Fundamentals of psychology. Fundamentals of Psychological Science and Practice
Issues for discussion:
1. Psychology as a science. The subject and tasks of psychology.
2. Communication of psychology with other branches of scientific knowledge. Branches of modern psychology.
3. Methodology and basic methods of psychological research: observation, experiment and modeling.
4. The concept of the psyche and consciousness. General structure of activity and behavior.
Literature:
1. Vechorko G.F. Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy: a course of lectures: at 2 hours - Minsk: BSEU, 2006.
2. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of psychology. - M .: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2001.
3. Kozubovsky, V.M. General psychology: methodology, consciousness, activity: textbook. – Minsk: Amalfeya, 2003.
4. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
5. Psychology: textbook. for tech. universities / Under the general editorship of. IN AND. Druzhinin. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. - 304 p.
6. Psychology and Pedagogy / ed. KA Abulkhanova, N.V. Vasina, L.G., Laptev, V.A. Slastenina. - Moscow: Perfection, 1998.
Psychology in translation from ancient Greek means the science of the soul (“psyche” - soul, “logos” - science). The term "psychology" first appeared in the 18th century. in the books of the German philosopher H. Wolf "Rational Psychology" and "Empirical Psychology". Initially, it belonged to a science that studied mental or psychological phenomena associated with consciousness, but already at the beginning of the 20th century, unconscious mental processes, as well as behavior and activity, were included in the scope of psychologists' research.
[Next, consider what is the subject of psychological science] One of the scientific concepts of psychology is the psyche. Any organism cannot exist without an external environment, it is necessary to maintain its life. Communication of the body with the external environment is carried out with the help of the nervous system. The main mechanism of the nervous activity of living beings is reflex is the response of the body to irritation of the external or internal environment.
The outstanding scientist I.M. Sechenov established that mental processes (sensations, thoughts, feelings, etc.) are an integral part of the brain's reflexes. In turn, the psyche is subjective, i.e. internal reflection of the objective world. [And further wording] what is psyche- this is the inner world of the individual, which arises in the process of human interaction with the outside world, in the process of actively reflecting this world.
Mental processes, being the product of the interaction of the individual with the external environment, are themselves active factors in behavior. A person is influenced by the social environment, so his consciousness has its own systemic and semantic organization. Various manifestations of the psyche form the unconscious sphere. The psyche manifests itself in a person in the following blocks of mental phenomena.
First block includes mental processes- These are mental phenomena that last from a fraction of a second to tens of minutes. The mental exists as a living, continuous, developing process, as a result of which concepts, feelings, images, mental operations arise.
Mental processes are always included in more complex types of mental activity.
Second block represents mental states, which are longer in comparison with mental processes (they can last for several hours, days or even weeks) and they are more complex in structure and education. These include, for example, the state of cheerfulness or depression, performance or fatigue, good or bad mood.
Third block- it's mental personality traits. They are inherent in a person over a fairly long period of life - this is temperament, character, abilities and persistent features of mental processes in an individual.
Some psychologists distinguish fourth block human psychic phenomena mental formations, i.e. what becomes the result of the work of the human psyche, its development and self-development. This includes acquired knowledge, skills, habits. Psychological processes, states, properties, as well as human behavior are singled out only for the purposes of study, but in reality they all act as a single whole and mutually transform into each other. For example, a condition that often manifests itself can become an addiction, a habit, and even a character trait.
Studying the human psyche and behavior, scientists are looking for their explanation, on the one hand, in the biological organization, in the functioning of the body, and on the other hand, in the external social environment. The subject of research by psychologists in the first case, the development of the psyche becomes dependent on the natural laws of the work of the human body; in the second case, the dependence of the psyche and behavior of a person on his place in society, on the type of activity that he performs, and also on relations with people around him is investigated. Thus In addition to individual behavior, psychologists study the interpersonal relationships of people. Modern psychology includes the following psychological sciences: social, developmental, differentiated psychology, animal psychology, historical, engineering, medical, legal, political, pedagogical, space, labor psychology, sports, science, etc.
Thus, subject of psychology, which is understood as a system of concepts that explain the laws of the psyche as a form of mental reflection of reality, are mental processes, as well as mental properties and states of the individual, this is a common subject for all psychological sciences and their branches.
2. Methods of psychology.
Methods are the means by which the subject of science is known. The methods of science serve to reveal patterns, but they themselves are based on the basic patterns of the subject of science, so the methods of science develop and change along with the development of science itself. Psychology, like any science, uses a whole system of different methods. In modern domestic psychology, the following four groups of methods are distinguished:
І. Organizational Methods include: 1) comparative method(comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.); 2) longitudinal method(multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time); 3) complex method(representatives of various sciences participate in the study, while one object is studied by different means. Studies of this kind make it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of different types, for example, between the physiological and social development of the individual).
ІІ. empirical methods: They include observation and self-observation, experimental methods(laboratory, natural, forming); psychodiagnostic methods(tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews, conversation); analysis of products of activity; biographical methods.
ІІІ. Data processing methods, including: quantitative(statistical) and qualitative(differentiation of material by groups, analysis) methods.
IV. Correction methods: auto-training, group training, methods of psychotherapeutic influence, training.
Comparative method consists in considering individual mechanisms of behavior in the process of development and in comparison with similar phenomena in other organisms. This method is most widely used in zoopsychology and child psychology. This method is called "comparative genetic". The most productive use of this method in the field of comparative psychology (zoopsychology) belonged to the psychologist V.A. Wagner. In his works, he was the first to substantiate and use the evolutionary method, the essence of which is to study the life and compare the psyche of the studied animal with representatives of the previous and subsequent stages of evolution of the animal world.
A particularly important place is occupied by the comparative genetic method in the psychological teachings of L.S. Vygotsky. Vygotsky, studying the history of higher mental functions, applied the comparative genetic method to solving problems of developmental and general psychology (especially in the study of language and thinking).
Group empirical methods in psychology is considered the main one. Observation appears in psychology in two main forms - as introspection(or introspection), and as an external or so-called objective observation.
Objective observation is the simplest and most widespread method in psychology. Here are the requirements for it:
1. the presence of a clear target setting;
2. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan should be defined.
The main advantage of the method of objective observation is that it allows you to study mental processes in natural conditions.
The following requirements are imposed on objective observation:
a) definition of the task and purpose;
b) choice of object, subject and situation;
c) choice of observation method;
d) the choice of methods for registering the observed;
e) processing and interpretation of the received information.
What is an experiment? Experiment is a research activity in order to study cause-and-effect relationships, which involves the following:
1. The researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying and actively influences it.
2. The experimenter can vary, change the conditions under which the phenomenon occurs.
3. In the experiment, it is possible to repeatedly reproduce the results.
4. As a result, the experiment establishes quantitative patterns that allow mathematical formulation.
The main task of a psychological experiment is to make the essential features of the internal mental process acceptable for objective external observation. The experiment includes:
І – theoretical stage of research(formulation of the problem). At this stage, the following tasks are solved:
a) formulation of the problem and research topic;
b) definition of the object and subject of research;
c) determination of experimental tasks and research hypotheses.
ІІ – methodical stage of research. At this stage, the methodology of the experiment and the experimental plan are developed.
ІІІ – pilot stage. At this stage, experiments are carried out related to the creation of an experimental situation, observation and change in the reaction of the subjects.
IV- analytical stage. At this stage, a quantitative analysis of the results is carried out (this is mathematical processing), a scientific interpretation of the facts obtained, the formulation of new scientific hypotheses and practical recommendations.
A variation of the experiment is the method of natural experiment proposed by the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky in 1910. His main tendency is to combine the experimental nature of the research with the naturalness of the conditions. Also, the experimental method includes the experiment as a means of influencing, changing the psychology of people. This kind of experiment is called a formative experiment. The formative experiment is characterized by the active intervention of the researcher in the mental processes he is studying; it embodies the unity of the study of the mental development of children with their upbringing and education. Thus, the formative experiment acts as a method of experimental developmental education and training of children.
Next, consider psychodiagnostic methods. The purpose of modern psychodiagnostics is to record and describe psychological differences both between people and between groups of people. The number of diagnosed signs, depending on the objectives of the study, may include psychological differences in age, gender, education, and psychophysiological characteristics. The next group is psychological tests, in the lane from English. test means "test" or "trial". The diagnostic value of the test depends on the level of scientific experiment and the reliability of the psychological fact that was the basis of the test. Test- this is a short, standardized test that does not require complex technical devices, amenable to standardization and mathematical processing of data.
The next group is methods surveys, interviews, questionnaires. The most common are all kinds of surveys. The purpose of the survey is to obtain information about objective and subjective facts from the words of the respondents.
The survey is divided into the following types:
1) an interview conducted by a researcher according to a specific plan;
2) questionnaires intended for self-completion.
1. in the early stages of the study;
2. the survey acts as the main means of collecting primary information;
3. the survey serves to clarify, expand and control the data obtained by other methods.
The next method is analysis and study of products of activity. This method is used in historical psychology to study the psychology of man in historical times, in order to understand the patterns of man's psychological development, based on the patterns of his socio-historical development.
Conversation method is an auxiliary tool for additional coverage of the problem under study. The conversation should always have a plan in accordance with the objectives of the study.
biographical method is a kind of method for studying the products of activity. The material here is letters, diaries, biographies, products of children's creativity.
stand separately correction methods. Modern psychology influences the practical activity of people in various ways. Psychological assistance has an individualized focus and is based on a deep penetration into the personality of a person. Currently, there are main areas of psycho-correctional work: auto-training and group training.
First consider autotraining. The origin and implementation of the method of autogenic training is associated with the name of the German psychotherapist I.G. Schultz. First, this method was widely used as a method of treatment and prevention of various neuroses and functional disorders in the body. In the future, it began to be used as a means of psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis, as well as managing the human condition in extreme conditions.
In autogenic training, three main ways of influencing the state of the nervous system are used.
First way associated with the peculiarities of the influence of skeletal muscle tone and respiration on the central nervous system. The interaction between the state of the central nervous system and the tone of the skeletal muscles allows, through a conscious change in muscle tone, to influence the level of mental activity. The more intense the activity, the higher this tone. This physiological pattern underlies the entire system of autogenic training.
Second way impact on the nervous system is associated with the use of the active role of representations and images (visual, auditory, tactile). When we hold beautiful, emotional pictures in our mind's eye, we feel better, and vice versa. In a state of muscular relaxation, the effectiveness of sensory images increases significantly.
third way impact on the psychophysiological functions of the body is associated with the regulatory role of the word, spoken not only aloud, but also mentally. This property of inner speech in the form of self-orders is used in sports to achieve results. A set of exercises that make up the essence of autogenic training is a tool that not only promotes the growth of reserve abilities, but also improves the activity of the programming mechanisms of the brain.
group training. In the broadest sense, under group training is usually understood as forms of teaching knowledge and skills in the field of communication, as well as forms of their correction. Tasks, solved by means of group training can be divided into two large classes:
1) the class is focused on the development of social skills, such as the ability to conduct a discussion, resolve interpersonal conflicts.
2) class - these are aimed at deepening the experience of analyzing communication situations, i.e. analysis of oneself, a communication partner and a group situation as a whole.
Group training is divided into the following methods: group discussions and games.
Group discussion method used in the form of case studies and in the form of group introspection. Among the gaming methods, the method of role-playing games has become widespread.
The tasks of group training methods are the following: First of all, all methods of group training are characterized by a focus on the widespread use of the training effect of group influence; Secondly, these methods implement the principle of student activity through the inclusion of research elements in training. Traditional methods carry ready-made knowledge, but in a group training, research participants themselves must come to them. Currently, the practice of group training is an industry applied psychology. It is used to train managers, doctors, teachers, psychologists, etc.
Lecture 2. “Biological and psychological substructures of personality. Psychology of cognitive processes"
Issues for discussion:
1. Sensory-perceptual processes, their properties and types.
2. Mnemic processes: remembering, saving, reproducing and forgetting information.
3. Thinking, speech, imagination.
4. Types of attention. Attention management.
5. The concept of intelligence and its structure.
Literature:
1. Weinstein, L.A. General psychology. Textbook / L.A. Weinstein, V.A. Polikarpov, I.A. Furmanov, E.A. Trukhan. - Minsk: Tessey, 2005.
2. Vechorko G.F. Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy: a course of lectures: at 2 hours - Minsk: BSEU, 2006.
3. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of psychology. - M .: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2001.
4. Kozubovsky, V.M. General psychology: cognitive processes: textbook. - Minsk: Amalfeya, 2004.
5. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
6. Psychology: textbook. for tech. universities / Under the general editorship of. IN AND. Druzhinin. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. - 304 p.
The process of cognition of the surrounding world is carried out at two levels: sensory cognition, which includes sensation and perception, and logical cognition, which is carried out through concepts, judgments and conclusions.
The body receives various information about the state of the external and internal environment with the help of the sense organs in the form of sensations. And then the formulation of the feeling. Feeling- this is a reflection of the individual properties of objects that affect our senses. The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system. Conscious sensations exist only in living beings that have a brain and a cerebral cortex. One side, sensations are objective, because they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other side, they are subjective, because they depend on the state of the nervous system and the individual characteristics of a person.
Objects and phenomena that affect our senses are called irritants . Sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex character.
The physiological mechanism of sensation is the activity of special nervous apparatuses, which are called analyzers .
Analyzers consist of the following parts:
1) receptors or sense organs;
2) adductor nerve pathways, through which nerve signals are transmitted to the brain and back to the receptors;
3) cortical projection zones of the brain, in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral regions takes place.
Classification of sensations.
There are five main types of sensations: smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing.
Classify sensations, according to the psychologist A.F. Luria, it is possible according to two main features - systematic and genetic.
Consider systematic classification of sensations. Singling out the largest groups of sensations, they can be divided into three main types:
1) Interoceptive, they combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body and [respond to changes occurring inside the body].
2) proprioceptive, provide information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide regulation of our movements.
3) exteroceptive, they provide information from the outside world and provide the basis for our conscious behavior. Exteroceptive sensations, in turn, are divided into contact and distant Feel. Contact sensations are caused by touching the surface of the body (taste and touch). Distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the sense organs at some distance. These include smell, hearing and vision.
Genetic classification makes it possible to distinguish two types of sensitivity:
1) protopathic(more primitive, less differentiated and localized, it includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.)).
2) epicritical(more differentiated and rational, which includes the main human senses).
General properties of sensations.
These include:
1. quality, this is a feature of sensations that allows you to distinguish one type of sensation from another (auditory from visual), as well as various variations of sensations within a given type (for example, by color and saturation).
2. intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus.
3. duration sensations are its temporal characteristic, it is determined by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity.
The main characteristics of the sensitivity of the analyzers.
lower threshold sensations - the minimum amount of stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation.
upper threshold sensations - the maximum value of the stimulus that the analyzer is able to perceive adequately.
Sensitivity range- the interval between the lower and upper threshold of sensations.
Differential Threshold- the smallest difference between stimuli, when the difference between them is still captured.
operational threshold– the value of the difference between the signals, at which the accuracy and speed of discrimination reach a maximum. The value of the operational threshold is 10-15 times greater than the differential threshold.
Temporary threshold- the minimum duration of exposure to the stimulus required for the sensation to occur.
Latent period of the reaction- the time interval from the moment the signal is given to the moment the sensation occurs.
The sensitivity of the analyzers is not constant and changes under the influence of physiological and psychological conditions. The sense organs have the property fixtures or adaptation. Adaptation can manifest itself both as a complete disappearance of sensation in the process of exposure to a stimulus and as a decrease or increase in sensitivity under the influence of an irritant.
A change in the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of a stimulus of other sense organs is called interaction of sensations . The interaction of sensations is manifested in an increase and decrease in sensitivity: weak stimuli increase the sensitivity of the analyzers, and strong ones decrease it.
2. Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses.
Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides sensory orientation in the surrounding world. Perception is the result of the activity of the system of analyzers, it involves the selection of the main and most significant features from the complex of influencing features, while simultaneously abstracting from the non-essential ones. Perception makes it possible to create an integral picture of reality, in contrast to sensations that reflect individual qualities of reality. Since perception requires combining the main essential features and comparing what is perceived with past experience, the phenomenon arises. stereotyping. Stereotype- this is a definite and stable for a given period of time, an idea of \u200b\u200ban object or phenomenon.
properties of perception.
1) Integrity- the internal relationship of parts and the whole in the image. This property manifests itself in two ways:
a) combining different elements as a whole;
b) the independence of the formed whole from the quality of its constituent elements.
Integrity is formed on the basis of the generalization of knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations. The components of sensation are so strongly interconnected that the image of an object arises even when only its properties or individual parts of the object (velvet, marble) act on a person. Impressions arise as a conditioned reflex, as a result of the connection formed in life experience between visual and tactile stimuli.
2) objectivity- the object is perceived by us as a separate physical body isolated in space and time. This property is most clearly manifested in the mutual isolation of the figure and the background.
3) Generalization– assignment of each image to a certain class of objects.
4) constancy- the relative constancy of the perception of the image. It manifests itself in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects. Our perception, within certain limits, preserves their size, shape and color as parameters, regardless of the conditions of perception (distance to the perceived object, lighting conditions, angle, perception).
5) meaningfulness- connection with understanding the essence of objects and phenomena through the process of thinking.
6) Selectivity- preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.
1. Perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
2. Perception of a person by a person.
3. Perception of time.
4. Perception of movements.
5. Perception of space.
6. Perception of the type of activity.
Perceptions are externally directed (perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and intradirectional (perception of one's own thoughts and feelings).
The processes of memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting by a person of his experience are called memory. Thus, memory is a complex mental process, consisting of several private processes associated with each other. It allows a person to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal life experience. Representatives of various sciences put forward various theories of memory: physical, chemical, biochemical, physiological, informative-cybernetic and a group of psychological theories.
Physical theory consists in the fact that a nerve impulse, passing through nerve cells (neurons), causes electrical and mechanical changes at the points of their contact, these changes provide a secondary passage of the impulse along a familiar path, and thus memorization occurs.
Chemical theory of memory, supporters of this theory believe that information is remembered due to chemical changes in nerve cells under the influence of stimuli. DNA is considered the carrier of genetic memory, and RNA (ribonucleic) acid is the basis of individual memory.
Biochemical theory of memory. The authors of this theory put forward a hypothesis about the two-way nature of memorization. At the first stage, a short-term reaction occurs in the brain, which causes physiological changes, they are of the opposite nature and are the mechanism of short-term memorization. At the second stage (biochemical) the formation of new protein substances (proteins) takes place. This stage leads to irreversible changes in nerve cells and is considered the mechanism of long-term memory.
Physiological theory of memory based on the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about the patterns of higher nervous activity. The physiological act of memorization is based on a conditioned reflex, the act of forming a connection between new and previously fixed content.
Information-cybernetic theory associated with the advent of computer technology and the development of programming, which required the search for new ways of accepting, processing and storing information by machines. This required technical and algorithmic modeling of memory processes and analogy with the human brain. The most famous psychological theories are association theory and activity theory. essence association theory is as follows, if mental formations arose in consciousness simultaneously or one after another, then an associative connection is formed between them and the reappearance of any of the elements of this connection necessarily causes the representation of all its elements in consciousness. According to activity theory, it is the activity of the individual that is the factor determining the formation of memory processes. This activity of the subject determines the memorization, preservation and reproduction of information.
2. memory functions.
These include: memorization, preservation, reproduction, as well as forgetting the material.
memorization can be defined as a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the acquired in advance. Memorization is always selective: far from everything that affects our senses is stored in memory. What is most fully and firmly remembered is what is of particular importance to us, what arouses our interest and emotions.
Saving Information this function of memory is not a passive process of its retention, in psychology, the dependence saving information depending on personality settings(professional orientation of memory in cognitive activity, rancor or kindness in emotional memory), conditions and organization of memorization, the influence of subsequent information, transitions from being kept in consciousness to being repressed into the unconscious.
The following can be distinguished ways of organizing information in memory:
a) spatial organization (allows you to establish connections in the physical space);
b) associative organization (i.e., a grouping of elements with some common features);
c) hierarchical organization (each element of information belongs to a certain level, depending on which category it corresponds to).
The following memory function:
Perception is the process of retrieving stored material from memory.
Playback can proceed:
1) at the level recognition(the identity of the perceived and stored in memory is established);
2) at the level playback in the narrow sense of the word (there is no reliance on the image of perception, but the material is recalled purposefully and without much effort on the part of the person);
3) at the level remembrance(reproduction requiring effort to recreate the necessary material).
The following memory function:
Forgetting- a process necessary for the efficient operation of memory. With the help of forgetting, a person gets rid of countless details and facilitates the possibility of generalization.
a) age;
b) the nature of the information and the extent to which it is used;
c) interference (deteriorating preservation of the memorized material as a result of the imposition of other material);
d) suppression (according to Z. Freud - inhibition of traces of memory at the level of consciousness and their displacement into the unconscious).
Describing the qualities of memory, they stand out memorization speed(the amount of repetition needed to keep the material in memory) and forgetting rate(the time during which the memorized is stored in memory). Both options number of repetitions and time change on a scale "quickly-slowly" and give four combinations that describe the features of memory in terms of speed of memorization and duration of storage.
3. Types of memory.
Since memory is one of the most complex mental functions of a person, it has different types and forms.
First of all, we can distinguish such types of memory as genetic or (hereditary) and lifetime. genetic includes mainly instincts and does not depend on the conditions of human life. Genetic memory is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. This is the only kind of memory that we cannot influence through training and education. Genetically, from generation to generation, the necessary biological, psychological and behavioral properties are transmitted. With regard to lifetime memory, it is a repository of information received from birth to death. lifetime memory can be classified in different ways:
1) By the presence of a target setting and the efforts expended on memorization can be divided into involuntary and arbitrary. involuntary memory- this is an automatic memorization and reproduction of information that occurs without effort on the part of a person and installation for memorization. Arbitrary memory- memorization with a special installation to remember and requiring certain volitional efforts.
2) According to the degree of understanding memory is divided into mechanical and semantic. Mechanical memory is based on repetition of material without comprehension. With such memorization, words, objects, events are remembered exactly in the order in which they were perceived. semantic memory involves the comprehension of the memorized material, which is based on an understanding of the internal logical connections between its parts. Meaningful memorization is more effective because it requires less effort and time from a person.
3) Depending on the setting for the storage time of information can be identified short-term, short-term and long-term memory. short term memory stores information on average for about 20 seconds. This memory retains not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements. It works without a preliminary conscious mindset for memorization, but instead with a mindset for the subsequent reproduction of the material. Operational called memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this task. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of storage of the genformation and its properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term memory. long-term Memory is capable of storing information indefinitely. Long-term memory receives information that is of strategic importance to a person.
4) By material stored in memory, it can be divided into cognitive, emotional and personal. cognitive memory is the process of preserving knowledge. The knowledge gained in the process of learning first acts as something external in relation to the individual, then gradually turns into the experience and beliefs of a person. emotional memory- preservation in the mind of experiences and feelings. Memory for feelings is the basis of skill in a number of professions (especially those related to art). Personal memory ensures the unity of the self-consciousness of the individual at all stages of his life path.
5) According to the intensity of the stored images allocate verbal-logical and figurative types of personal memory. Verbal-logical closely connected with the word, thought and logic. Figurative memory, in turn, is divided into visual, auditory, motor memory (of movements), also tactile, olfactory and taste memory, which are mainly reduced to the satisfaction of biological needs.
Thinking- this is a generalized and indirect reflection by a person of reality in its essential connections and relationships.
Sensory cognition gives a person information about objects in their directly cognizable properties. However, not every phenomenon is accessible to direct sensory perception. For example, a person does not perceive ultraviolet rays, but he, nevertheless, knows about their existence and properties. Such knowledge becomes possible in an indirect way. This way is the way of thinking. In the most general terms, it consists in the fact that we subject some things to the test of other things and, being aware of the established relations of interaction between them, we can judge the properties of these things hidden from us.
Thinking function- expanding the boundaries of knowledge by going beyond the limits of sensory perception.
The task of thinking- disclosure of relationships between objects, identifying connections and separating them from random coincidences.
In its formation, thinking resembles two stages: pre-conceptual and conceptual.
Preconceptual thinking- this is the initial stage of the development of thinking in a child, when his thinking has a different organization than that of adults. When explaining, children reduce everything to the particular and the familiar, most judgments by similarity, by analogy, since during this period memory plays the main role in thinking. Given this feature of the child's thinking, it is necessary to support your speech with illustrative examples. A child under 5 years old cannot look at himself from the outside, cannot accept someone else's position.
Conceptual thinking arises at the age of 9-12 years, but it is not yet perfect, because the primary concepts are formed on the basis of everyday experience and are not supported by scientific data, and perfect concepts arise at the age 14-18 years old when the use of theoretical provisions allows you to go beyond your own experience. Thus, thinking is formed and develops from concrete images to perfect concepts, denoted by the word.
Types of thinking:
Visual and effective thinking is based on the direct perception of objects and the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects.
Visual-figurative thinking is characterized by reliance on representation and images. Functions figurative thinking are closely related to the representation of situations and changes in them that a person wants to receive as a result of his activity that transforms the situation. Peculiarity figurative thinking is associated with the establishment of unusual and incredible combinations of objects and their properties. In contrast to visual-effective thinking, with figurative thinking, the situation is transformed only in terms of the image.
Verbal-logical thinking is carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts.
Within this type are the following types of thinking:
1. theoretical
2. practical
3. analytical (logical)
4. realistic
5. autistic, associated with the realization of human desires
6. productive
7. reproductive
8. involuntary (involves the transformation of dream images)
9. arbitrary - purposeful solution of mental problems
Theoretical and practical thinking are distinguished by the type of tasks being solved and the resulting structural and dynamic features.
theoretical thinking- this is the knowledge of laws, rules (for example, the discovery of the periodic system of elements by D.I. Mendeleev). The main task practical thinking preparation of the physical transformation of reality: setting a goal, creating a plan, project, scheme. One of the important features of practical thinking is that it unfolds under severe time pressure.
Analytical thinking has clearly defined stages and is represented in the mind of the thinking person himself.
realistic thinking directed mainly to the outside world, regulated by logical laws, and autistic connected with the realization of human desires (which of us did not pass off the wishful thinking as really existing).
Important is difference between productive and reproductive thinking. Productive thinking is based on “the degree of novelty obtained in the process of mental activity, and reproductive thinking is reproducing thinking in a given image and likeness.
The most important qualities of thinking are the following:
1. Independence (the ability to put forward new tasks and find ways to solve them without resorting to the help of other people);
2. Initiative (constant desire to look for and find ways to solve the problem);
3. Depth - the ability to penetrate into the essence of things and phenomena;
4. Breadth - the ability to see problems in relation to other phenomena;
5. Speed - the speed of solving problems.
6. Originality - the ability to produce new ideas that are different from the generally accepted ones;
7. Inquisitiveness - the need to always find the best solution to the tasks;
8. Criticality - an objective assessment of objects and phenomena and the desire to question hypotheses and decisions;
9. Haste - ill-conceived aspects of a comprehensive study of inaccurate answers and judgments.
Any thought process is an act, it is aimed at solving a specific problem, the formulation of which includes purpose and conditions.
When solving a complex problem, a solution path is outlined, which is realized by a person as hypothesis. Awareness of the hypothesis by a person gives rise to the need for verification. When the test ends, the thought process moves to the final phase - judgment on the matter.
Allocate four stages of problem solving:
1. preparation
2. solution maturation
3. inspiration
4. verification of the found solution
Thinking process human being carried out in two main forms:
1. formation and assimilation of concepts and judgments;
2. problem solving (thinking tasks).
The human psyche exists as something integral, living and indivisible subjective image(see ch. I). This is a personal, subjective, indecomposable system, indissoluble integration. The psyche is produced and carried by a living person - a personality, an individual, an individuality, a subject, and not some of its organs, parts or aspects. With the difference in approaches to understanding the listed terms associated with the generalized category of a person, the concept of personality is one of the key, basic and most used in the domestic literature on psychology, although its interpretation, of course, is far from unambiguous. In addition, the personality is dynamic, changeable, has its own hypothetical evolution.
Evolution, or development, is not a linear process of a gradual quantitative increase in properties or features (see Chapter 3), but the obligatory presence of spasmodic, qualitative changes, similar to independent branches (or "bushes") from a common, moreover, spiral-shaped "tree life."
The divergence, "distance", the differences between modern man and animals are intransigent. According to these notions the human psyche and behavior have a number of fundamental features that qualitatively distinguish man from all other living things on Earth. These differences do not mean the biological, natural isolation of man. On the contrary, real connections, interactions and relations of a person with the world form the basis of life, set the specifics of the human psyche itself.
The main feature of man as a species is his primordial sociality. Man appeared, formed together with society, and society arose together with man. These categories, phenomena are inseparable, do not exist outside of their unity. The latter, of course, does not mean that a person does not have biological specifics (for example, omnivorous, bipedal). But its biological features are largely socially conditioned, more precisely, they are united into a kind of vital, biosocial humanized unity.
Man exists in an environment not only natural, biological, but also social, public. His psyche is "produced" not only by the brain and nervous system, but also by social interactions with other people, people's relationships.
Not a single higher mental function in a person is completely inherited or innate, guaranteed, unambiguously predetermined by biological mechanisms. Each of them acts as a result of lifetime formation and development in the process of social life, in which special psychological phenomena, mechanisms and patterns arise, called socio-psychological.
L. S. Vygotsky figuratively wrote that for an individual, every mental function appears and manifests itself twice. For a newborn child, it exists as belonging to all mankind ( interpsychically). The surrounding people act as carriers of speech, thinking, experiences, consciousness. And only with the development, formation, socialization of the personality, these mental functions pass into the internal, intrapsychic existence, i.e. become the property of a particular entity.
A person develops a special kind sociogenic mental formations, due to its exclusively social nature. Such psychological phenomena are provided with appropriate biological, nervous substrates, but in a certain sense they "break away", are freed from the primordial biological attachment to life, moving to the level of a broader and multidimensional social category of human existence as subjective being.
It is known that a person often commits acts that are in no way connected with the maintenance, preservation and continuation of his own life, even go against it in the name of realizing some social, ethical or moral ideals. Psychologists say that only man can do nonsense. The animal does not know how to do this. This refers to the optional presence of a clear biological meaning in the behavior of an individual, when, for example, a physically exhausted person continues to work with difficulty in order to fulfill his social duties. This is possible because a person has a special kind sociogenic needs, which sometimes do not even have an indirect connection with biological needs (see Chapter 5).
A person is freed from strictly strict adherence to many of his ineradicable physiological needs. As a result, his behavior is significantly restructured, becomes in a special way. free, redundant. The psyche and behavior acquire a specifically human focus, as a result of which in image objects are reflected, actions are performed that do not have a pragmatically narrow, basic meaning of survival. The world reflected, created, transformed by man, in essence, expands indefinitely for him. There are psychological prerequisites for the emergence of creativity, science and culture, art and religion, all human spirituality.
- The second and also socially determined feature of the human psyche and behavior is the appropriation, active assimilation by the individual of universal human experience, historically established in the life, being and activities of previous generations. This experience is not mechanically transmitted from a carrier source to a passively perceiving receiver, but is actively processed, appropriated, interiorized in the interaction of man and the world, image and peace. There are two means, two forms of such transfer of experience:
- 1) objects and tools of labor, activities in general;
- 2) signs, languages and speech.
Tools(hammer, sewing needle, tablespoon, lathe, computer) always carry learning function, because they predetermine both the final result and the very logic of human actions with the objects of the surrounding world.
The material activity of man is armed with a tool as a means, i.e. mediated. It is believed that animals do not have tools, and a stick used, for example, by a monkey to get a fetus, acts only as a "biological extension of the arm" (L. S. Vygotsky); this stick ceases to exist for the animal outside of a specific biologically significant situation. Animals do not store tools, do not make them for the future. To make a tool, you need anticipate its future use, to anticipate its meaning or what it will be used for. This requires the work of not only thinking, but also consciousness, which, according to our ideas, modern animals do not have.
The objects of external activity become the materialization, the crystallization of human thought, of the entire psyche. A person is born and exists in the material objective world, which was largely created by previous generations. Houses and streets, paintings and music, clothes and furniture, palaces and slums - all this does not just create an objective environment for the individual. This is a considerable, sometimes leading part of his own psychological environment, which carries human experience, i.e. necessarily teaches and educates the individual. A person lives in a world of things and objects that have some permanent practical purpose. They mediate, arm, qualitatively modify the entire behavior and psyche of a person.
Signs, languages and speech, artificially created by mankind, are psychologically central, the main means of preserving and transmitting experience.
Sign(in the most universal and mass form - word) replaces the object (thing, phenomenon, quality, action) and therefore produces a psychological "doubling" of the world. On the one hand, there is the objective world of real objects. On the other hand, an equally objective world of its symbolic substitutes has been created, with which a person can work independently. The word created by man does not just replace the world, it sort of analyzes it, decomposing it into its constituent parts, objects-words. There is another side to the very possibility of such free treatment of the reflected objective world. freedom human psyche and behavior (see Ch. 17).
Furthermore, sign systems act as internal means, tools of the human psyche itself. mental activity mediated by analogy with the instrumental armament of material human activity (L. S. Vygotsky). This is convincingly confirmed by numerous experimental studies, for example, perception, memory, thinking, imagination.
The development of the higher mental functions of the personality is not so much a quantitative increase, their “maturation” as such, separately, but rather the expansion, complication of their internal symbolic mediation, as well as the development of interfunctional connections and relationships between them. The presence of consciousness makes the human psyche manageable.
The formed mental processes are to some extent complex, symbolic, speech, and therefore specifically universal.
Hence follows another characteristic feature of the human psyche", the presence of the possibility, ability and readiness to reflect abstract features or properties of objects of the objective world. This is a mental generalization of the reflected world to the level of highlighting the connections and patterns objectively existing in it. A person reflects, recreates in a mental image that which is not given in the form of a sensual, visual experience.
For example, it is physically impossible for a person to perceive the speed of light, to see the structure of the solar system, to feel the temperature of a thousand degrees. But a man can do it all introduce, understand and formulate in the form of a variety of objective and mental sign models with which he really and constantly lives and works. Hence it is possible for a person true knowledge of the world, what is the other side freedom human psyche and behavior (see ch. 15, 16). This is the freedom to know the world and yourself, your place in it. Therefore, fantasies and creativity, foresight and forecast, management and self-government, culture, science, and art are accessible and characteristic for the individual.
Building a personal model of activity - professional psychological portrait of a specialist this is the definition of structural mental personality characteristics and those optimal conditions in which these characteristics can most effectively function.
Temperamental features form the dynamic and energy sectors within which the psyche can function optimally.
Character - this is a kind of set of external influences of the environment on the temperamental (structural) features of the psyche and a complex reaction of the psyche to these influences.
Behavior - this is a system of external realization of character traits and available or preferred techniques and methods of personal functioning.
Three components of the psyche - temperament, character and behavior are the keys to answering questions - as?(temperament), why?(character), and how?(behavior) the psyche functions.
Having answers to these questions, it will not be difficult to combine the personal capabilities of a specialist with the conditions for carrying out activities and solve all the variety of personnel issues that accompany it.
With the optimal combination of the personal capabilities of a specialist with the conditions for carrying out activities, there is no need for external motivation of activity, regulation, as a function of control, in external systems of training and advanced training, in certification, as a way to determine job compliance, etc.
In essence, all management functions are aimed at activating the adaptive properties of the psyche of employees in order to achieve the goal of the activity.
All maladaptive (clinical) forms of behavior are demonstratively ineffective and, as a result, come from the impossibility of the psyche, within the existing conditions, to find acceptable (adapted) options for interacting with the external environment.
Maladaptation- this is the response of the psyche to existing and certain conditions of existence. It is under certain conditions that the psyche realizes activity (conditions for temperamental functioning), satisfies needs, forms and develops a motivational system, forms and develops a system of interests and directions, and organizes the entire set of life systems.
Maladaptation- this is the impossibility of organizing an optimal system of life, these are constantly repeated attempts of the same type of solution to a problem that has once arisen, this is the impossibility of going beyond this problem.
This is a strategy of behavior clearly set by the conditions, a kind of limitation of the means of adaptation, mental underdevelopment or “stuck” at a certain level of development and attempts to further adapt using the means of this level.
Can the behavioral strategies of adaptive forms differ significantly from maladaptive ones?
It is believed that the character is formed by the environment and it is difficult to disagree with this. The selective influence of the environment or purposeful environmental restrictions will undoubtedly affect the adaptive means of the psyche. The wider and more diverse the arsenal of tools, the more opportunities for adaptation.
Developed physical strength, agility, endurance, coordination and good "internal" reaction - a more favorable set of tools for the effective implementation of "active" activities compared to a physically undeveloped set.
In this case, a targeted environmental influence on constitutional features through a system of physical exercises, motivation (as a combination of aggressiveness and the implementation of activity) to compete in such activities made it possible to adapt qualitatively and build life systems in the future, based on developed personal properties that contribute to better adaptation.
Will an inactive psyche (in the classification defined as "reactivity" of temperament) be able to more or less optimally adapt to such environmental influences?
It is more appropriate to translate such a question into the plane of psychophysiology and reformulate it as follows: - How long will the psyche withstand the transcendental innervation?
The answer is quite simple - not at all.
The psyche ceases to respond to the limiting innervation, at least it ceases to adequately respond according to its functions.
It turns out that the environmental influence is selective. In one case, it forms and develops properties, in the other it does not have any effect at all.
Does it even make sense, in this case, to focus on the influence of the environment?
In a certain sense, there is. The environment does not form mental properties in terms of understanding the same impact on everyone, but “offers” sets of adaptive means and methods that the psyche chooses as the most suitable for it. And this choice is far from accidental, not only within the framework of the dynamic properties of the psyche, but is also strictly determined from a certain development of the mental structures themselves.
Today it makes no sense to prove and convince that the psyche in the process of development goes through certain stages of its formation. Moreover, such a process is not much different from the mental development of higher animals, which also have temperamental, characterological and behavioral "personal" features.
The differences are concentrated in socialized systems and are more about the role of instincts in behavioral strategies than intelligence or other mental properties.
Works in the field of developmental psychology, psychoanalytic theories of mental development, theories of mental development by J. Piaget and a number of other authors make it possible to specify the so-called environmental influence on mental development quite accurately.
Purposefully going through the stages of development, the psyche, like the rings of a toy pyramid, strings on its structure properties that are a kind of basis for both the formation and the stable position of the next, more complex properties, and so on, until the completion of all stages of formation.
In case of maladjustment of any of the stages, the deformed ring, corresponding to the stage mental property, will no longer allow the next stage rings - properties form and lay exactly on the mental core.
From this deformed rings - properties all higher mental properties will be distorted and also deformed in a certain way, because they did not have a sufficient and stable basis for development.
With significant deformation rings-properties, subsequent "normal" development becomes impossible. The psyche "gets stuck" at this stage and ceases to develop "normally"; at the end of the general process of formation and the onset of the period of adult functioning, it does not find socially acceptable options for functioning and becomes maladapted, manifesting itself as a clinically stable behavioral feature corresponding to ring-property, subjected to such influence.
The stages of mental development are functionally specialized and structurally consistent, being a kind of succession in the overall process.
From the complex of living conditions (external environment), the psyche consistently selects and concentrates on what it needs at the moment or at this stage.
At birth, both the mental and biological structures of speech are undeveloped. They are formed gradually, as if on the second or even third plane in the hierarchy of mental values.
The main and leading is the object interaction, within the framework of which properties are formed that are more important for the psyche than speech.
Gradually forming, the speech complex is waiting for its stage and any attempts of external influence in order to accelerate this process do not lead to a result.
Such a property of the psyche - the rigid determinism of a staged dominant response is inherent in all developing mental properties, due to which any preliminary impact on the acceleration of the development of these properties - training or development untimely for the capabilities of the psyche, does not lead to significant results.
As the psyche is ready, the turn of “active” development of the speech complex comes. The child begins to speak, that is, to meaningfully express his attitude or desire, always unexpectedly for others. This is usually preceded by a fairly long period of "unreasonable" silence.
The training of the ligaments is stopped by pronouncing meaningless sound sets and the child becomes silent for a “long” time.
And according to time and according to a number of signs, he is ready to speak, but does not speak.
This usually causes anxiety in parents and resulted in a number of medical jokes such as: "Your child is healthy, but is silent because he has nothing to tell you."
In fact, the period of external speech is always preceded by a period of "internal". The psyche needs some time at this stage of development.
At this time, speech properties and their formation become leading in the development process. The child actively and with the help of "internal" speech participates in interaction systems. Understands what they are talking about or what they are asking for, actively listens to conversations, etc.
Unexpectedly and often without external reasons, the child begins to talk normally and very actively, passing into the period of functioning of external speech.
Quite quickly, speech normalizes and such communicative properties of the psyche reach the degree of complete formation and the psyche passes into another period of development with an important and developed communication property.
After that, the psyche will never return to this stage and will not "engage" with the properties formed in it.
This is the second, after selective from the position of the psyche, and not external conditions, the sequence of formation of mental structures, a feature of the psyche.
If the external environment for the psyche did not contribute to the formation of mental properties at the time necessary for this, they (properties) will never be formed.
In our case, this is the Mowgli complex. If a child has not learned to speak, that is, to carry out communication interaction with the help of a speech complex before the age of 5, he most likely will never learn this again, even with super-intense educational influences.
The second feature of the psyche - non-return to the past stages of the formation of mental properties concerns all, without exception, the stages and properties that are formed within these stages.
This feature of the psyche forces us to reconsider the mechanisms of the influence of the environment on the features of the formation of the psyche.
At the first feature not the environment, but the psyche chooses the time that is optimal for influencing itself in the process of its development.
The psyche "decides" when certain environmental conditions become dominant for it in the development of strictly defined properties.
Such a feature of the psyche will never allow, either before or after the appropriate period, to exert a formative influence on itself.
With the second feature it is the psyche that chooses from the environment the mechanisms and means of functioning it needs and always in the future uses only what was in the environment at the time of formation, never returning to develop what was not sufficiently formed.
In this case, the environment is just a kind of pantry of certain tools, the breadth of functionality of which will either expand or narrow the adaptive properties, but in no way impose them as formative ones.
AND, the third feature of the psyche - its properties or structural components at a strictly defined time (stage) and from what is (environment) are formed in such a way as to turn out both under the influence of previously formed properties and qualities and under the influence of one’s own (temperamental) characteristics of the psyche.
Such features of the formation of the psyche reflect two types of mental developmental disabilities , different both in nature and in the results of exposure.
The first type of restrictions is formed by the personal temperamental system.
Being innate and little changeable (unchangeable), the temperamental system of the psyche “controls” the development process and significantly corrects it.
Reflecting the main mental property - response to a signal, it has both optimal functioning parameters and dynamic parameters of functionality. It is a system that produces and implements activity, and in our case it is a filter that limits or streamlines the influence of the environment on the developing psyche.
In this regard, the basic psycho-physiological state, the dynamic parameters of functionality and activity, as a mental characteristic, are intertwined and create a kind of background against which the process of formation of mental properties and qualities takes place.
In such a scheme, the basic psycho-physiological state is a kind of state of the psyche - each individual nerve cell functioning at "idle". That optimal level of internal basic excitation necessary for the implementation of the main function - signal transmission.
And their own functional state of the cell and their complex (centers) state - a certain state of readiness to perform functions.
The level of such a state or the level of readiness is individually very different and, in turn, in a certain way forms the dynamic properties of the psyche - the minimum and maximum thresholds of sensitivity (the ability to respond to a signal).
If the basic background of own cellular activity (idling) is very high, then external signals weaker than this background will not be perceived by the cell. The background will "clog" them, preventing the cell from reacting to external influences.
In this case, one can speak of strong nervous system, the strength of which lies in a sufficiently high threshold of perception of the minimum signal to respond.
Along with the minimum threshold of signal perception, there is also a maximum in mental dynamics, the excess of which already ceases to cause a response specialized for the cell (center).
The strength of the impact exceeds the ability of the cell to "process" and transmit further to the center a signal of adequate strength, since the functional feature includes not only the ability to respond and transmit further the signal, but also to do this strictly in accordance with the strength of the perceived signal.
It is possible that for the “conducting” system itself, the “outrageous” signal strength does not matter, namely, the nerve mental center, which is the final destination of innervation, has the limiting boundaries of “work” with external signals coming to it.
In this case, it is more expedient to talk about the dynamic capabilities of the centers of the nervous system, which, as a specialized formation of nerve cells, have their own limit of adequate response.
The innervation that is beyond the capabilities of the center is first reflected as spontaneous activity that does not correspond to “specialization”, and, after a lapse of time, it ceases to be reflected at all (either perceived by the center, or producing reactions in response).
Thus, the dynamic parameters of the psyche have a number of psychophysiological properties - the minimum threshold for the onset of a response, the maximum threshold for the termination of a response, the time dynamic dependence of an adequate response (fatigue or depletion of energy resources).
Such dynamic parameters form mental activity, or simply serve as its basis, being a tool for both basic functioning and interaction with the outside world.
Mental activity is a kind of reflection of the dynamic properties - the strength and intensity of the flow of mental processes.
Strength and intensity (duration in time) lie within the thresholds of innervation. This threshold interval essentially shapes both the strength and intensity of the activity.
At strong temperament type, the threshold interval is significantly shifted upward compared to weak type.
In addition to the signal discrimination threshold, it is also energetically more saturated.
Its “idle” level up to the threshold functioning may well correspond in terms of dynamic parameters to the optimal level of functional response. weak type.
The cell, or their complex formation - the psychic center, have the same dynamic nature - the ability to transmit and respond (as a center) to the signal of innervation with strength, frequency and duration, depending on the cell (psyche) individual characteristics.
In addition to the "general" dynamic properties, the cell, center or psyche as a whole has another number of "individual" features - response excitability that is not adequate in terms of the strength of the impact and after the signal (residual) reaction.
Such properties do not depend on dynamic ones in any way and reflect, in the first case, a kind of balance between excitation and inhibition of mental processes, and in the second, the time after the signal response (innervation inertia).
It is customary to distinguish the last property into two more - in fact inertia and the ability of the entire nervous system in general to switch from one type of signal to another - lability.
Is such a feature of the nervous system ( lability) due to the fact that switching from signal to signal occurs at the end of the response to the first one and, after that, the response to the other begins ( small inertia), or this process can go in parallel, with a gradual attenuation of the primary response against the background of an already dominant response to subsequent signals, is not so important, because distinguishing this nature does not change the essence of the behavioral features themselves.
In this regard, a number of derivative or auxiliary properties of the psyche, such as irradiation, non-function-specific response, spontaneity and spontaneous response etc. also of little relevance to the general nature of the behavioral features.
In a word, no matter what the psychophysiological foundations are, the individual (personal) psyche has four groups of features:
- dynamic;
- originality of response excitability;
- response inertia;
- lability.
Even the dynamic features of the psyche would be more than enough to form an unlimited variety of behavioral features.
Combinations of strength, frequency and duration in the work of the psyche as simple mathematical variables will form such an unlimited behavioral variety and could form, however, features excitability, inertia and lability, instead of diversifying behavioral features even more, they limit them quite significantly.
Dynamic properties give the psyche a certain segment of optimal life activity.
On the one hand, they can be considered as personal capabilities - the ability to perform functions in certain dynamic modes. On the other hand, the psyche becomes a "hostage" of these regimes.
It can be seen that the minimum threshold of perception generally does not allow the psyche to perceive signals that are weaker than its value, which also limits personal possibilities.
A high background, "idle" state, in addition to the ability to work in more "active" modes, also needs a higher external influence just to maintain its "form".
The psyche is forced to look for these modes and functions optimally only in them.
The threshold of transcendental perception "cuts off" all situations that occur with such "transcendental" innervation for the psyche, which is also a limiter of functionality.
Thus, the properties of the psyche and its optimal states of vital activity and functioning are an inseparable duet that equally represents its individuality in behavior.
Nerve cells and their totality - centers, initially produce some and personally defined excess potential, which, being unclaimed, is actively looking for application - conditions for its use. Therefore, and weak and at strong nervous system (a set of mental centers) and their levels of optimization of life activity and, as a result, their behavioral characteristics formed by these levels.
Excitability - excess processes arousal over processes braking is also a property and state of the nervous system.
With such state - property, the cell (psychic) center produces a much greater excess energy potential, which simply cannot find “neutral” background conditions for its realization and needs a significant energy orientation for specific goals.
That is, aimlessly produced energy seeks a specific target output. Spontaneous energy is ready and needs to be released for anything and for anything and will be spent.
Assumptions that such mental characteristics are the result of insufficient inhibitory processes that are unable to keep the psyche from responding to external signals of action may well not be correct.
The source of such assumptions was a comparison of two types of the nervous system of equal strength - balanced and excitable.
In both temperamental types dynamics mental processes is the same in strength and frequency and duration of functioning.
The threshold interval is the same, and hence the optimal conditions for the functioning of the psyche.
As a result of this, quite justifiably, they began to look for the difference in the obvious - the severity of the processes of inhibition.
AT balanced type they are sufficient, in excitable- No.
As a description of the principles of the work of the psyche, this is quite enough structural “brake” formations that cannot hold activity, due to which it spontaneously manifests itself on any remotely suitable target.
In our case - an attempt to determine the features of the formation of mental properties and qualities, such a description will not be enough.
The question is fundamental - either inhibition is weak, or it does not cause the manifestation of activity at all.
If the dynamic parameters are the same, then there is no basic reason for weak braking at all.
If the excitation signal "passes through", why can't the inhibition signal "pass through" as well, why can't the psyche just as easily stop as it starts to act?
Inside the threshold indicators - ordinary physical and chemical reactions - turned on, turned off, regardless of whether they "work" for excitation or inhibition. And in both types of temperament, balanced and excitable external influences of the same strength cause a response ( excitability), or do not call ( equilibrium).
Moreover, for excitable such as a rather insignificant external "push" to start the implementation of the activity, and for balanced- and persistent long-term exposure may not have a provoking effect.
Such a dynamic feature of the psyche as excitability will become more understandable if we consider its mechanisms without any connection with the processes of inhibition, excluding them from the system of interaction of the psyche with the external environment.
It is known that it was the manifestations of the processes of mental excitation that underlay the development of the theory of I.P. Pavlova about the types of temperament.
When working on the study of reflexes, the dog, fixed in the "machine", quickly fell into a complete stupor. Possessing an excitable type of nervous system and being deprived of mobility, it also lost its “background” innervation, which was perceived by the psyche as a far from optimal state, to which the psyche reacted in a very inadequate way.
Such a phenomenon and an attempt to understand it led I.P. Pavlov to the theory of types of temperament. The lack of innervation worked on the psyche as an exciting signal for the formation of a state of sleep. The absence of innervation, which ensures the optimal "background" functioning of the psyche, can be a complex excitatory signal for the formation of a state other than the waking state. That is, the placement of the psyche in a state beyond its limits led to the spontaneity of the reaction - sleep, as a certain response of the psyche to a situation that lies beyond the limits of optimal functioning.
In this case, it is generally impossible to speak of weakness or insufficiency in strength of the processes of inhibition. Rather, on the contrary - in the excitable type, inhibition is quite consistent with excitation and, perhaps, even stronger than in the balanced type, but this is not the point. The psyche reacted precisely to the change in the conditions of functioning and the inability to realize activity.
You can try to "dismember" the processes of excitation and inhibition and analyze how the psyche behaves without such a bunch.
To exclude the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the psyche must be placed in conditions that do not require such interaction.
To do this, it is necessary to limit the excitation to the background level necessary for the optimal "idle" work of the psyche, removing all other innervation influences that could provoke responses and see how the externally unexcited psyche will behave?
The absence of significant external stimuli does not imply the participation of inhibitory processes, because there is nothing to slow down, the excitation is not provoked, the dynamic conditions are optimal, therefore the psyche should “feel” well - it is, but not for a very long time. The very restriction of innervation turns optimal conditions into non-optimal ones and provokes the psyche to spontaneous activity or to a response that is inadequate to the impact.
It turns out that excitability- this is not the prevalence of excitation processes over inhibition, but it is a feature of the psyche in itself and in large quantities to produce a potential general energy that can be realized only through excitation.
The psyche, by spending such an energy potential, “returns” to an optimally low level in order to again produce a new surplus and realize it again, etc.
In this case, no inhibition will hold back the energy surplus - it appears and grows to the extent that it is not used up, and this happens all the time.
It can be assumed that such a mechanism - constant energy overproduction and its expenditure, along with the dynamic parameters of optimal functioning, is also an additional and indispensable condition for optimizing the work and functioning of the excitable nervous system.
Thus, the increased activity characteristic of persons with an unbalanced nervous system may be a personal property that reflects the features of the functioning of the psyche.
In this regard, things are somewhat more complicated with the inertia and lability of the nervous system.
Inertia as a functional property of the psyche, it is quite obvious - for some time after the cessation of exposure, the cell (center) continues to produce a response. The longer this happens, the greater the inertia and vice versa.
It is obvious that such a property is also a feature of the nervous system and has individual differences simply from nature as innate.
The peculiarity of this property lies in the fact that in the process of inertia, the cell (center) is not able to respond to irritation of other signals. She is busy with previous work and simply does not have the opportunity, having one signal transmission channel, to react to another.
With a relative duration of inertia, this property was attributed to motionless type of nervous system that can only be inherent dynamically strong and balanced nervous system. Simply put - strong and balanced The nervous system has an additional feature - inertia as a mental property.
Weak and excitable types of the nervous system do not have this property, or in their nature such a process is so insignificant that it does not have any different effect on behavioral characteristics.
Small inertia after a signal response and faster readiness to respond to the next irritation after the previous one, is called mobile temperament type, also with a mandatory set strong and balanced properties.
That is, dynamic strong, balanced in terms of excitation and inhibition, the mental process, on the basis of another feature - inertia, was divided into two types, each of which formed both a property and a functional feature characteristic of its own form of behavior.
Such a picture is simple and, due to its simplicity, is especially harmonious - dynamic features and, as their reflection - properties, form two types - weak or strong.
Strong type, based on the characteristics of excitability and its reflection - properties, is divided into two more types - balanced and unbalanced.
Strong, balanced type, based on the features of inertia and its reflection - properties, is also divided into two types - mobile and fixed.
It turned out that the features of the psyche are not limited to this.
There is another mobility in nature and not related to inertia - lability, as well as a functional feature (form of functioning), and a property - the ability and possibility of a kind of response.
Lability , unlike both inertia and excitation and dynamics, it has a different, more mental than biological essence and, because of this, it can develop itself differently and influence other processes of mental development.
Essence lability is the complex ability of the psyche, through the coordination interaction of centers, to distinguish (and, initially, be functionally ready for such a distinction) of innervation signals of different nature.
Functionally, lability is not limited to simple discrimination, but is also an analytical and dosed response.
Actually, the response itself is a reflection lability. By itself, unanswered distinction does not give anything to the psyche and behavior as a whole and, because of this, can only be an auxiliary function and deeply secondary to this process as a whole.
How to interconnect the process lability with the process of inertia also has no significant meaning, because their natures are different.
Inertia is a feature of a physicochemical reaction, lability- a system of coordination, and hence the representation in each mental center of original and specialized mini-centers of such coordination, which allow the process of distinguishing all signals simultaneously and in the aggregate to determine the hierarchy of response.
Of the entire flow of external influence, to which each psychic center reacts according to its functionality, it is precisely lability, by distinguishing and analyzing, it forms a behavioral response, that is, it loads the innervation system that the psyche needs here and now.
Thus, lability as a mental property, it is most likely a secondary property, more complexly articulated from the innate and developed components of mental coordination, both influencing mental development and itself subject to developing external influence.
Regarding this property of the psyche, the rules of environmental influence are completely natural. The more the environment has an impact, the more intense and effective coordination links are formed and function and, as a result, adaptive forms of behavior expand, which fully corresponds to the second feature of the development of the psyche - the choice of means of adaptation from the environment.
Such a feature lability- the ability to change under the influence of the environment, reflects the very essence of the development of the psyche and, because of this, cannot be considered as a property that determines the optimization (degree of influence) of development.
Thus, three groups of basic temperamental properties remain at our disposal and the psyche - dynamic, the properties of excitability and inertia, which in the processes of the formation of the psyche, with their inherent features, are of great importance in terms of their influence on behavior.
Features of the development of the psyche and the formation of character:
Initially, it seems strange that the dynamic features of the psyche, attributed to weak type of temperament, do not have "secondary" features differences in the development of excitability and inertia of mental processes.
More precisely, such features do not appear in behavioral strategies, which allows them to be ignored as insignificant.
Nature weak type of temperament reflects its main feature - small, in comparison with strong type, mental activity.
A low threshold interval for optimal functioning does not in itself limit activity per se.
In the end, irritability is only a property of the nervous tissue and activation at low levels, in theory, should be accompanied by a greater ability of the mental system both for the duration of functioning (endurance) and for intensity in its own optimal modes.
For this, the psyche must have a certain potential, if it is not there, there is no activity.
Weak type is weak not only dynamically, but also energetically.
Functioning in lower dynamic parameters, it “gets tired” faster, which is also its feature.
Such features weak types make it possible to more clearly demonstrate the features of the staged development of the psyche and the second type of mental development limitations - dependence of the formation of the following mental properties on the previously formed ones.
Let's assume that the temperamental properties of the psyche are unchanged, their inherent personal characteristics are the same and developing they (properties) do not adapt, that is, they function in certain and stable modes.
How will the psyche develop?
It is known that at birth, the highest mental properties, oriented to object interactions, are presented in the psyche potentially.
For example, the ability to communicate through speech is provided by the potential biological capabilities of the structure of the throat and ligaments and mental potentialities in the form of a specialized speech center.
In order for potential abilities to become real and turn into personal means of object interactions, they must be developed, and such development has its own laws that apply to all higher mental properties.
Hierarchically, that is, according to the degree of importance and sequence of formation, they can look like this:
1. Primary formation of mental structures of object interaction without isolating the personal "I".
2. Secondary formation of structures of object interaction with partial isolation (separation) of the personal "I".
3. Formation of structures of object interaction of completely isolated personal "I" with external and independent from "I" objects.
At all three levels of the formation of mental structures, in addition to the actual development, a certain process of teaching the psyche to realize basic needs through the mechanisms of object interaction is carried out.
At the first level, the mechanisms for satisfying basic needs simultaneously teach the psyche the rudiments of object interaction.
That is, getting food and “communicating” the psyche not only develops biologically, due to natural growth, but also simultaneously learns to interact with the mother, as with an object, in psychological parameters not much different from other future objects of interaction, already “strangers” and “ independent" from the psyche.
Satisfaction of basic needs, limited at this stage, as it were, presupposes and teaches the psyche in advance a more complex system of object interaction in order to be able to satisfy even more complex needs that the mother, as an object, cannot satisfy for natural reasons.
It turns out that the mother is used by the psyche as a kind of visual aid for the development of properties that are extremely necessary for the psyche in a distant adult life.
At the second stage, and due to the natural growth and certain development of the primary mechanisms of object interaction, the personal psychic "I" begins to separate from dependence on the mother and the psyche begins to form interaction systems that are communicatively understood by other objects.
If at the first stage there was no such need in the interaction system, however, as there were no opportunities, and the needs were satisfied from the outside, then at the second stage, the processes of development of object interaction systems take place to satisfy the needs independently and using objects “foreign” for the psyche .
Naturally, such formation of systems of "external" interaction is a complex and time-consuming process, which is why the separation of the "I" occurs gradually - first communication tools are formed, then they are improved in the process of object interaction, simultaneously developing the interaction systems themselves.
And at this stage, the mother performs the functions of a visual aid, playing the role of an external object for the psyche in the formation of already more complex mechanisms for satisfying needs.
At the second stage, the mechanisms of gender distinction are added, which complicates the process of interaction, including such a distinction in it and specifying external objects by gender, forming various systems of interaction with gender-different objects.
The psyche begins to "understand" that not all external objects are potentially suitable for the satisfaction of specialized needs.
Gender identification also forms various communication interactions and further separates the “I” not only as an abstract “I” in the system of interaction with external objects, but also as a “I” endowed with gender characteristics and properties in systems of gender-role interactions.
At the second stage, as well as at the first, the mechanisms of object interaction are formed "for growth". This is especially evident at the second stage, when the mechanisms of gender-role interaction (the Oedipus complex) begin to form in the psyche, even physiologically unprepared for such interactions.
The role of the mother and the growing role of the father, their system of interaction and the attitude of the developing psyche to these interactions are a kind of workshop in which, long before practical necessity, techniques and methods of object interaction are formed.
The psyche makes “forays” out of the system of dependent object interaction, separating itself and “trying out” both new mechanisms and new states of such isolated functioning.
When problems arise, the psyche is always ready to regress to the previous, “dependent” state and continue to function in it, already “protected” from problematic interactions.
Starting from the first stage, and especially at the second, the psyche is latently preparing for the implementation of the main function - the satisfaction of a complex of gender-role needs.
Such a complex is exclusively socialized and completely concentrated in the system of object interactions, which is why the psyche is prepared for these interactions very carefully. Developing and becoming more complex, the psyche works out the mechanisms of object interaction from different angles and repeatedly repeating itself with gradual complication.
Developing and learning, she also needs to solve the strategic task of completely isolating the “I” from the primary object dependence (mother) and transferring the acquired “skills” to other (foreign) objects.
This is what the psyche does at the third stage of its development.
That is, the stage-by-stage gradation is based on the level of object dependence, the change of which makes it possible to distinguish the stages of development of the psyche.
The third stage is the stage of development and approbation of the latent "skills" of the previous stages in practice.
Its beginning is considered to be such a development and isolation of the personal "I", in which it is no longer possible to regress to the previous object dependence and, as a result, it is impossible to postpone "for later" and repeat a failed attempt at interaction.
The psyche already has to decide not only how to build interactions, but also how to relate to how they turn out.
It is at this stage that the question is decided how much the psyche is ready to function separately from the previous object dependence. Technically and temporarily, regression and “forgetting” about the failure in the interaction system is no longer possible.
It is necessary either to “correct” errors or to refuse interaction at this level, regressing completely to the use of more primitive methods formed at the previous stage of development.
Faced with a problem, the psyche has two options - to solve it according to its modern capabilities, and for this they must be available in the form of an arsenal of personal means, or to try to solve it using the means developed at the previous stage, that is, the state and means of object dependence.
It turns out that the “developed” need for gender-role interaction is trying to find realization through underdeveloped means of object interactions.
With this form of interactions during the period of development, attempts and mechanisms of regression are not obvious. Their manifestations by others are easily attributed to the personal “unformed” attitude to object interactions and, thus, the mechanisms of regression are already “secondarily” fixed in behavior patterns.
They become visual immediately after the completion of the processes of the formation of the psyche, when there is nowhere to retreat and it is necessary to begin to react and interact “in an adult way”, but the psyche does not know how.
Then comes behavioral maladjustment as a system of behavior and interaction that does not make it possible to realize the needs, which at this moment are already leading in the entire system of the need hierarchy.
In order to better understand the interdependence of emerging and formed mental properties, it is more expedient to return to the “origins” again and look at the entire process of the formation of the psyche already in the aggregate and the parameters of the psyche (temperament) and the patterns of its formation.
The primary construction of systems of interaction between the emerging psyche and the object (mother) occurs against the background of temperamental conditions for optimal functioning.
The temperamental features of the developing psyche and the object (mother) may or may not be identical in type.
If they are identical, that is, they have the same dynamic parameters, the level of excitability and indicators of inertia, then the process of development of mental properties and qualities will depend only on the system of interactions itself.
In this case, if there is a desire of the object (mother) to develop the child's psyche - to care and love - the psyche will develop normally.
The mother follows the needs of the psyche and, when concretized, tries to satisfy them in a mode that is optimal for the psyche.
That is, the interaction system is carried out in the optimal temperamental mode.
A completely different picture is possible with a significant difference in the temperamental parameters of the psyche and the object.
In this case, even the strong desire of the object (mother) to develop the psyche is not sufficient, and the object interaction itself will not be optimal for development.
Strong object's temperament type will affect weak temperamental type of psyche as, for the most part, transcendental excitement, not perceived by the psyche.
Weak the type of temperament of the object and the impact within the framework of its inherent parameters will be clearly insufficient for strong temperamental type of the psyche, since the innervation of the impact will not reach the psyche through the threshold of minimal perception.
With any combination of less than optimal temperamental interaction, the developing psyche will be deprived of a significant part of the environmental (objective) influence and, according to the characteristics of development, will form the properties and mechanisms of interaction, not even from what is in the environment, but from what it can receive and use according to your needs.
With insufficient desire of the object (mother) to develop the psyche and take care of it (to satisfy needs and develop interaction mechanisms), the question of optimizing interaction is not at all worth it.
In this case, the success of the formation of mental properties will be more random and depend on whether the psyche can be formed more or less efficiently from what is.
It turns out that two significant obstacles stand in the way of the effective formation of the psyche - the features of temperamental interaction and the insufficient desire of the object (mother) to optimally form and develop the psyche.
Strange as it may sound, but great love and care, under certain conditions, turns out to be just as little effective in shaping the psyche as their absence.
Already at the very early stage of development, the psyche forms an important property - the ability to distinguish objects into “us and others”.
Up to a certain stage, the child (psyche) and the mother (object) are indistinguishable for the psyche and, because of this, it is completely indifferent for the psyche who takes care of it.
When the moment comes for the formation of the rudiments of object interaction, the psyche begins to need a system of evaluative coordinates, on the basis of which the formation of a distinction is possible.
The basis of such a distinction is a kind of basic “postulate” that the “own” object for the psyche is the mother, who provides all the needs and her attitude is an example of the best possible object relationship.
Using such a system of relations as a standard, the psyche begins, by comparing with it, to distinguish between the relations of other objects, noting that not all of them are ready, like the mother, to fulfill all the needs and desires of the psyche.
Someone participates in this partially and occasionally, sometimes replacing the mother, for example, relatives, someone does not participate at all, etc. That is, a hierarchy of interactions with objects is built by fixing the “usefulness” for the psyche of one or another of them.
If the standard (mother) does not treat the psyche ideally, does not follow the process of getting acquainted with objects and is not always ready to support it in case of problems, if the desire to care is not sufficiently developed, then the psyche finds itself in a rather difficult situation. She has trouble defining an initial benchmark for evaluating object interactions.
Non-reference attitude of the reference and the suppression of the familiarization activity of the psyche, as a result, the unwillingness to accompany it in the process of object familiarization, disorientate the psyche in the original system of object interactions.
It turns out that an object relation that is inadequate for the standard does not allow the psyche to qualitatively build a hierarchical system of object interaction. It cannot distinguish objects by their relation to the psyche and rank this relation, which leads the psyche to a constant "experiencing" the consequences of these relations.
A well-formed distinction mechanism simplifies the consequences of object relations. If a “foreign” object in the system of interactions is treated badly, this is natural and does not go beyond the expected attitude, therefore, in terms of consequences, it is not particularly experienced by the psyche.
With the very indistinguishability between “foreign” and “own” objects, the psyche is more inclined to perceive everyone as “their own” and perceives a bad attitude from “their own” very painfully and in a complex, as well as part of its guilt for misbehavior.
The formation of a standard in interaction systems also implies an analytical mechanism that evaluates the relationship of objects. Analyzing, the psyche tries to understand why its object-cognitive activity is limited and what adjustments need to be made so that such a process does not cause a negative attitude. It comes to the aid of the process of formation of subject interaction.
By the time of development, both the primary object interaction and the objective interaction almost coincide.
In contrast to the object interaction, in the subject interaction for the psyche everything is clear and functionally stable. Each item has either one or a number of specific functions. These functions, relative to the object functions, are very stable and, most importantly, they are predictable, that is, they correspond to the expected ones.
An additional plus is the relation of the object (mother) to the subject interaction. It is encouraged, as occupying the attention of the child, does not require special participation in controlling him.
It turns out that the undeveloped mechanisms of object discrimination and the "pushing" of the psyche to excessive concentration on the mechanisms of subject interaction are transformed into a kind of mechanism of object interaction through an indirect system of interaction with the help of symbols - a more understandable for the psyche and a stable system of symbolic interaction.
The functions of symbols become the main stabilizers for the psyche in incomprehensible systems of object interaction.
With significant "tensions" in these interactions, the psyche completely "goes" into the subject interaction and demonstrates already at the early stages of development autism as a form of behavioral interaction.
Such a reaction of the psyche is the only and unique in all forms of maladaptive behavior, it combines behavioral features schizoid type and reflects the level of impossibility of the correct formation of systems of object interaction.
Already in the early stages of development, the psyche is driven into a "framework" that it may not be able to withstand.
Constant errors in the system of object interaction and the presence of an alternative in the form of object (symbolic) interaction can provoke the developing psyche to a complete rejection of direct object interaction.
If this happens in the early stages, then the development of the psyche in the normal "line" will stop.
Developing within the framework of subject interaction, the psyche will be seriously limited in expanding the means and subject interaction, since most of them, having applied significance, are focused on object interaction.
It turns out that it is no longer Wednesday, but strategy development of the psyche limits its own development and the psyche begins to be content with what is available in the non-objective sphere.
All search mental activity will be concentrated in a certain, limited zone of objective accessibility, and, within this zone, the psyche will develop without restrictions, which is demonstrated by autistic individuals who perfectly operate the objective properties available to them.
There are two functions in this process - the nature of the object restriction and the level of autistic self-restraint.
In the first function, not only objective (maternal) "indifference" can become a factor forcing the psyche to such development strategies. And temperamental features and, as a consequence, the object response to mental activity can "successfully" fulfill such a restriction.
In this case, restrictive pressure will not lead to autistic self-limitation, but will "push" the psyche to a more thorough study and operation of objective functions. And the more active the psyche and the stronger the restrictions, the more “willingly” the psyche will concentrate on the systems of symbolic interaction.
In such cases, it is more appropriate to talk not about maladaptive behavioral forms, but about the formation of a personal orientation and the nature of object interactions, more focused on indirect symbolic interaction. A specialized form of adaptive behavior will look like schizoid type with a set of preferred ways of interaction and the originality of the processes of satisfaction of dominant needs, that is, a person will have a peculiar character, as a stably manifested set of means of response and interaction.
A simple mechanism of object discrimination as a result of object interaction has become the reason for the formation of behavioral features.
With the active unwillingness of the object (mother) to optimally take care of the development of the psyche, and depending on its characteristics, the psyche can, to one degree or another, refuse object interaction and concentrate on systems of subject (symbolic) interaction.
In such cases, the level of behavioral maladaptation will depend on the level of isolation of the psyche from the systems of object interaction, on the structural features of the psyche and living conditions.
At a certain time, the mechanism of object interaction (distinction) that was ready to be formed did not receive from the environment the means necessary for this (reaction standards), began to concentrate (under external pressure) on the available mechanisms of interaction (subject - symbolic) and, as a result, began to develop according to hard-coded scheme.
The psyche more than once at the next stages of development will improve the mechanism of object interaction. Only each subsequent improvement will take place on the basis of the initially formed mechanism, and its imperfection will be reflected in each of the subsequent ones.
This feature of the development of the psyche is most clearly reflected in the "Mowgli" complex. During the formation of speech communication properties, the psyche did not receive the means (speech as an instrument), as a result of which the speech mental center was not developed either. The psyche did not "include" him in a complex coordination system. Its place was taken by other, non-verbal means of communication, which formed their own system, providing the psyche with the possibility of interaction.
It cannot be argued that the functions of speech and its properties turned out to be undeveloped, they were simply replaced by other, non-speech properties, and these properties "took" someone else's place in the psyche. It was occupied, due to which the potential ability for speech interaction turned out to be replaced by a similar, but not adequate function and, because of this, was not preserved as capable of further development. The psyche has already formed, having filled the lack of funds with more or less suitable ones, and in this formed and complexly coordinated system there is no longer room for the “original” properties and mental mechanisms.
Naturally, the lack of the ability to interact through speech (symbolic interaction) catastrophically limits all mental development.
The psyche is no longer able to develop because. that he does not have the necessary tools for this and does not even have the opportunity to develop them, because there is no place for them in mental structures.
All other mental structures and properties are formed in the same way.
The original object interaction is the same property as speech and also needs the means of formation and is also formed using these means and is replaced by more or less similar ones from those available, in the absence of the main ones.
Once a property has been formed, it is no longer possible to remake it, it has taken its place in the psyche and, in the future, more complex properties can be formed only on the basis of basic, initially formed properties, and the success of the formation of more complex “secondary” properties will depend on how much the primary properties can contribute to this.
With autistic limitation, it is clear that discrimination as a property has not developed. As in the case of speech, with complete autism, the psyche has lost both the properties and the tools of development that are significant for development. And without tools, the psyche does not have the opportunity to develop.
Both with the "Mowgli" complex and with autism, the mechanism for the formation of the psyche is relatively simple. The psyche is clearly undeveloped qualitatively and this is expressed clearly, as a complete maladaptation. A person either knows how to speak and understand speech, or not. It is much more difficult when the property is formed, but with a number of features that are different from the optimal ones.
In the very process of property formation, there is a certain qualitative gradation from the pole of optimal formation to the pole of complete maladjustment (lack of formation).
With optimal formation, optimal conditions are created for the formation, on the basis of the basic property, of a secondary, more complex mental property, etc.
In this case, the psyche, developing, constantly replenishes its arsenal with a wide range of both means and opportunities for the realization of constantly developing needs.
Having developed and optimally formed, the psyche has an important complex ability - to adequately interact with other objects and function effectively in the environment of life.
In this case character, as a set of personal responses and behavioral strategies for functioning, will have personal characteristics that lie exclusively within the framework of temperamental characteristics.
Under optimal conditions for temperament, the implementation of activities will allow you to effectively implement activity and satisfy needs through well-developed and functionally diverse means of interaction.
The whole complex of needs - from primary to higher multilevel needs can be both optimized and implemented, since neither in the system of object interaction, nor in the system of goal-building (orientation of the personality) there are any significant obstacles for this.
Another thing is if the development process had some peculiarities and did not turn out to be optimal.
In this case, the arsenal of means of interaction is limited and, because of this, the possibilities of the psyche are “narrowed” in a certain way.
Already in the primary object distinction, the external object limitation or self-limitation of cognitive activity aimed at studying object properties will also limit the means of interaction.
Limited means of interaction will complicate the formation of the next, more complex property - object interaction through object functions.
The object "value" increased for the psyche will not allow one to freely operate with objects in the process of object interaction.
The reluctance to freely interact through objects - games, with the exchange of toys, in turn, will also limit the means of interaction.
Thus, the psyche will approach the next stage - the formation of means of gender object interaction with a certain, limited arsenal of means, the main of which will be an overly saturated subject functionality.
Objects, representing the dominant value for the psyche, will be used as a means of interaction. However, for the most "external" object of interaction, they no longer matter. He is interested in other means of interaction that the psyche does not possess or does not “understand” what is wanted from it. Consequently, even during the formation of this property in the system of interactions, the psyche remained with “its own interests”.
At that time, for the psyche, such a situation is not special or “defective”.
If the subject means did not work in the system of gender-sex-different interactions, then in the system of gender-sex-identical interactions the result turned out to be different.
Substantive "bribery" succeeds for two reasons. The psyche demonstrates to the same object the importance of object interaction for it and “shows” that it is not going to compete for leading positions in the systems of gender rivalry, being eliminated from the “applicants”.
Such an attitude “flatters” any similar object, and it interacts with a certain desire.
For the psyche, this position is strategically forming the entire behavioral system.
If earlier the mechanisms and processes of object interaction were little accompanied by positive experiences, then in the latter case the psyche got the opportunity to carry out interactions with a positive effect for itself.
The psyche is of little interest that such an alliance is temporary and, to a greater extent, one-sided. The main thing that worked was the main means - interaction, built on the principles of subject functionality.
Tactical and global strategic tasks are beginning to take shape, the main goal of which is the sufficient accumulation of items - means for further improving the processes of interaction.
In the future, the psyche will be improved, but only within the framework of the main strategic task.
She quite successfully “learns” and uses elements of objective functionality in systems of gender relations, especially since by the time of “adult” interaction and for the object, their role and significance will change significantly.
Of all the variety of means of object interaction, the psyche can effectively use only one. Consequently, personal orientation as a set of interests can be concentrated in one and specific direction - the achievement of a social position that optimally provides the means of object interaction.
In this case character, as a combination of personal attitudes and behavioral characteristics of life, will be both stable and specifically directed and practically unchanged in any situation of environmental impact.
A person, in any situations and conditions, will seek, find or form the only effective system of interactions available, therefore, personal activity can be focused only on this goal.
Behavior will "serve" such a process, as it is a derivative complex from the available means and ways of life.
As a result, a behavioral type that is stable in manifestations is obtained in terms of the totality of the main personal orientation, personal relationships and ways of life and is designated as paranoid.
Such a typical behavioral classification is quite convenient precisely in determining the stability of manifestations of behavioral (characterological) features.
Maladaptive (clinical) paranoid type- this is a significant violation of the systems of object interaction up to its impossibility.
At the same time, a maladjusted personality strategically behaves stably - focusing entirely on the impossibility of object interaction due to the unwillingness of the object or objects surrounding the personality.
Behavioral strategies focus on such relationships and take the form of defensive ones, transforming unwillingness to interact into object aggression against the psyche. In essence, the psyche transfers its own aggression to objects, turning its attitude to someone else's.
Two tendencies collide - the desire of the psyche to interact with the use of the means of the primary mechanism of gender interaction and the unwillingness of objects to interact at this level.
The psyche cannot interact otherwise and, because of this, begins to experience extreme displeasure, which develops into aggression towards objects that reject the attempts of the psyche to interact.
It is very easy for the unwillingness of objects (or “inability”) to interact with the psyche at this level begins to be explained by the psyche as a result of experiencing strong negative emotions towards it, the same as during the formation of the primary mechanism of interaction, which did not allow finding an acceptable compromise in the system of relations and did not allow the development of means of interaction.
The psyche forms attitudes to the conditions surrounding it.
In essence, this is its main function - to reflect external conditions with the search for opportunities for the realization of needs.
In this case, the inability to realize a whole range of basic needs due to the lack of opportunities for interaction with objects should also be reflected as the attitude of the psyche to such a situation.
It is reflected, transforming from unwillingness to interact into an aggressive object relation that is “understandable” for the psyche.
It is necessary to defend against aggression - the psyche defends itself.
The need complex remains unsatisfied and, like any unsatisfied need, begins to significantly dominate in the direction of mental activity.
The dominant need (complex) begins to actively seek the conditions for its own realization.
Having tried all the possibilities of real interaction and not having achieved a result, the psyche begins to model such conditions ideally - that is, to fantasize on a given topic.
It is still not possible to combine ideal (internal) conditions with real ones and satisfy needs (reduce their pressure on the psyche), which is why the mechanism of persecution is already transferred to the fantasy model.
Hence, it is equally easy for the objects of aggression to be embodied in aliens or a roommate - the psyche, by and large, no matter who is to blame.
In any case, it remains with a complex of dominant needs and missing means for their implementation.
Thus, maladaptive (clinical) paranoid type- this is a stable and rigidly determined behavior from an unsatisfied complex of significant needs due to the violation and underdevelopment of the means of object interaction.
Such behavior has a number of stable features and practically does not change, since the need system of activation of the psyche does not change.
It is this stability of clinical-level behavioral strategies and their “residual” influence on the behavioral characteristics of the psyche adapted to object interactions that makes it possible to quantitatively record the level of such influence and, as a result, successfully predict the stability of behavioral strategies.
If the primary mechanism of object interaction is violated and some means of interaction are still formed, the general style of behavior will be “colored” and concretized by such a violation and to the extent that the violation has limited the quantity and quality of the developed means of interaction.
Personal behavior will be more in line with clinical "specialized" behavior for major impairments and less so for minor ones.
However, even with a slight violation of object interaction, behavioral strategies can retain the “clinically” dominant mechanism for the implementation of personal activity with a clearly defined system of orientation as a set of personal interests, which in turn are a reflection of the ways of fulfilling needs.
The interests and attitude of the psyche to objects can be preserved regardless of the level of violation of the primary object interaction.
Even having an optimal set of tools for any form of object interaction, the psyche will build these interactions using its preferred subject-functional ones. Other means will be used, but rather forcedly and quickly depending on the situation.
The psyche will strive to form conditions and build relationships in such a way that most of them remain within the framework of the most convenient and understandable subject-functional ones.
Such a feature of the ways of implementing personal activity is characteristic of all behavioral strategies based on "clinical origins" and colored by their features and manifested as preferred ways and means of meeting needs.
If we take into account that there are not so many clinically stable behavioral forms, then there are not so many basic behavioral strategies. All behavioral diversity is variations in the individualization of means and methods within a limited number of basic behavioral strategies.
If the number of behavioral strategies is limited and such an assumption is true, then it can be limited by a certain "attachment" to the process of formation of certain mental properties, the restriction of the development of which will focus the psyche on a certain behavioral strategy.
In this process, an important role is played by temperament and its features.
For greater objectification of the consideration of the process of interaction of the emerging psyche with objects and the environment, it is more expedient to exclude from it the purposeful negative impact on the psyche from the primary object (mother). Such cases are quite rare and do not always lead to clinical maladaptation, and therefore are an exception to the general rules for the formation of the psyche.
In the process of the formation of the psyche, two functional complex properties interact with each other. On the one hand - the psyche itself, with its own set of features, on the other - an object (mother) significant for the development of the psyche and other objects, with elements of the environment as conditions for the existence of the developing psyche.
The psyche in the process of development needs to go through a number of stages and within their framework to form a number of properties, for which it is necessary to carry out a number of actions (interactions).
At each stage, in the process of formation of this or that property, the psyche receives a specific result or level of formation of the property.
Such properties, as they form, are included in the mental structure, "filling" the places allotted to them and provide the psyche with specialized sets of means for the optimal implementation of life - development and satisfaction of needs.
The implementation of a number of actions (interactions) occurs against a certain "background" of functionality. The psyche, which has dynamic, excitable and inert properties, interacts with the object (mother), which has its own dynamic, excitable and inert properties. Under the control of the object (mother), interaction is carried out both with objects “alien” for the psyche and with elements of the environment.
Under such conditions, the "success" of the formation of certain mental properties will depend on the very abilities of the psyche and on the level of sufficiency of the conditions for interactions provided by the object (mother).
To some extent, the process of formation of mental properties is similar to the process of teeth growth. Both processes begin at a time strictly characteristic of it and proceed practically independently of external influences on it.
It is possible to influence the growth of teeth and the formation of mental properties, but it is very limited. For example, the angle of inclination of the teeth can be changed, and the focus of mental activity of the mental property can be changed. But, it is impossible to stop such processes, if only by removing a tooth or a mental property, as in the case of the Mowgli complex.
The formation of a mental property is a unique and significant activation on a specialized process in which the functions of both objects and conditions have a double meaning.
In one case, they, as active elements, form the content of the property, in the other - their own attitude of the psyche to the situation itself.
Enriched with content, the psyche also forms a peculiar attitude.
In the early stages of ontogenesis, relationships do not differ in emotional diversity and are more limited as simply positive or negative.
If you carefully observe the child, and it is better to use for this the works of J. Piaget on the problems of the development of the psyche, it will very soon become obvious that the process of his life activity (development of mental properties) is a continuous series of conflicts in the systems of object interaction.
The psyche, being activated in the process of interaction and striving to get “its own” to the end, as if specifically seeks to “run into” limitations, form its own attitude towards this limitation, and at the same time determine the “field of activity” accessible to itself.
Such a "field of activity" will be characterized not only as space, but also as conditions for the functioning of the psyche. After all, by and large, both the problems of interactions and the “spatial” limitation are a conflict of needs (desires) of the psyche, with the impossibility of their “direct” satisfaction through the means that are available and seem to be available to the psyche.
It turns out that the psyche cannot satisfy the needs (desires) directly, but must find the means and conditions for their indirect satisfaction through a system of norms and rules.
In this search for means and conditions, the “field of developing activity” and how the psyche uses it has a certain meaning.
Potentially, it is the same for any psyche. Any temperamental features "allow" the psyche to realize "cognitive" activity. Another thing is how this can be done in practice.
Even under optimal development conditions, mental properties are not formed by themselves, but are the result of a certain mental activity, and most of these properties are directed to various systems of object interaction and are the result of such interactions.
Initially, temperamental features make “special” the process of development of mental properties and means of object interactions.
Psyche with weak type of temperament, even without encountering the problems of interaction in the “near” object environment, gets into completely different situations during initial interactions with “foreign” objects.
It is objectively difficult for her to interact with more active and “strong” objects that have other temperamental features, and such interaction will often be accompanied by a negative attitude towards them.
Psyche with weak type of temperament will be more often "suppressed" strong objects and "successfully squeezed out" of the original joint group activity. It remains for such a psyche to interact either with objects that are equal to it in temperamental properties, or to limit the system of object interaction that is important for the development.
In both cases, the psyche has an "imprint" from the initial interactions, which will always "lead" the psyche away from collisions with stronger and more active objects.
Weak it is difficult for the psyche, which does not even encounter “pressure” from strong and active objects, to interact in conditions that are not optimal for it. Not keeping up with the activity and dynamism of objects, it will independently be eliminated from such interactions, looking for more suitable conditions for itself.
Thus, the features of the development of a “weak” psyche are both the impossibility and unwillingness to use a “wider field of interactions”, which, quite naturally, as the psyche is finally formed, is transformed into a stable behavioral strategy inherent in all owners of such temperamental features.
Owners of a "weak" psyche in the process of development are exposed to a number of influences that form behavioral strategies.
Remaining common, their main strategy of a kind of passive response can take on a number of stable modifications, depending on how this or that mental property was formed and the means of interaction were developed.
A “weak” psyche reacts in a certain stressful way to the problems of interactions with “foreign” objects. If “their own” (parents) are also “included” in this process, trying to “activate” mental functions and “bring” them to their own, often more “strong” and active level, then the psyche can perceive such influences as pressure and, not having endured it, will look for means of protection and find them in the form of behavioral strategies called hypochondriacal, obsessive and compulsive neurotic, paranoid and other types of maladaptive behavioral response.
The main strategy of passive response in such cases will take a more specific behavioral form with the concentration of activity precisely on that property or mechanism, the development of which was disturbed.
This will be reflected in behavior by a specialized set of means of interaction and a stable and uniform response to various “complex” situations, which will significantly “simplify” the character as a limited set of behavioral features that do not deviate from the main behavioral strategy of passive response.
Quite a different "field of activity" is used by the psyche with strong, excitable temperament type.
Being the most active, the psyche with such temperamental features rarely encounters problems in both primary and subsequent systems of object interaction.
The owners of such mental characteristics, being "leaders", often dictate the rules of object interaction both in the initial group activity and in its subsequent modifications.
Possessing a high rate of assimilation of object functions (symbolic and other systems of interaction) and having no opportunities, due to the inability to "monotony", to long-term object (functional) manipulations, they concentrate all their activity in systems of object interaction. In these systems, they rarely experience negative states, and the variability, diversity, and novelty of situations suit them best as optimal both for the implementation of activity and for the rapid and efficient development of a large number of various means of interaction.
In these interactions, subject functions are also well used, the meaning of which is increasingly transferred to the area of application for interactions.
Psyche with excitable type of temperament in its "field of activity" begins to self-limit in the field of object interactions as the most appropriate for its optimal functioning and development.
Such a psyche has its own "specialized" developmental problems, which are based on increased activity and an "excessive" focus on systems of object interactions.
For such an active psyche, which is more focused on external objects as sources for the realization of its own activity, it is much more “difficult” to pay attention to their states and relationships that are formed in the process of such interaction.
Using an object as a means of realizing activity, the psyche finds itself in a situation of a kind of choice - either to realize its own activity (need) and, in a certain way, "infringe" the interests of the object, or, focusing on the interests of the object, limit its own activity and, in essence, refuse to implement it. needs.
It is clear that in the primary systems of interaction, by definition, there is no refusal to fulfill needs.
This peculiarity of mental characteristics significantly "complicates" the process of building empathic properties. The psyche, little focused on "internal" experiences, needs much more external influence in order to simply perceive them. That is, in order to “knock through” it, you need to knock much harder and pay special attention to the consequences of object interactions for the objects themselves. If this is not done and such a psyche is allowed to “freely” develop, then the probability of a weak formation of empathic properties will be very high. The psyche will get used to doing without them and in the strategies of "adult" behavior will freely use the means of interaction without regard to the consequences for objects.
Another problem is increased mental activity.
Leadership, which is formed by such activity, also implies the "invention" of various means and methods of interaction and all kinds of organization of situations of group activity.
If we take into account that already in the early stages of development, the psyche also forms systems of gender interaction, then, being leaders, the owners of such mental characteristics often become the initiators of various object interactions that lie outside the existing norms and rules.
Primitive, sexualized object interactions are often severely restricted for reasons incomprehensible to the psyche.
Being the initiators of such interactions, the owners of such mental characteristics more often than others fall under restrictive external pressure and are much more likely to not withstand such pressure at some moments. Then mental activity aimed at the formation of a property that contributes to the development of mechanisms for satisfying significant needs will face a serious obstacle in the form of an external restriction, perceived by the psyche as a prohibition of the very need orientation.
Not being able to internalize (that is, experience, ideally fantasizing) such interactions and carry out in the process of object interaction, the psyche will still persistently desire them and try to carry them out, being already under fear of punishment. Rather quickly and easily formed need for sexualized interaction will be associated with the state of fear experienced during its implementation, and the psyche will focus on such a mechanism, linking together a significant need complex and a negative state during its implementation.
An unformed distinction between acceptable and unacceptable rules for the implementation of specialized types of object interaction, special activity and significant dependence on object interactions will focus personal activity entirely on systems of object interaction.
In this case, the system of object relations itself will change under the residual external restriction and in a certain way become maladapted and limited by a set of features inherent in the clinical response strategy.
It turns out that the owners of the psyche with an excitable type of temperament, precisely because of their temperamental characteristics, are much more “inclined” to the formation of two stable clinical types of behavioral strategies corresponding to hysterical and psychopathic types.
hysterical the type is formed as a result of disturbances in the formation of object interaction processes, and psychopathic- as the principles of object interaction without taking into account the states of objects in the processes of such interaction.
The main behavioral strategy is the dominant orientation and active interaction exclusively within the objective framework.
Neither passive strategies nor refusal of interactions are ever practiced, since they contradict the very conditions for the functioning of a kind of activated psyche, due to which both clinically maladapted behavioral strategies and adapted ones are not passive outside of object interactions.
In the psyche with temperamental features inert response, there is also a “field of activity”, which forms behavioral strategies in a peculiar way.
Possessing dynamically strong response parameters, such a psyche lags far behind the leaders - owners of faster opportunities for object interaction, however, it does not experience serious problems as a result of object pressure from their side. That is, their problems in the systems of object interaction are significantly different from the problems of the owners of a "weak" psyche.
Insufficient response speed and, as a result, less success in object interaction systems (low competitive ability) orient the psyche to its own sector in the general “field of activity”.
Their features are a large internalization of the processes of object interaction and a diverse and significant interest in subject functionality.
It is quite likely that it is the primary systems of object interaction that contribute (at least trigger) the mechanism of specialized internalization.
Observation from the outside of successful object interactions and "experiencing" their deficit contribute to the transfer of such interactions to the plane of ideally presented and experienced mentally inside.
Such a transfer "inside" external objects and a specialized system of interactions in a certain way complements traditional interactions, which form both mental properties and means of interactions.
Attachment to external objects and internalization of always real objects, as well as the absence of negative states in the processes of object interactions, do not allow fantasy constructions to “tear off” the psyche from reality and take it to the ideal world of dreams. Therefore, although internalized interactions are ideal both in form and in content, they will forever remain only a way to play out the really started interactions.
A peculiar heightened attachment to objects is a consequence of special primary object interactions with the first object (mother).
The peculiarity of temperamental features turns such a psyche into an almost ideal object for development and education. Children with such a mentality do not cause unnecessary trouble for maintenance and control. They can be engaged in one “business” for a long time and are much more self-sufficient than the owners of other mental features. They are informatively more specific in signaling their needs and less demanding on the conditions of their life. Such a combination of features additionally strengthens the primary object connection and all aspects of interactions are carried out without the formation of negative states, which contributes to the optimal development of all mental properties and means of object interactions.
If parents are accustomed to and adjusted to the tempo characteristics of the psyche in the system of interactions, then the primary "foreign" objects begin to slip out of the field of interactions, not wanting to adapt, which, in addition to internalization, forms in the psyche "special" relationships with objects and their functional properties.
And in this aspect, the psyche is not forced, as in cases paranoid or schizoid types of response, but rather independently focuses on the systems and means of subject interactions as the most suitable and arranged according to the conditions.
The study and manipulation of functions does not impose any time restrictions and allows both mental development and the mechanisms of their use as means in the most optimal modes for the psyche. In addition, examples of idealized interactions acquired through reading provide rich material both for inner experience and for the development of means of object interaction.
It turns out that getting into conditions that are not entirely favorable for the development of the mental properties of object interaction, the psyche quite easily develops them, playing inside itself and significantly diversifies, studying and applying objective functions and methods of interaction.
Possessing primary capabilities, the psyche can quite easily in further development focus personal activity as a system of dominant orientation precisely in systems of symbolic interaction.
The features of the "inert" psyche, the conditions for the formation of its properties and the preferred means of interaction together form the main behavioral strategy that has the least number of behavioral modifications. That is, the owners of such mental characteristics are most of all the same in behavior, in contrast to the owners of other temperamental characteristics.
In addition, the combination of features, preferred conditions and personal means almost completely protect the psyche from the formation of maladaptive forms of response.
“Independence” from conditions and the ability to resist external object pressure (if any) makes it possible for the psyche to develop “normally”, without deviations in the formation of mental properties and without excessive concentration of personal activity on the mechanisms of such deviations. Hence, equally normal development unifies equally “normal” behavior.
The main characteristics of such behavior as a consequence of the very characteristics of the psyche and its development will be an increased internalization of object interactions. The combination of personal properties and conditions of formation will allow the psyche to form its own special property of personal orientation - extreme perseverance in achieving significant personal goals.
Features of the last temperamental type - strong, balanced, mobile also in a certain way affect the process of formation of the psyche.
In terms of using the "field of activity", such temperamental features allow the psyche to "feel" well in the largest segment.
The main and special difference of this temperamental type is the mobility of mental processes. Possessing this feature, the psyche also has the ability to interact effectively and positively with the owners of other typological features.
When interacting with the owners of mental characteristics of the “excitable” type, the “mobile” psyche is practically not inferior in the speed of mental processes. Being more specific in terms of interactions, mobile the psyche peculiarly "binds" to them objects with an "excitable" psyche.
This interaction is mutually beneficial. It “infects” some with activity, “concretizes” others in interactions, helping to develop the properties of a broader goal-building through indirect systems for the implementation of need complexes.
When interacting with the "inert" psyche, the properties of balance, equally expressed in both types, make it quite easy to find a "common language" of interactions, and some development of internalization processes, also characteristic of the "mobile" psyche, makes it possible to better "understand" each other in such interactions.
The "mobile" psyche also has a special relationship with objective functionality. The peculiarity of the relation is concentrated in some intermediate position between the relations of "excitable" and "inert" types. It is expressed in greater "tolerance" to the conditions of in-depth study of objective functions and properties, in contrast to the "excitable" type, and in less interest in them as optimal, in contrast to the "inert" one.
That is, the “mobile” psyche is still capable of a detailed and in-depth study of objective functions, but does not treat such a study as a process that is “comfortable” for itself.
This feature makes it possible to combine the use of subject functionality in the processes of interactions and, depending on the conditions, more optimally adapt to them. In some cases, react and interact as the psyche of an "excitable" type, in others - use the conditions for manipulation and study of objective functions as the psyche of an "inert" type.
Of course, such a response will still remain special, never completely identified with either one or the other type of response, but it will expand the possibilities of the psyche both due to more diverse means available for interactions and due to a wider scope of application of personal activity, the focus of which can easily focus on a greater variety of optimal activities.
Such features and, as a result, opportunities significantly diversify behavioral strategies. In this case, the main behavioral strategy will be a strategy of a kind of universalism, leveling the very concept of the main strategy as stably manifesting behavioral features.
Possessing a specialized set of features similar to other typical mental features, such a psyche in a certain way also has the whole complex of predisposition to variability in the formation of mental properties.
Under certain conditions and influences on the formation of mental properties, such a psyche, although not as easily as "excitable", can be transformed into both a maladaptive and an adaptive strategy. hysterical or psychopathic types of behavior.
Much less often, the transformation can be expressed in paranoid or schizoid types and, very rarely, such a psyche forms transformations into completely defensive strategies of passive response.
A strong temperament and high activation will limit the psyche from choosing passive strategies and orient it more towards an active aggressive response.
With such transformations, behavioral strategies will also stabilize and be limited to the corresponding set of “clinical” behavioral features.
The normal development of the psyche, and thanks to the available "wide field" of development conditions and a large number of various means of interaction and the optimal development of objective functions, will allow both the formation and concentration of a personal orientation in any field of activity with only minor restrictions.
In some cases, the restriction will affect object interaction, which will not be as desirable and preferable as for the owners of the "excitable" type, in others - the restriction will be expressed in the avoidance of monotony, as a condition that does not quite correspond to the optimal mode of functioning of the "mobile" psyche. However, even in these cases, the psyche will be able to function effectively, since such conditions, although not particularly preferred, at the same time are not stressful either.
Thus, behavioral strategies are a set of various personal strategies, initially determined from temperamental mental characteristics.
Such features form a "field of developmental activity", within which the development of mental properties takes place.
Such a “field of activity”, as it were, initially limits the personal strategy of behavior, making it more stable and predictable within the framework of functioning characteristic of temperament. Even normal development, based on temperamental characteristics, will not be reflected in behavior as an arbitrary application of activity, but will be limited to the optimal framework for itself.
Non-optimal formation of mental properties or features of their formation will further limit behavior within the framework of temperamental optimality due to the specialized concentration of activity on such a non-qualitative property.
In such cases, and so not a free personal orientation will focus even more and "narrow" already on a specific mental property, through the means of which it will "control" behavior. Then the strategy of behavior will generally be limited to "clinical" means, the entire limited set of which will focus on the dominant unsatisfied need.
It turns out that the “free” strategy of behavior is not initially free, as it depends on temperamental characteristics.
Secondarily, it is also dependent on the features of the formation of mental properties.
Eventually, personal behavior strategy - This character, as a limited and stable set of means of formation preferred by the psyche and ways of satisfying needs in certain conditions of life.
If we take production activity as part of the general personal life activity, within which personal activity is realized to the greatest extent, then it remains to be seen how the totality of characters that make up the production team implements it.
© Sergey Krutov, 2008
© Published with the kind permission of the author
Despite the fact that a person is in constant development, and the world around him is changing all the time, the very nature of a person and his behavior remain unchanged - they obey the same laws as many centuries ago. That is why the general human psychology is still the object of interest of a huge number of scientists and specialists today. General psychology as a science retains its importance and relevance. Numerous seminars, theoretical and workshops and various types of trainings are devoted to teaching the basics of general psychology.
In this lesson, you will get acquainted with the subject and method of general psychology, find out what problems, tasks, laws and features of this scientific discipline exist.
Introduction to General Psychology
This is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and form, and also summarizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.
The most complete description of these components is given in the sections of general psychology. But, at the same time, individual manifestations of the psyche are not studied by general psychology, as, for example, in sections of special psychology (pedagogical, developmental, etc.).
The main subject of study of general psychology are such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will discuss in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with the life and activities of man, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, the personality of a person and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.
The theoretical course of general psychology usually includes the study of any specific thematic sections, directions, research, history and problems of this science. A practical course is, as a rule, mastering the methods of research, pedagogical and practical psychological work.
Methods of General Psychology
Like any other science, general psychology uses a system of various methods. The basic methods for obtaining various facts in psychology are considered to be observation, conversation and experiments. Each of these methods can be modified to improve the result.
Observation
Observation This is the most ancient way of knowing. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, such types of observation are distinguished as short-term, long-term (it can even take place for several years), selective, continuous and special (included observation, during which the observer is immersed in the group he is studying).
The standard monitoring procedure consists of several steps:
- Setting goals and objectives;
- Definition of the situation, subject and object;
- Determination of methods that will have the least impact on the object under study, and provide the necessary data;
- Determining how data is maintained;
- Processing of received data.
External observation (by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also self-observation. It can be both immediate - in the current moment, and delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.
Observation is an integral part of the other two methods - conversation and experiment.
Conversation
Conversation as a psychological method, it involves direct / indirect, oral / written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life (from the person himself or from people who know him), interviews (a person answers pre-prepared questions), questionnaires and various types of questionnaires (written answers to questions).
Best of all, there is a personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined. At the same time, it is important to think over the conversation in advance, draw up a plan for it and identify problems that should be identified. During the conversation, questions from the person being examined are also expected. Two-way conversation gives the best result and provides more information than just answers to questions.
But the main method of research is experiment.
Experiment
Experiment- this is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of the subject's activity in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.
There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are directed by the instruction. A person knows about the experiment, although he may not guess about its true meaning. Some experiments are carried out repeatedly and on a whole group of people - this allows you to establish important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.
Another method is tests. These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. Tests are short-term and similar tasks for all, the results of which determine the presence of certain mental qualities in the subjects and the level of their development. Different tests are designed to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.
Since the genetic principle plays a special role in the methods of psychological research, the genetic method is also distinguished. Its essence is the study of the development of the psyche in order to reveal the general psychological patterns. This method is based on observations and experiments and builds on their results.
In the process of using various methods, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the problem being studied. Therefore, along with the main methods of psychological research, a number of special auxiliary and intermediate methods are often used.
Subject and object of general psychology
Any science is characterized, among other things, by the presence of its subject and object of study. Moreover, the subject and object of science are two different things. The object is only an aspect of the subject of science, which is investigated by the subject, i.e. researcher. Awareness of this fact is very important for understanding the specifics of general psychology as a multifaceted and diverse science. Given this fact, we can say the following.
Object of general psychology- this is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world based on the available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, performs the function of an intermediary between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person's ideas about the external and internal, bodily and spiritual.
The subject of general psychology- these are the laws of the psyche, as a form of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The object is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.
Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to single out many objects for research in its composition, at present in psychological science there are general theories of psychology that are guided by various scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psycho-techniques for influencing consciousness and controlling it. But no matter how complex the paths along which psychological thought advances, constantly transforming the object of its research and plunging deeper into the subject due to this, no matter what changes and additions it is subject to and no matter what terms it denotes, it is still possible to single out the main blocks of terms, which characterizes the object of psychology. These include:
- mental processes - psychology studies mental phenomena in the process of formation and development, the product of which is the results that take shape in images, thoughts, emotions, etc.;
- mental states - activity, depression, cheerfulness, etc.;
- mental properties of the personality - purposefulness, diligence, temperament, character;
- mental neoplasms - those knowledge, skills and abilities that a person acquires during his life.
Naturally, all mental phenomena cannot exist in isolation, but are closely connected with each other and influence each other. But we can consider each of them separately.
Feel
Feel- these are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct impact on the sense organs, subjective perception by a person of external and internal stimuli with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.
Feelings have the following properties:
- Modality - a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - loudness, timbre, etc.);
- Intensity - a quantitative indicator of sensations;
- Duration - a temporary indicator of sensations;
- Localization is a spatial indicator.
There are several classifications of sensations. The first one belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need arose for a more serious classification of them. To date, the following classifications exist:
- Wundt's classification - depending on the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of stimuli;
- Sherrington classification - based on the location of the receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
- Head's classification - based on origin: protopathic and epicritical sensitivity.
Perception
Perception is a cognitive process that forms a picture of the world in the subject. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is the most complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms the subjective image of the object for the subject. Through attention, the whole object is revealed, its special features and content are distinguished, and a sensual image is formed, i.e. comprehension takes place.
Perception is divided into four levels:
- Detection (perceptual action) - formation of an image;
- Discrimination (perceptual action) - the very perception of the image;
- Identification (identification action) - identification of an object with existing images;
- Identification (identification action) - categorization of an object.
Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. Read more about perception.
Attention
Attention is a selective perception of an object. It is expressed in how a person relates to an object. Behind attention can often be such psychological characteristics of a person as need, interest, orientation, attitudes, and others. Attention also determines how a person orients himself in the surrounding world and how this world is reflected in his psyche. The object of attention is always in the center of consciousness, and the rest is perceived more weakly. But the focus of attention tends to change.
The objects of attention are, as a rule, what has the greatest significance for a person at the moment. Holding attention for a long time on an object is called concentration.
Attention functions:
- Detection
- selective attention
- Divided attention
Attention can be arbitrary and involuntary. It varies in form as follows:
- External - directed to the world around;
- Internal - directed to the inner world of a person;
- Motor
Properties of attention: focus, distribution, volume, intensity, concentration, switchability, stability.
All of them are closely related to human activity. And depending on its purpose, they can become more or less intense.
Representation
During representation there is a mental recreation of images of phenomena or objects that are not currently affecting the senses. There are two meanings to this concept. The first denotes the image of a phenomenon or object that was perceived earlier, but not perceived now. The second describes the reproduction of images itself. As mental phenomena, representations can be somewhat similar to perception, hallucinations and pseudo-hallucinations, or different from them.
Views are classified in several ways:
- According to the leading analyzers: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and temperature representations;
- According to the degree of generalization - single, general and schematized;
- By origin - based on perception, thinking or imagination;
- According to the degree of volitional efforts - involuntary and arbitrary.
Representations have the following properties: generalization, fragmentation, visibility, instability.
Read more about representation in psychology in this Wikipedia article.
Memory
Memory- this is a mental function and a type of mental activity designed to store, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about the events of the surrounding world and the reactions of the body for a long period of time, and use it.
The following memory processes are distinguished:
- memorization;
- Storage;
- playback;
- Forgetting.
Memory is also divided into typologies:
- By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, taste, pain;
- By content - emotional, figurative, motor;
- According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
- According to temporal characteristics - ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
- According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
- According to the availability of funds - unmediated and indirect;
- By the presence of a goal - involuntary and arbitrary;
- According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.
You will find methods and techniques for developing memory in a separate.
Imagination
Imagination- this is the ability of human consciousness to create ideas, representations and images and manage them. It plays a major role in such mental processes as planning, modeling, play, memory and creativity. This is the basis of visual-figurative thinking of a person, which allows you to solve certain problems and understand the situation without practical intervention. Fantasy is a kind of imagination.
There is also a classification of imagination:
- According to the degree of orientation - active and passive imagination;
- According to the results - reproductive and creative imagination;
- By the type of images - abstract and concrete;
- According to the degree of volitional efforts - unintentional and deliberate;
- By methods - typification, schematization, hyperbolization, agglutination.
Imagination mechanisms:
- Typing;
- Accent;
- schematization;
- Agglutination;
- Hyperbole.
Imagination is directly related to creativity. And in finding creative solutions, sensitivity to emerging problems, the ease of combining any things and observation contribute. The characteristics of the imagination can be considered accuracy, originality, flexibility and fluency of thinking.
Read more about imagination in psychology in this article.
In addition, the problems of the development of the imagination are devoted to our website.
Thinking
In general psychology, there are many definitions of the process of thinking. According to one of the most popular definitions:
Thinking- this is the highest stage of human information processing and the process of establishing links between phenomena and objects of the outside world.
It is the highest stage of human cognition, as a process of reflection in his brain of the surrounding reality.
Thinking is divided into:
- Abstract-logical;
- Visual-figurative;
- Specific subject;
- Visually effective.
And the main forms of thinking are:
- Concept - thoughts that single out and generalize phenomena and objects;
- Judgment is the denial or affirmation of something;
- Inference is a conclusion.
These and other components of the thought process are considered in ours.
Speech
speech called a form of communication between people through language constructions. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated with the help of language, as well as the perception of the received speech information and its understanding. Speech is a form of existence of human language, because speech is language in action.
Language (speech) performs the following functions:
- Intellectual activity tool;
- Way of communication;
- A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.
Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to the knowledge of the world, the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Representing a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and, thus, is divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).
Speech has the following properties:
- Content - the number and significance of the expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
- Clarity - correctness;
- Expressiveness - emotional coloring and richness of the language;
- Effectiveness - the impact on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.
You can read more about oral and written speech in our trainings on and.
Emotions
Emotions- These are mental processes that reflect the attitude of the subject to possible or real situations. Emotions should not be confused with such emotional processes as feelings, affects and moods. To date, emotions have been studied rather poorly and are understood by many experts in different ways. For this reason, the definition given above cannot be considered the only correct one.
The characteristics of emotions are:
- Tone (valence) - positive or negative emotions;
- Intensity - strong or weak emotions;
- Sthenicity - influence on human activity: sthenic (inciting to action) and asthenic (reducing activity);
- Content - reflects different facets of the meaning of the situations that caused emotions.
Emotions in most cases are manifested in physiological reactions, tk. the latter depend on them. But today there is a debate about the fact that intentional physiological states can cause certain emotions.
These and other issues of understanding and managing emotions are discussed in ours.
Will
Will- this is the property of a person to make conscious control of his psyche and actions. The manifestation of the will can be considered the achievement of goals and results. It has many positive qualities that affect the success of human activity. The main volitional qualities are considered to be perseverance, courage, patience, independence, purposefulness, determination, initiative, endurance, courage, self-control and others. The will prompts to action, allows a person to control desires and realize them, develops self-control and strength of character.
Signs of an act of will:
- Efforts of the will in many cases are aimed at overcoming one's weaknesses;
- Performing an action without getting pleasure from this process;
- Having an action plan;
- The effort to do something.
Read more about will in psychology on Wikipedia.
Mental properties and states
Mental properties- these are stable mental phenomena that influence what a person does and give his socio-psychological characteristics. The structure of mental properties includes abilities, character, temperament and orientation.
Orientation is a conglomeration of needs, goals and motives of a person that determine the nature of his activity. It expresses the whole meaning of human actions and his worldview.
Temperament gives characteristics of human activity and behavior. It can manifest itself in hypersensitivity, emotionality, resistance to stress, the ability to adapt to external conditions or lack thereof, etc.
A character is a set of traits and qualities regularly manifested in a person. There are always individual characteristics, but there are also characteristics that are characteristic of all people - purposefulness, initiative, discipline, activity, determination, steadfastness, endurance, courage, will, etc.
Abilities are the mental properties of a person, reflecting its features, which allow a person to successfully engage in certain types of activities. Abilities distinguish between special (for a particular type of activity) and general (for most types of activity).
mental states It is a system of psychological characteristics that provide a subjective perception of the world by a person. Mental states have an impact on how mental processes proceed, and being regularly repeated, they can become part of a person's personality - its property.
Mental states are related to each other. But still they can be classified. Most often distinguished:
- Personality states;
- States of consciousness;
- States of intelligence.
Types of mental states are divided according to the following criteria:
- According to the source of formation - due to the situation or personally;
- In terms of severity - superficial and deep;
- By emotional coloring - positive, neutral and negative;
- By duration - short-term, medium-term, long-term;
- According to the degree of awareness - conscious and unconscious;
- According to the level of manifestation - physiological, psychophysiological, psychological.
The following mental states are common to most people:
- Optimal performance;
- tension;
- Interest;
- Inspiration;
- Fatigue;
- monotony;
- Stress;
- Relaxation;
- Awake.
Other common mental states include love, anger, fear, surprise, admiration, depression, detachment, and others.
Read more about mental properties and states on Wikipedia.
Motivation
Motivation is the urge to take action. This process controls human behavior and determines its direction, stability, activity and organization. Through motivation, a person can satisfy his needs.
There are several types of motivation:
- External - due to external conditions;
- Internal - due to internal circumstances (the content of the activity);
- Positive - based on positive incentives;
- Negative - based on negative incentives;
- Sustainable - determined by human needs;
- Unstable - requires additional stimulus.
Motivation is of the following types:
- From something (basic type);
- To something (basic type);
- Individual;
- Group;
- Cognitive.
There are certain motives that in most cases are guided by people:
- Self-affirmation;
- Identification with other people;
- Power;
- Self-development;
- Achieving something;
- public importance;
- The desire to be in the company of certain people;
- negative factors.
Motivation issues are discussed in more detail in this training.
Temperament and character
Temperament- this is a complex of mental characteristics of a person associated with its dynamic characteristics (that is, with the pace, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states). The basis of character formation.
There are the following main types of temperament:
- Phlegmatic - signs: emotional stability, perseverance, calmness, regularity;
- Choleric - signs: frequent mood swings, emotionality, imbalance;
- Sanguine - signs: liveliness, mobility, productivity;
- Melancholic - signs: impressionability, vulnerability.
Different types of temperament have different properties that can have a positive or negative effect on a person's personality. Temperament type does not affect abilities, but affects how people manifest themselves in life. Depending on the temperament are:
- Perception, thinking, attention and other mental processes;
- Stability and plasticity of mental phenomena;
- The pace and rhythm of actions;
- Emotions, will and other mental properties;
- Direction of mental activity.
Character is a complex of permanent mental properties of a person that determine her behavior. Character traits form the properties of a person that determine his lifestyle and form of behavior.
Character traits vary by group. There are four in total:
- Attitude towards people - respect, sociability, callousness, etc.;
- Attitude to activity - conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, etc.;
- Attitude towards oneself - modesty, arrogance, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.;
- Attitude to things - care, accuracy, etc.
Each person has a character inherent only to him, the properties and characteristics of which are determined, for the most part, by social factors. Also, there is always a place to be an accentuation of character - the strengthening of its individual features. It should also be noted that there is a close relationship between character and temperament, because temperament influences the development of any character traits and the manifestation of its features, and at the same time, using some traits of its character, a person, if necessary, can control the manifestations of his temperament.
Read more about the character and temperament in our training.
All of the above, of course, is not comprehensive information about what general human psychology is. This lesson is intended only to give a general idea and indicate directions for further study.
In order to immerse yourself in the study of general psychology more deeply, you need to arm yourself with the most popular and weighty tools in scientific circles, which are the works of famous authors of textbooks and manuals on psychology. Below is a brief description of some of them.
Maklakov A. G. General psychology. In compiling this textbook, the most modern achievements in the field of psychology and pedagogy were used. On their basis, questions of psychology, mental processes, properties and their states, as well as many other features are considered. The textbook contains illustrations and explanations, as well as a bibliographic reference. Designed for teachers, graduate students and university students.
Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. For more than 50 years, this textbook has been considered one of the best psychology textbooks in Russia. It presents and summarizes the achievements of Soviet and world psychological science. The work is intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.
Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology. This manual presents the basic concepts of psychological science, its methods and problems. The book contains a lot of data on the results of research, examples from fiction and real life situations, and also perfectly combines a serious scientific level and an accessible presentation of the material. The work will be of interest to a wide range of readers and people who are just starting to master psychology.
Petrovsky A. V. General psychology. Supplemented and revised edition of General Psychology. The textbook presents the basics of psychological science, as well as summarizes information from many textbooks ("Age and Pedagogical Psychology", "Practical Studies in Psychology", "Collection of Problems in General Psychology"). The book is intended for students who are serious about the study of human psychology.
The role played by general psychology in modern society cannot be overestimated. Today it is necessary to have at least a minimum of psychological knowledge, because general psychology opens the door to the world of a person’s mind and his soul. Any educated person should master the basics of this science of life, because. It is very important to know not only the world around us, but also other people. Thanks to psychological knowledge, you can much more effectively build your relationships with others and organize your personal activities, as well as improve yourself. It is for these reasons that all thinkers of antiquity have always said that a person must first of all know himself.
Test your knowledge
If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.
The development of modern scientific psychotherapy is carried out on the basis of various theoretical approaches, analysis and generalization of the results of empirical studies of clinical, psychophysiological, psychological, socio-psychological and other aspects of studying the mechanisms and effectiveness of psychotherapeutic interventions. Without detracting from the importance of the clinical foundations of psychotherapy, it should still be emphasized that both the object of influence (the psyche) and the means of influence (clinical and psychological interventions) are psychological phenomena, that is, psychotherapy uses psychological means of influence and is aimed at achieving certain psychological changes. In addition, in the system of training doctors, psychological problems have so far been given insufficient attention. Therefore, for doctors, the formation of adequate ideas about the psychological foundations of psychotherapy is of particular importance.
Any field of medical interventions is based on certain knowledge about the norm and pathology (for example, normal anatomy and pathoanatomy, normal physiology and pathophysiology). The scientifically substantiated psychotherapeutic system is also based on two previous links, revealing the content of the concepts of "norm" and "pathology". The concept of the norm is a concept of a healthy personality, a psychological concept that determines the main determinants of the development and functioning of the human personality. The concept of pathology is the concept of personality disorders (the concept of the origin of neurotic disorders), considering them within the framework of the corresponding ideas about the norm. Speaking of psychotherapy, we most often turn to the psychotherapy of neurotic disorders, because the most significant indication for psychotherapy is the psychogenic nature of disorders (diseases). Therefore, it is precisely with neuroses that psychotherapeutic influences are carried out most fully and deeply, that is, the psychotherapeutic model of neurotic disorders is the most detailed model.
Thus, scientific psychology, psychological theories and concepts serve as the theoretical basis of psychotherapy. It is the theoretical concepts that reveal the psychological content of the concepts of "norm" and "pathology" that determine the goals and objectives, the nature and specifics of psychotherapeutic influences. It has already been noted earlier that with all the variety of psychotherapeutic approaches, there are three main directions in psychotherapy, corresponding to the three main areas of psychology, and each of them is characterized by its own approach to understanding the personality and personality disorders and its own system of psychotherapeutic influences logically connected with this. Thus, within the framework of the psychodynamic approach, unconscious mental processes are considered as the main determinants of personal development and human behavior, and violations of personal functioning (and neurosis) are understood as a consequence of the conflict between the unconscious and consciousness. Then it is clear that the main goal of psychotherapy is to achieve awareness of this conflict and one's own unconscious. Representatives of the behavioral direction focus their attention on behavior. A healthy personality is characterized by adaptive behavior (the norm is adaptive behavior), and neurosis or personality disorders are the result of non-adaptive behavior formed as a result of incorrect learning. From this it follows that the purpose of psychological intervention is learning or relearning, replacing non-adaptive forms of behavior with adaptive ones (reference, normative, correct). The humanistic or "experimental" direction considers the need for self-realization and self-actualization as a basic human need. Neurosis, on the other hand, is a consequence of the impossibility of self-actualization, a consequence of blocking this need, which is associated with insufficient self-understanding and self-acceptance, insufficient integrity of the Self. In this case, the goal of psychological intervention will be to create conditions in which a person can experience a new emotional experience that promotes self-acceptance and personal integration , which ensures self-actualization.
The main directions of psychotherapy will be considered below from the point of view of the psychological theories underlying them.
Dynamic (psychodynamic) direction in psychotherapy. The dynamic direction in psychotherapy is based on depth psychology - psychoanalysis. Currently, within the framework of the dynamic direction, there are many different schools, however, the general, unifying views of the representatives of this approach, are the ideas about unconscious mental processes and psychotherapeutic methods used for their analysis and awareness.
Psychological concept. Freud is the founder of psychoanalysis. The psychological concept, the concept of personality in psychoanalysis is the realization of the psychodynamic approach. The term "psychodynamic" involves considering the mental life of a person, the psyche from the point of view of dynamics, from the point of view of interaction, struggle and conflicts of its components (various mental phenomena, various aspects of the personality) and their influence on the mental life and behavior of a person.
Unconscious mental processes. Central to psychoanalysis are ideas about unconscious mental processes, which are considered as the main determinants of personal development, as the main factors, driving forces that determine and regulate the behavior and functioning of the human personality. In general, the mental life of a person is seen as an expression of unconscious mental processes. The contents of the unconscious are instinctive urges, primary, innate, biological drives and needs that threaten consciousness and are forced into the unconscious.
instincts and motivation. Instincts, from Freud's point of view, are not innate reflexes, but incentive, motivational forces of the individual, this is the mental expression of impulses and incentives coming from the body (and, in this sense, biological), the mental expression of the state of the body or the need that caused this state . The purpose of the instinct is to weaken or eliminate excitation, to eliminate stimuli associated with the need of the body, in other words, to satisfy the need through certain appropriate behavior (for example, hunger or thirst prompts a person to seek drink or food, eat and drink). It is this internal stimulation, internal excitation associated with the state and needs of the body, from Freud's point of view, that is the source of mental energy that provides a person's mental activity (in particular, behavioral activity). Therefore, instinctive urges are considered as motivational forces, therefore, human motivation is aimed at satisfying the needs of the body, at reducing the tension and excitement caused by these needs. Instincts, on the other hand, are mental images of this excitation, presented as desires. Freud distinguished two groups of instincts: life instincts (Eros), aimed at self-preservation, to maintain vital processes (hunger, thirst, sex) and death instincts (Thanatos), destructive forces directed either inward, at oneself, or outward (aggression). , sadism, masochism, hatred, suicide). The energy of the life instincts is called libido, the energy of the death instincts has no special name. Freud believed that of all the life instincts, the most significant for the development of the personality are the sexual instincts. In this regard, quite often the term "libido" refers to the energy of sexual instincts. However, it must be borne in mind that the energy of the libido denotes the energy of all vital instincts.
Personality concept. Considering the problem of the organization of the psyche, the problem of personality, Freud created two models: topographic (levels of consciousness) and structural (personal structures). According to the topographic (earlier) model, three levels can be distinguished in a person’s mental life: consciousness (what a person is aware of at the moment), preconscious (what is not realized at the moment, but can be realized quite easily) and the unconscious ( what is not realized at the moment, and practically cannot be realized by a person on his own; it includes instinctive impulses, experiences, memories repressed into the unconscious as threatening consciousness). A later model of personal organization is structural. According to this model, a personality includes three structures, three instances: Id (It), Ego (I) and Super-Ego (Super-I). The id is a source of psychic energy, operates in the unconscious and includes basal instincts, primary needs and impulses. The id acts according to the principle of pleasure, strives for an immediate discharge of tension, which is caused by primary (biological, coming from the body) impulses, without taking into account any social norms, rules, requirements, prohibitions. The ego (mind) directs and controls the instincts. The ego functions at all three levels of consciousness, is a link, an intermediary between the Id and the outside world, analyzes internal states and external events and seeks to satisfy the needs of the Id, to achieve a discharge of tension (caused by primary needs), taking into account the requirements of the outside world, taking into account the norms and rules (for example, delay the satisfaction of needs until the right moment). The ego acts according to the reality principle, seeks to ensure the satisfaction of instinctive needs, knowing and analyzing the inner and outer world and choosing the most reasonable and safe ways and means to satisfy needs. The superego is the moral aspect of the personality, the conscience and the ideal self. The superego also functions on all three levels of consciousness. It is formed in the process of upbringing and socialization of the individual due to the internalization (assimilation) of social norms, values, stereotypes of behavior. The Super-Ego acts according to the moral and ethical principle, exercising control over human behavior (self-control) and prevents the manifestation of internal impulses that do not correspond to social norms and standards. Thus, the id seeks an immediate release of tension and does not correspond to reality. The superego prevents the realization of these desires and seeks to suppress them. The ego, on the contrary, contributes to the fulfillment of the desires of the Id, but seeks to correlate them with reality, with the requirements and restrictions of the social environment, thereby becoming the arena of the struggle between the Id and the Super-Ego, between primary needs and moral norms, rules, requirements, prohibitions. If the pressure on the ego is extremely strong, then anxiety arises.
Anxiety. Anxiety, according to Freud, is a function of the ego and warns the ego of impending danger, a threat, helping the personality to respond in such situations (situations of danger, threat) in a safe, adaptive way. Freud distinguished three types of anxiety: objective or realistic (associated with the influences of the external world), neurotic (associated with the influences of the id) and moral (associated with the influences of the superego). Objective anxiety arises in response to the real dangers of the surrounding real world. Neurotic anxiety is essentially a fear of punishment for the uncontrolled manifestation of the needs of the id, it arises as a result of the influence of id impulses and the danger that they will be recognized, but cannot be controlled. Moral anxiety is based on fear of being punished by the superego, which prescribes behavior that conforms to social standards. Moral anxiety is a fear of punishment for following instinctive impulses, a feeling of guilt or shame that arises in a person when he does or would like to do things that are contrary to moral norms and rules (the requirements of the Super-Ego).
Protective mechanisms. An alarm is a signal of danger accompanied by a certain level of tension. Anxiety causes and activates defense mechanisms (defense mechanisms) that are associated with an increase in instinctive tension, a threat to the super-ego, or real danger. Defense mechanisms are specific techniques used by the ego to reduce tension and anxiety. Freud wrote that "defensive mechanisms are a general name for all the special devices used by the ego in conflicts that can lead to neurosis." The function of defense mechanisms is to prevent awareness of instinctive impulses, in other words, to protect the ego from anxiety. They are unconscious and passive, distort reality to a large extent and are directed inward - to reduce anxiety (unlike coping mechanisms, which are mechanisms for actively coping with the situation, adequately reflect reality and are aimed at its active transformation).
Various types of defense mechanisms are distinguished in the literature. Let's consider some of them. Repression is seen as the basis of all defense mechanisms, it provides a direct way to avoid anxiety, and as an integral part of any other defense mechanism. Repression is the process by which unacceptable impulses become unconscious, an attempt to avoid, through unawareness, unpleasant thoughts and desires for those feelings and experiences that bring pain and suffering. Projection is the process by which specific impulses, desires, aspects of the self, or internal objects appear to the person as localized in some object external to oneself. The projection of internal objects consists in the fact that a person attributes his own unacceptable feelings, thoughts, behavior to other people. Denial precedes projection and is a defense against reality that brings pain, it is a defense mechanism by which either an event or experience that causes suffering is denied (not recognized), or some side of oneself. Substitution involves redirecting the instinctive impulse to a less threatening object, replacing the object of discharge, the true source of negative feelings with another, safer one. Rationalization is the process by which a rationale is given to actual behavior that not only justifies it, but also masks its true motivation, the behavior is presented and explained in such a way that it looks completely reasonable and justified. The proposed argumentation is not logically justified and often does not withstand any criticism. Identification is a process by which anxiety is removed by identifying (identifying) oneself with a significant, important person who seems to be less vulnerable to a person in anxious situations, it can be expressed in imitation of the behavioral style, manners, clothes of another person (“If I were like him, you would feel much better). Identification with an aggressor is a type of identification, which consists in the fact that a person is likened to a person with aggressive behavior, imitates the behavior of those who cause fear in him. Introjection or introjective identification (“projection inside”) is also a kind of identification and provides a process of identification with an internal object (introject), a process by which a person, as it were, absorbs the qualities of another person, represents the qualities of another with his own. In this sense, the superego is seen as the result of introjection. Isolation is a defense mechanism by which a person isolates an event that brings him pain, prevents him from becoming part of his meaningful experience. Emotional isolation is an attempt to isolate yourself from psychological pain, a person becomes "insensitive" (like a robot). Reactive formation or reactive formation is the process by which a person copes with unacceptable impulses by forming a counteraction, turning this impulse into something opposite, exaggerating (hypertrophying) the opposite desire and expressing it in his thoughts and behavior. Regression is a process by which, in the event of a threat, a person tries to return to the early periods of life, when he felt more secure, to the former "childish" stereotypes of behavior. Fantasizing consists in the fact that a person in threatening situations tries to get rid of anxiety by going into fantasies instead of actually acting. Sublimation occupies a special place among the defense mechanisms. Freud considered sublimation as the only "non-neurotic" mechanism, the only "healthy" way of transforming instinctive impulses. Thus, in particular, he wrote that a conflict is neurotic only if it is resolved through the use of defense mechanisms other than sublimation. He also believed that it was sublimation that ensures the development of human culture as such. Sublimation contributes to the discharge of the energy of instincts in socially acceptable (non-instinctive) forms of behavior and represents the replacement of needs that cannot be met directly with socially acceptable goals, the replacement of instinctive ways of behavior with ways of behavior accepted in culture, by changing the goal and objects. For example, let's compare sublimation with substitution. The person feels intense irritation towards his boss, but he cannot afford to defuse his aggressive impulses directly. If another, less dangerous object is simply found to discharge this energy (for example, a person comes home and yells at his family or beats a dog), then we are talking about substitution. If he finds a socially acceptable way of discharge (for example, he goes to the gym and does boxing), then in this case we are dealing with sublimation.
Thus, the Ego contributes to the fulfillment of the desires of the Id, but seeks to correlate them with reality, with the requirements and restrictions of the social environment, thereby becoming the arena of the struggle between the Id and the Super-Ego, between primary needs and moral norms, rules, requirements, prohibitions. If the pressure on the ego is extremely strong, then anxiety arises. Anxiety is a signal of danger, accompanied by an increase in tension. It induces and activates defense mechanisms, the main purpose of which is to reduce this tension. However, their action is not always effective. If anxiety does not decrease significantly or decreases only for a short time (since the defense mechanisms are not aimed at actively transforming and processing conflicts, problems and situations, but only at pushing them into the unconscious, “removing” from consciousness), then the development of a neurotic states.
The concept of pathology (the concept of neurosis). In classical psychoanalysis, several types of neuroses are distinguished. Psychoneurosis is due to past causes and can only be explained in terms of personality and life history. Freud identified three types of psychoneurosis: hysterical conversion, hysterical fear (phobia) and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The symptoms of these neuroses can be interpreted as a conflict between the ego and the id. It is psychoneuroses, from Freud's point of view, that are due to neurotic conflict, that is, an unconscious conflict between the impulse of the id, which strives for discharge, and the protection of the ego, which prevents direct discharge or access to consciousness. Thus, a conflict is neurotic only if one side of it is unconscious and if it is resolved by the application of defense mechanisms other than sublimation. The symptom is seen as a compromise between the suppressed desire and the demands of the overwhelming factor. The occurrence of the symptom is due to symbolization, which Freud characterized as "an ancient but obsolete way of expression." The superego plays a complex role in neurotic conflict. It is the Super-Ego that makes the Ego feel guilty (which is consciously felt very painfully) even for the symbolic and distorted discharge that manifests itself as a symptom of psychoneurosis. Thus, all parts of the mental apparatus are involved in the formation of a neurotic symptom. The actual neurosis is due to present causes and can be explained in terms of the patient's sexual behavior. It is a physiological consequence of disorders in sexual functioning. Freud distinguished two forms of actual neurosis: neurasthenia as a result of sexual excesses and anxiety neurosis as a result of the lack of discharge of sexual excitation. Narcissistic neurosis is associated with the patient's inability to form a transference. Character neurosis is expressed in symptoms that are essentially character traits. Traumatic neurosis is caused by shocks. Transference neurosis develops in the course of psychoanalysis and is characterized by the patient's obsessive interest in the psychoanalyst. Organ neurosis refers to a psychosomatic disease, but this term is used quite rarely. Childhood neurosis manifests itself in childhood, while classical psychoanalysis proceeds from the fact that neuroses in adults are always preceded by childhood neuroses. A neurosis of fear (anxiety) means either any neurosis in which anxiety is the main symptom, or one of the types of actual neurosis.
Let us consider the general concept of the psychological origin of neuroses within the framework of psychoanalysis. Its central content is the notion of neurotic conflict. Freud viewed neurotic conflict as "experiences resulting from the collision of at least two incompatible tendencies, acting simultaneously as motives that determine feelings and behavior." From Freud's point of view, the essence of neurosis is the conflict between the unconscious and consciousness: "From the very beginning, we notice that a person falls ill because of the conflict that arises between the demands of instinct and the internal resistance that arises inside against this instinct." The conscious component is the norms, rules, prohibitions, requirements that exist in society and are elements of the Super-Ego. Unconscious - the primary, instinctive needs and drives that make up the content of the Id. Displaced into the unconscious, they do not lose their energy potential, but, on the contrary, retain and even strengthen it, and then manifest themselves either in socially acceptable forms of behavior (due to sublimation), and if this is not possible or insufficient, then in the form of neurotic symptoms. Thus, neurosis is a consequence of the conflict between the conscious and the unconscious, which is formed by the primary, biological needs and drives, primarily sexual and aggressive, repressed under the influence of moral norms, rules, prohibitions, requirements.
However, it should be noted that different representatives of psychoanalysis understand the content of the unconscious and, consequently, the content side of the neurotic conflict in different ways. For Freud, these are sexual and aggressive impulses and their conflict with consciousness. Adler considered the essence of neurosis in the conflict between the feeling of inferiority and the desire for self-affirmation, the thirst for power. He saw in the neurotic state an experience of weakness and helplessness, which he described as an "inferiority complex." To overcome the feeling of inferiority and satisfy the need for self-affirmation, a person resorts to the mechanisms of compensation and hypercompensation. The neurotic symptom is seen as an expression of a struggle aimed at overcoming the feeling of insufficiency. A neurotic symptom is the result of an unsuccessful compensation, a fictitious way to enhance one's own dignity. The development of neurotic symptoms is seen as "flight into illness", "desire for power", "male protest". The first and third ways are aimed at drawing attention to oneself (with the help of a symptom, a person can get it even to a greater extent than a healthy person). The second path, "the desire for power", comes into conflict with the feeling of closeness with other people. Adler defines neurosis as an existential crisis affecting the whole personality. He saw the main phenomenon of mental disorders not in resistance to impulses, but in a neurotic character, an inadequate attitude towards life.
Jung considered the content of the unconscious more broadly, believing that it includes not only repressed sexual and aggressive urges, but also some intrapsychic material that has deeper, historical roots, and represents the innate experience of past generations. From Jung's point of view, the human psyche includes three levels: consciousness, personal unconscious and collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a psychic content common to all people, independently existing from a person, the “mind of our ancient ancestors”, which is a deeper and less accessible level of mental activity. The collective unconscious is presented in the form of archetypes. Archetypes are mental structures, primary mental images that make up the content of the collective unconscious. Archetypes are considered as prototypes, dominants, a priori forms of organization of our experience. Archetypes determine the nature of human symbolism, dreams, fairy tales, myths. They can express religious feelings and have the meaning of collective symbols. Jung considered archetypes as predisposing factors, as internal determinants of a person's mental life, which guide his behavior and enable a person to realize certain behavior patterns common to most people, even in those situations that he himself had not previously encountered, which are not in his personal experience. The personal unconscious, on the contrary, is associated with a person’s past experience and consists of impulses, memories, desires, experiences (related to a person’s personal experience) that are repressed or forgotten, but can be realized quite easily. The personal unconscious contains complexes (or is organized in the form of complexes), which are a collection of emotionally charged thoughts, tendencies, ideas, memories, desires, feelings, etc., associated with the personal experience of the individual. Displaced into the unconscious (in particular, under the influence of a moral sense, which Jung also considered innate), these complexes have a significant impact on the mental activity of a person, on his behavior. Complexes that have a high degree of affective charge and come into conflict with the conscious self are the source of neurotic disorders.
Horney considered two basic needs as determinants of human behavior and development: the need for security and the need for satisfaction. Central to Horney's theory is the concept of basal anxiety, which she describes as "the feelings of a child, alone and defenseless in a potentially hostile world." Basal anxiety is a deep feeling of loneliness and helplessness, a sense of insecurity. In response to the frustration of this need, the child develops certain behavioral strategies that can be fixed as protective mechanisms in relation to anxiety. Horney considers such fixed strategies as neurotic needs. Initially, Horney identified 10 basic neurotic needs, later described three personality types based on the severity and predominance of certain neurotic needs and their corresponding behavioral strategies: compliant personality (the need to be near others, in recognition and love of a dominant partner - people orientation) , a detached person (needs for loneliness, flight from people, independence and perfection - orientation from people) and an aggressive personality (needs for opposition, power, prestige, admiration, success, the need to subjugate others - orientation against people). A neurotic personality is characterized by the dominance of one need or one group of needs and their corresponding behavioral strategies. Such inflexibility, the inability to direct behavior to meet other needs and change behavior in accordance with new circumstances, does not bring success, but only increases frustration and exacerbates neurotic problems. Another important aspect in understanding the nature of neurotic disorders should be noted. As mentioned above, Horney identified two basic human needs: the need for security and the need for satisfaction. The need for satisfaction includes not only the satisfaction of physical (biological) needs, but also the need for self-esteem and self-respect, evaluation, acceptance and recognition by others, in achievements. The presence of these two needs (security and satisfaction) are a source of constant contradictions and conflicts. To satisfy the need for security, a person uses fixed strategies of behavior, that is, he forms behavior that limits the scope of his functioning (restrictive behavior) to relatively safe areas, which reduces basal anxiety, but hinders real achievements, that is, the need for satisfaction is frustrated. In striving for achievements, a person is forced to explore new areas, abandon fixed strategies and restrictive behavior, which leads to the frustration of the need for security. Thus, the presence of these two needs carries a contradiction, which can lead to neurosis. And in this sense, the difference between health and neurosis is only quantitative.
Fromm also sees no qualitative difference between health and neurosis. Fromm's point of view, a person is characterized by the presence of two tendencies or two needs: the need for freedom, autonomy, one's own identity, self-expression, and the need for security. Fromm believed that people, in principle, can be free and autonomous, and at the same time not lose a sense of community with other people and a sense of security. He called such freedom positive freedom, but in modern society for many it is unattainable. Therefore, these two needs are in constant conflict, as the struggle for personal freedom and autonomy leads to alienation from others, to feelings of loneliness, detachment and frustration of the need for security and community with other people. A person "runs away" from freedom in order to get rid of the feeling of loneliness. Fromm saw the cause of neurosis in unconscious, compulsive activity - "escape from freedom", which is a way to get rid of feelings of loneliness, hopelessness and personal responsibility. Fromm described three main mechanisms or three strategies for escaping freedom: authoritarianism (sadism and masochism), destructiveism, and conformism. The conflict between the need for freedom and the need for security, as well as the mechanisms of escape from freedom, are present both in patients with neurosis and in healthy people, but with varying degrees of intensity.
Other examples of the views of representatives of this trend on the nature of neurotic disorders can be cited. However, in general, all representatives of psychoanalysis are characterized by a view of neurosis as a conflict between conscious and unconscious needs and tendencies. At the same time, these needs and trends can be understood in different ways.
Psychotherapy. Based on ideas about the organization and mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche and the emergence of neuroses, Freud developed a corresponding treatment method. The key concepts of psychoanalysis as a psychotherapeutic system are free association, interpretation, transference and resistance. On this occasion, Freud wrote: “The assumption of unconscious mental processes, the recognition of the theory of repression and resistance, infantile sexuality and the Oedipal complex form the main elements of psychoanalysis and the basic premises of this theory. No one can consider himself a psychoanalyst unless he recognizes them." Of course, psychoanalysis as a therapeutic system has undergone significant development and changes over the years. This psychotherapeutic system and its modifications will be considered in detail in the corresponding section. Here we would like to dwell only on general approaches that follow directly from a certain psychological concept.
The main provisions of the psychoanalytic heritage that are important for understanding the theory and practice of psychoanalytic treatment are formulated as follows:
1) interest in the diversity of human instinctive impulses, their expression, transformation, suppression;
2) the belief that such suppression is mainly sexual, that is, sexual impulses are suppressed - thoughts, feelings and desires, and the roots of the disease lie in incorrect psychosexual development;
3) the idea that incorrect psychosexual development comes from conflicts and traumas of the early past, childhood, especially from the oedipal complex;
4) confidence in the resistance to the identification of these tendencies - a person has conflicts, but he is not aware of it;
5) ideas that we are mainly dealing with mental struggle and experiences of biological internal impulses and instincts of a person, as well as ideas about the protective role of the Ego in relation to the Super-Ego;
6) adherence to the concept of mental determinism or causality, according to which thought processes, or forms of behavior are not random, but are associated with the events that preceded them, and until these events become conscious, they will manifest themselves and determine thoughts, feelings and behavior against the will person.
Based on the fact that neurosis is understood as the result of a conflict between the unconscious and consciousness, the main task of psychotherapy within the framework of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious, to become aware of the unconscious. Freud compares the situation of the need to become aware of one's own unconscious and the process of psychoanalysis itself with the situation when a negligent student interferes with the teacher in every possible way during a lecture, makes faces, throws inappropriate remarks, and distracts everyone from the case. The teacher kicks the student out the door, but he still constantly looks into the audience, distracts everyone, drawing attention to himself in all possible ways and interferes with productive work. In the same way, we push our unconscious “out the door”, and from there it continues to remind us of ourselves in every possible way, to disturb and interfere with normal activity. And just as the situation with this student can be resolved only by inviting him to the audience and trying to figure out what he really wants, in the same way you need to “pull the unconscious into the light” and find out from him what it wants from us.
The task of the psychotherapist-psychoanalyst is to reveal and translate unconscious tendencies, drives and conflicts into consciousness, that is, to promote awareness. The psychoanalyst builds the process in such a way as to facilitate the manifestation and understanding of the unconscious. How to make the unconscious conscious? This question can only be answered by referring to Freud's theoretical ideas about the ways and means of expressing the unconscious. In accordance with these ideas, in order to achieve awareness, the psychoanalyst must subject to analysis a number of mental phenomena in which the unconscious finds its expression. Such phenomena are free associations, symbolic manifestations of the unconscious, transference and resistance. This means that in the most general form, we can say that the essence of psychoanalysis lies in the identification and awareness of the unconscious through the analysis of its symbolic manifestations, free associations, transference and resistance.
Free associations. Free association or free fantasizing (and literally, rather, free penetration, free invasion) is the main procedure of psychoanalysis aimed at penetrating the unconscious. It is given the greatest importance in comparison with other ways of producing material in the psychoanalytic situation. And in this sense, free association acts as a fundamental rule of psychoanalysis. Free association is a technique in which the patient is asked to relax all the inhibiting and critical instances of consciousness, in which he is asked to speak about everything that comes to his mind, even if it seems to him ridiculous, unimportant, stupid, trivial, shameful, indecent unrelated to the case, etc.
Symbolic manifestations of the unconscious. According to Freud's concept, the unconscious is denied direct access to consciousness, at the threshold of which there is censorship. But the repressed drives and needs do not lose their energy potential and tend to penetrate consciousness. However, they can only do so partially, through compromise and distortion. Distorted and disguised inclinations, having “deceived” the vigilance of censorship, nevertheless penetrate the consciousness in the form of compromise formations, while remaining unrecognizable for the person himself. In this form, they can be discovered by a psychoanalyst and subjected to analysis. In what form are the disguised unconscious drives and needs represented in consciousness? From Freud's point of view, drives, tendencies and conflicts repressed into the unconscious have symbolic manifestations, in other words, the unconscious can manifest itself symbolically in the form of dreams and fantasies and various erroneous actions (ordinary everyday phenomena - slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting words, names, dates etc., actually erroneous actions).
Transfer (transfer, transfer). Transference characterizes the relationship that arises between psychoanalyst and patient in the process of psychoanalysis. From the point of view of psychoanalysts, these relationships are essential and even decisive for psychoanalysis, in which attention is constantly directed to various changes in the special relationship between therapist and patient. “The specific therapeutic component is the complex, emotionally charged parent-child relationship between the therapist and the person he is treating,” writes one psychoanalyst. What is a transfer? Transference is a projection by the patient onto the psychoanalyst (transfer to the psychoanalyst) of those feelings and attitudes that the patient previously had in relation to some significant person. At the same time, it should be noted that in classical psychoanalysis, transference has always been understood as parental, which means that the patient projects onto the psychoanalyst those feelings, attitudes, expectations, etc., that he experienced in relation to the parental figure. The transference relationship recreates the reality of a relationship with a significant person from the patient's past, providing material for analysis. Thus, they bring past significant relationships into the plane of psychotherapeutic interaction, providing the psychoanalyst with the opportunity not only to hear, at best, how the patient imagines these relationships (and, since they are not fully conscious, the patient’s ideas are significantly distorted) or to create in himself understanding of these relationships of the patient on the basis of other facts, but, above all, to become a participant in these relationships, to feel and experience them, and therefore adequately understand. In order to create the conditions for transference, the psychoanalyst in the course of psychotherapy adheres to a certain strategy of behavior, he behaves emotionally neutral, without presenting himself personally. The psychoanalyst behaves aloofly not because he is a cold and arrogant person (as is sometimes portrayed), but because a "clean, white screen" is needed for projection. If the psychoanalyst showed himself as a person more actively, if he were authentic, then the transfer would be possible only if he really clearly resembled the same significant person from the patient's past in his psychological characteristics and manifestations.
Resistance. Resistance is a tendency to hinder, block the disclosure and awareness of painful experiences, memories, conflicts. In other words, a person has conflicts, and they act, but he resists their awareness. The strength of the resistance can also indicate the significance of the material, the identification and awareness of which the patient resists. All four listed mental phenomena are analyzed in the process of psychotherapy. The term "analysis" also implies certain procedures, these are confrontation, clarification, interpretation and overcoming. The central procedure of analysis is interpretation. All other procedures either lead to interpretation or aim to make it more efficient. Thus, we can say that psychoanalysis consists in an interpretive (interpretative) analysis of various compromise formations of consciousness. For Freud, the awareness of the true causes of the disease in itself performs the most important therapeutic function. However, it is also essential to integrate the Self of all that was previously repressed and then realized in the process of psychoanalysis.
In concluding this section, we briefly formulate the main provisions once again. Within the framework of the psychodynamic approach, unconscious mental processes are considered as the main determinants of personal development and behavior, and neurosis is understood as a consequence of the conflict between the unconscious and consciousness. Psychotherapeutic intervention is aimed at achieving awareness of this conflict and one's own unconscious. The method itself is subordinated to this task.
Person-oriented (reconstructive) psychotherapy. This psychotherapeutic direction, according to its main characteristics, belongs to the dynamic direction. In addition, a separate section is devoted to it. However, given that it is one of the most developed psychotherapeutic systems in Russia, here I would also like to very briefly trace the connection between the concept of the norm (personality), the concept of pathology (neurosis) and the psychotherapeutic system itself (its tasks). Personality-oriented (reconstructive) psychotherapy is based on the psychology of relationships (the concept of personality) and the pathogenetic concept of neuroses (the biopsychosocial concept of neurotic disorders). Let us briefly characterize these ideas.
Psychological concept. Within the framework of this approach, a person is considered as a system of relations between an individual and the environment, as an integral, organized system of active, selective, social and conscious connections with reality. Central to this definition is the notion of relationship. The psychological category of attitude is understood as an internal subjective attitude, which is formed under the influence of real world relations on the basis of the mental properties of a person as an individual. It is internally subjective relations that characterize the personality of a particular person, his unique individuality. Relationships are the core of the personality, they are internal conditions that refract and mediate external influences. Myasishchev distinguished three groups of relationships: attitude towards oneself, attitude towards other people and attitude towards the world of objects and phenomena. Each attitude is characterized by three components: cognitive, emotional and behavioral. The cognitive component contains information about the object of the relationship, the emotional component contains information about the degree of attractiveness, desirability or unattractiveness, undesirability of this object, the emotional attitude towards it, the behavioral component contains ways of behavior and interaction with this object. Relationships of a person, interconnected in a certain way, form a system of relationships that is hierarchized for each person individually, all relationships that make up the system have a different significance for a person, which is associated with the history of the development of his personality. The system of relations sets certain ways of behavior, plays a guiding and dynamizing role in the integral behavior of a person.
The concept of neurosis. The pathogenetic concept considers neurosis as a psychogenic disorder that occurs as a result of a violation of relationships that are especially significant for the individual and manifests itself in specific clinical phenomena in the absence of psychotic phenomena. Relationship disorders can be characterized in the most general way as a distortion of the cognitive component due to its unconsciousness or insufficient degree of awareness and an excessive predominance of the emotional component, which leads to the inadequacy of the attitude, and it can no longer provide adequate regulation of behavior. Understanding neurosis as a psychogenic disease, in the etiopathogenesis of which there is a psychologically understandable connection between the occurrence of disorders, the clinical picture and its dynamics, on the one hand, and the characteristics of the system of relations, personal characteristics, as well as the nature and dynamics of the psycho-traumatic pathogenic situation, on the other, determines the orientation of psychotherapeutic influences on the correction of the personality and the reconstruction of its disturbed relationships.
Behavioral direction in psychotherapy. The behavioral direction in psychotherapy is based on the psychology of behaviorism and uses the principles of learning to change cognitive, emotional and behavioral structures. Behavioral psychotherapy includes a wide range of methods. The development of methodological approaches within this direction reflects the evolution of the goals of behavioral psychotherapy from external to internal learning: from methods aimed at changing open forms of behavior, directly observed behavioral reactions (based mainly on classical and operant conditioning) to methods aimed at changing more deep, closed psychological formations (based on social learning theories, modeling and cognitive approaches).
The theoretical basis of behavioral psychotherapy is the psychology of behaviorism.
Behaviorism. This direction in psychology was formed at the beginning of the 20th century. The founder of behaviorism is Watson, who introduced this term and published his first program. Thorndike's experiments, which laid the foundation for its emergence, as well as the works of Pavlov and Bekhterev, also had a significant influence on the formation of behaviorism. The methodological premises of behaviorism were the principles of the philosophy of positivism, according to which science should describe only phenomena that are accessible to direct observation. Behaviorism developed in many ways as an alternative to introspective psychology and excluded from its scope all psychological phenomena that were not subject to rigorous scientific research, fixation and measurement. From the point of view of the representatives of behaviorism, psychology was to become the science of behavior, since behavior is the only psychological reality that is accessible to direct observation and has parameters that can be directly measured and that can be influenced and, therefore, studied in the same way as is customary in natural sciences. sciences. Orthodox behaviorism essentially identifies the psyche and behavior. Behavior is understood in this case as a set of reactions of the organism to the influence of the external environment, to a set of fixed stimuli. A person is considered as a bearer of certain forms of behavior, formed according to the principle of "stimulus - reaction". At the same time, human behavior, as well as animal behavior, is described by a rigid “stimulus-response” scheme (S-R), which is considered as the main unit of behavior. All internal psychological links, all psychological phenomena that mediate human responses, were essentially ignored by supporters of orthodox behaviorism as not directly observable. Thus, radical behaviorism was limited to the "stimulus-response" scheme. However, in the future, behaviorism also turns to mediating processes. The concept of intermediate variables appears - processes that mediate the influence of external stimuli on human behavior. The complication of the traditional behaviorist "stimulus-response" scheme due to the introduction of intermediate (intervening, mediator) variables marks the transition to neobehaviorism, which is associated with the names of Tolman and Hull. The basic formula of behaviorism is transformed into the formula "stimulus - intermediate variables - response" (S-r-s-R). In accordance with this, incentives began to be designated as independent variables, and reactions - as dependent ones. Intermediate variables (mediators, mediators, intervening variables) are those psychological formations that mediate the body's reactions to certain stimuli. Intermediate variables are primarily understood as the totality of cognitive and motivating factors acting between stimuli and response behavior. At present, the concept of intermediate variables is understood broadly and includes a complex set of various psychological phenomena. Attention, representations, inclinations, motives, attitudes, attitudes, and even consciousness are considered as intermediate variables. The study of intermediate variables is one of the main tasks of the psychology of "behavior.
The central problem of behaviorism is the problem of acquiring individual experience or the problem of learning (learning) as the acquisition of various skills and abilities. The learning theories developed by behaviorism served as the basis for the development of specific methodological approaches to behavioral psychotherapy. Therefore, it is necessary to dwell on this concept in more detail.
Learning. Learning is the process and result of acquiring individual experience, knowledge, skills and abilities. Learning is considered as the emergence of certain ways of behavior under the action of specific stimuli, in other words, learning is a systematic modification of behavior when the same situation is repeated. Learning acts as the main methodological principle and the main task of behavioral psychotherapy (as well as an important factor in the therapeutic effect in other psychotherapeutic systems, in particular in group psychotherapy).
Behavioral psychotherapy is essentially the clinical use of learning theories developed within behaviorism. Central to these theories are the processes of classical and operant conditioning and model learning. Accordingly, there are three types of learning: type S learning, type R learning, and social learning.
Classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is closely associated with the name of Pavlov, who made a fundamental contribution to the theory of classical conditioned reflexes, which became the basis for the development of behavioral psychotherapy.
The main scheme of the conditioned reflex is S - R, where S is the stimulus, R is the reaction (behavior). In the classical Pavlovian scheme, reactions occur only in response to the impact of some stimulus, unconditioned or conditioned stimulus. Pavlov first answered the question of how a neutral stimulus can cause the same reaction as an unconditioned reflex, which proceeds automatically, on an innate basis, and does not depend on the individual's previous experience. Or, in other words, how a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. The formation of a conditioned reflex occurs under the conditions of: a) adjacency, coincidence in time of an indifferent and unconditioned stimulus, with some advance of an indifferent stimulus, b) repetition, multiple combination of an indifferent and unconditioned stimulus.
The experimenter acts on the body with a conditioned stimulus (bell) and reinforces it with an unconditioned stimulus (food), that is, an unconditioned stimulus is used to evoke an unconditioned response (saliva) in the presence of an initially neutral stimulus (bell). After a series of repetitions, the response (saliva) is associated with this new stimulus (call), in other words, such a connection is established between them that the previously neutral unconditioned stimulus (call) causes a conditioned response (salivation). The result or product of learning according to such a scheme is respondent behavior - behavior caused by a certain stimulus (S). The supply of reinforcement in this case is associated with a stimulus (S), so this type of learning, during which a connection between stimuli is formed, is designated as learning of type S.
There are three more phenomena associated with the name of Pavlov and used in behavioral psychotherapy. The first is the generalization of stimuli: if a conditioned response has formed, then stimuli similar to the conditioned one will also cause it. The second is stimulus discrimination or stimulus discrimination. Through this process, people learn to distinguish between similar stimuli. The third is extinction. Fading - the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response as a result of the elimination of the connection between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Extinction is due to the fact that the conditioned stimulus continues to cause a conditioned response only if the unconditioned stimulus appears at least periodically. If the conditioned stimulus is not at least sometimes reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus, then the strength of the conditioned response begins to decrease.
operant conditioning. The theory of instrumental or operant conditioning is associated with the names of Thorndike and Skinner. Skinner, one of the most prominent representatives of behaviorism, showed that the impact of the environment determines human behavior, he considers culture as the main factor in the formation of human behavior, the content of which is expressed in a certain set of reinforcement complexes. With their help, you can create and modify human behavior in the right direction. Behavior modification methods are based on this understanding, which are used not only in psychotherapeutic practice, but also in the practice of, for example, educational influences.
The terms "instrumental learning" and "operant conditioning" mean that the body's response, which is formed by trial and error, is a tool for receiving encouragement and involves operating with the environment, that is, behavior is a function of its consequences. According to the principle of operant conditioning, behavior is controlled by its result and consequences. Behavior modification is carried out by influencing its results and consequences. In accordance with the scheme of operant conditioning, the experimenter, observing behavior, fixes random manifestations of the desired, “correct” response and immediately reinforces it. Thus, the stimulus follows the behavioral response, using direct reinforcement through reward and punishment. The result of such learning is operant learning, or operant. In this case, it is not the stimulus that is reinforced, but the response of the body, it is this that causes the reinforcing stimulus, therefore such learning is referred to as learning of the R type. Operant or instrumental behavior (R type behavior) is the behavior caused by the reinforcement that follows the behavior. Skinner, emphasizing the differences between respondent and operant behavior, points out that respondent behavior is caused by a stimulus that precedes behavior, and operant behavior is caused by a stimulus that follows behavior. In other words: in classical conditioning, the stimulus precedes the behavioral response, and in operant conditioning, it follows it.
It is necessary to pay attention to the correlation of such concepts as positive and negative reinforcement and punishment, to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement. Positive or negative reinforcement reinforces the behavior (therefore, the term “reinforcement” is sometimes used, suggesting that the purpose of the influence is to increase the reaction, regardless of whether the reinforcement is positive or negative), punishment weakens. Positive reinforcement is based on the presentation of stimuli (rewards) that enhance the behavioral response. Negative reinforcement consists of reinforcing a behavior by removing negative stimuli. Punishment is also divided into positive and negative: the first is based on depriving the individual of a positive stimulus, the second on the presentation of a negative (aversive) stimulus. Thus, any reinforcement (both positive and negative) increases the frequency of a behavioral reaction, enhances behavior, and any punishment (both positive and negative), on the contrary, reduces the frequency of a behavioral reaction, weakens behavior.
To distinguish between the stimulus of the classical conditioned reflex and the stimulus of the operant conditioned reflex, Skinner suggested designating the former as Sd, the discriminant stimulus, and the latter as Sr, the respondent stimulus. The discriminant stimulus (Sd-stimulus) precedes a certain behavioral response in time, the respondent stimulus (Sr-stimulus), reinforcing a certain behavioral response, follows it.
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