a very favorable picture in general, and we are talking about the presence of such psychological tendencies as: responsiveness, compliance, kindness, in their activities people cannot fully realize them in relation to others. We also assumed that professional activity is hindered by an authoritarian style of behavior in relationships. However, such a style of behavior as confidential benevolence was revealed. It should be noted that, ideally, everyone would like to have more developed leadership qualities (this is clearly illustrated by the data obtained on "I am the ideal").

Thus, the following recommendations can be made. To increase the efficiency of professional activity, it is desirable to work towards increasing the level of development of communicative and organizational skills, towards changing the type of locus of control towards internal and towards the development of leadership qualities. To achieve these goals, it is possible to conduct various trainings.

List of used literature

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Social psychology contains a number of psychological theories of personality development.

1. Personality Theory of C. Cooley and J. G. Mead

Sociologist Charles Cooley used the concept of the "mirror of personality" to put forward the idea that the self-consciousness of the individual reflects the assessments and opinions of the people with whom he interacts. This idea was later taken up by George Herbert Mead. , who believed that a person's self-consciousness is the result of his social interactions, during which he learns to look at himself as if from the outside, as an object.

According to Mead, the process of personality formation includes three different stages:

1) imitation. At this stage, children copy the behavior of adults without understanding it.

2) game stage, when children understand behavior as the performance of certain roles: a doctor, a fireman, a racing driver, etc.; in the course of the game they reproduce these roles.

3)stage of collective games, when children learn to be aware of the expectations not only of one person, but of the whole group.

Mead believed that the human "I" consists of two parts: "I-myself" and "I-me." "I-myself" is the reaction of the individual to the impact of other people and society as a whole. “I-me” is a person’s awareness of himself from the point of view of other significant people for him (relatives, friends). "I-myself" reacts to the impact of "I-me" in the same way as to the impact of other people. For example, "I-myself" react to criticism, diligently ponder its essence; sometimes under the influence of criticism my behavior changes, sometimes not; it depends on whether I consider this criticism justified. "I-myself" know that people consider "I-me" a just person, always ready to listen to the opinions of others. By exchanging roles during the game, children gradually develop their “I-me”. Each time they look at themselves from someone else's point of view, they learn to perceive impressions of themselves.

2. The theory of personality Z. Freud. The theory of personality development developed by Sigmund Freud is to some extent the opposite of Mead's concept, since it is based on the belief that the individual is always in a state of conflict with society. According to Freud, biological urges (especially sexual ones) are contrary to the norms of culture and socialization is the process of curbing these urges.

Freud's theory distinguishes three parts in the mental structure of the personality: Id ("It"), Ego ("I") and Super-ego ("super-I").

Id ("It") - a source of energy aimed at obtaining pleasure. When the energy is released, tension is relieved and the person experiences a feeling of pleasure. "It" encourages us to have sex, as well as perform bodily functions such as eating and performing natural needs.

The ego (“I”) controls human behavior, to some extent resembling a traffic light that helps the individual navigate the world around him. The ego is guided primarily by the reality principle. The ego regulates the choice of a suitable object to overcome the tension associated with the id. For example, when the id is hungry, the ego forbids us from eating car tires or poisonous berries; satisfaction of our impulse is delayed until the moment of choosing the right food.

The superego ("super-I") is an idealized parent, it performs a moral or evaluative function. The superego regulates behavior and seeks to improve it in accordance with the standards of parents, and later on of society as a whole.

According to Freud's theory, the process personality formation goes through four stages: oral, anal, phallic, latent period, genital stage. Each of these stages is associated with a certain part of the body - the erogenous zone. At each stage, a conflict arises between the desire for pleasure and the restrictions set first by the parents, and later by the Superego.

3. Personality theory of K. Jung. According to K. Jung, a protective formation stands out in the structure of the psyche, which he calls Persona. It is she who creates the problem of the true I and the false I, or I and not-I. The person, being a kind of mask that a person puts on in response to the demands of society, hides his true self. It represents only what a person seems to himself, or what he demonstrates to others, and not his true essence, not what he is. is in fact. Man identifies himself with his mask. He demonstrates it to society, because society requires it from him. In this case, we can talk about the depersonalization of a person, the leveling of his essence and, in general, about the unrealized true Self. The fusion of the Self and the Person means, according to Jung, the massification of the individual.

K.G. Jung points to a real danger that threatens the self-consciousness of the individual. Both Jung himself and his follower Esther Harding provide a lot of convincing evidence of how typical the situation is when a person perceives as his essence those social masks and assessments that the social environment imposes on him. In this case, the Self-concept and the Person of the individual coincide. To avoid this, a person should not rely only on the opinions and assessments of others, should not be identified with his social roles, he himself must actively participate in the formation of the self-concept through self-knowledge, self-research, self-analysis.

The content of these theories is described in more detail in the book by A. Hjell, D. Ziegler "Theories of Personality" (St. Petersburg, 1997).

Among the domestic socio-psychological theories of personality, one can single out: the theory of relations by V.N. Myasishchev, the theory of installation by D.N.

These theories allow us to speak of personality not only as an individual, but also as a typical socio-psychological phenomenon.

One of the important areas of socio-psychological analysis of personality types, in particular behavior in society, is a comparison of the relationship of some people to others by the parameter. The American psychologist A. Maslow, in his works on self-actualization of the “I”, repeatedly emphasized that one person can relate to another as to himself, and this other can perceive the people around him in the same way as he perceives things, and treat them accordingly.

Concretizing this statement by A. Maslow, the American scientist E. Shostrom called the first type of personality an actualizer, and the second a manipulator. Exploring the mental properties that actualizers, on the one hand, and manipulators, on the other, show in both business and interpersonal communication, E. Shostrom discovered in the former honesty and sincerity in relationships with people, a steadily shown interest in them, independence and openness in expressing their position, believing in themselves and in those with whom they communicate. In the latter, he found carefully disguised falseness in contacts with people, imitation of experiences with actual indifference to people, deliberate prudence in the selection of means of influencing them, and again carefully concealed cynicism in relation to the basic values of life and culture.

The belonging of each of them to a particular group requires behavior that is taken for granted in society, so to speak, socially normal for a representative of this group - a man, a teacher, a husband, a father, etc. Demonstrating such behavior, a person constantly acts as a carrier of a social role or several social roles at the same time. Sociologist I. S. Kon, concretizing this provision, writes: “The belonging of an individual to a group is expressed in certain functions (roles), in which his obligations and rights in relation to the group are fixed. The expectations that determine the general contours of the social role do not depend on the consciousness and behavior of a particular individual: they are given to him as something external, more or less obligatory, and their subject is not an individual, but society or some specific social group. S. Sociology of Personality.-M., 1967.-S. 23).

The result of the impact on a person by other people (communities) depends not only on the characteristics of the latter, but also on what kind of relationships this person has already “acquired”, what needs, interests, inclinations are behind these relations, and also whether these are responsible people with their characteristics, needs, interests, inclinations of the individual. It is this last parameter that mainly determines the sign and magnitude of the subjective significance of another person or community for the individual, the result of their influence on it.

It is clear that the result of the influence of these factors, which is assessed by such indicators as character (content), breadth, depth, stability, effectiveness, cannot be the same for all people. If a person with whom a person has constant contacts, or a community to which he is a member, is positively significant and very authoritative for him, then, according to the study of E.B. it has new value dominants. The influence coming from people (communities) authoritative and significant for the individual, prompting the individual to introspection and self-reflection, allows one to see oneself not only in the present, but also in the future, to build and implement programs for moving towards this future.

Thus, the attitude of the individual to external influences is characterized by selectivity and, as a rule, the unconventional nature of cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to them.

The content of people's activities, either as a whole or in its individual components, as a rule, to varying degrees, is adequate to their characteristics. This is due to the broad socio-cultural context in which people live, the exchange of various activities between them. At the same time, a person accumulates impressions about himself that help him answer the questions: “Who am I?”, “Why am I like this?”, “What can and should I achieve and how?”

He identified three areas of the mental: consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious. It is in the unconscious that the main determinants of personality are located - mental energy, urges and instincts. There are two basic instincts: libido, or the desire for sexual satisfaction, and the instinct of aggression and the desire for death. In the structure of personality, according to Freud, there are also three main components: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego). There is no exact correlation between the levels of consciousness and the components of the personality, but as far as the id is concerned, this basic, original and central part of the personality is almost entirely unconscious. It includes mental forms that were never conscious, and those that were unacceptable to consciousness and were forced out of it. Id does not know values, good and evil, does not know morality.

When a strong but repressed motive breaks through into consciousness, the person may fall into a hysterical fit or have other neurotic reactions. According to Freud, the causes of any neurosis lie in memories of a particular traumatic situation, usually associated with sexual feelings that are unacceptable from the standpoint of moral standards. For example, there are known cases of hysteria in girls associated with sexual abuse by their father.

Psychoanalysis of Carl Jung (1875-1961)

The Swiss scientist K. Jung proposed the idea of the existence, along with the individual unconscious, of the collective unconscious, the content of which is the so-called archetypes, i.e. certain general forms of mental representations filled in the course of individual life with personal emotional and figurative content. The collective unconscious exists in the thoughts of each individual, it is collective because it is the same for many people and thus unites them into peoples, nations and humanity as a whole. The content of the collective unconscious is called archetypes because these are forms of mental realities coming from ancient times, reflected in the mythology of a particular people, and also because they are quite generalized, abstract in nature, concretized in the individual life of a person. For example, the mother archetype has some generalized features of a given people, different from those attributed to the mother of other peoples. There is also a more generalized mother archetype - one and the same for all mankind. In the life of an individual, it is filled with specific emotional and figurative content related to the relationship with one's own mother.

Jung identifies several basic (for understanding the structure of personality) archetypes: Persona, Ego, Shadow, Anima and Animus, Self.

Persona is how we present ourselves to the world: the character we adopt, our social roles, the clothes we choose to wear, the individual style of expression.

The ego is the center of consciousness and creates a sense of continuity and direction in our conscious life.

The shadow is the center of the personal unconscious, in which the material ousted from consciousness is concentrated. It includes tendencies, desires, memories and experiences that are denied by the individual as incompatible with his person or contrary to social standards and ideals.

Anima and Animus are ideal unconscious structures reflecting the idea of femininity and masculinity, respectively. All relationships with the opposite sex are influenced by these archetypes.

From Jung's point of view, the famous Oedipus complex, which is not accidentally reflected in ancient mythology, is also an archetype.

Another of Jung's most famous ideas was the concept of introversion and extraversion, which characterize a person whose energy is predominantly directed either to the inner or to the outer world. No one is a pure introvert or extrovert, but each individual is more inclined towards one of these orientations.

Psychoanalysis of Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

The basic principles of the Austrian psychiatrist A. Adler are holism (integrity), the unity of an individual lifestyle, social interest or public feeling and the orientation of behavior towards achieving a goal. Adler argued that goals and expectations influence human behavior more than past experiences, and everyone's actions are motivated primarily by goals of superiority and mastery of the environment.

A. Adler introduced the term "inferiority complex", believing that all children experience a feeling of inferiority due to their small physical size and lack of strength and capabilities.

The feeling of inferiority causes the desire for superiority, which directs thoughts and actions towards the "goal of victory." Adler emphasized the importance of aggression and the struggle for power in a person's life. However, he understood aggression not as a desire for destruction, but as a strong initiative in overcoming obstacles. Later, Adler considered aggression and the will to power as manifestations of a more general motive - the desire for superiority and self-improvement, i.e. urges to improve oneself, to develop one's abilities and one's potentiality.

The goal of superiority can be either positive or negative. If it involves social concerns and an interest in the well-being of others, then we can talk about the constructive and healthy development of the individual. This is expressed in the desire for growth, for the development of skills and abilities, for work for a better life. However, some people fight for personal superiority, they seek to dominate others, to humiliate them, and not to become useful to others. According to Adler, the struggle for personal superiority is a neurotic perversion, the result of a strong sense of inferiority and a lack of social interest.

Self-improvement is impossible without the formation of specific life goals. This process begins in childhood as compensation for feelings of inferiority, insecurity, insecurity and helplessness in the adult world. For example, many physicians chose their profession as children as a means of coping with feelings of insecurity and fear of death. In the neurotic, there is always a very significant discrepancy between conscious goals and unconscious (defensive) goals that revolve around fantasies of personal superiority and self-reverence.

Each person chooses his own lifestyle, i.e. a unique way to follow your life purpose. Seemingly independent of each other, habits and behaviors acquire unity in the context of the life and goals of the individual, so that psychological and emotional problems cannot be considered in isolation, they are included in the general lifestyle.

A. Adler emphasized the creative, active nature of the individual in shaping his own life, as well as the social nature of human behavior. He spoke of a sense of community, a sense of kinship with all of humanity.

One of the most important aspects of public feeling is the development of cooperative behavior. Adler believed that only through cooperation with others can we overcome our actual inferiority or sense of inferiority. A constructive striving for perfection plus a strong social feeling and cooperation are the main features of a healthy individual.

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