Gomel Engineering Institute of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus

Life safety

Basics of Survival

Prepared

Aniskovich I.I.

Gomel 2009

Basic concepts of survival

Human life has always been fraught with danger. It is no coincidence that our distant ancestors, taking their first steps along the path of evolution, learned to use the stone not only as a tool of labor, but also as a weapon.

The struggle for existence forced people by hook or by crook to cling to life, to adapt to any adversity, no matter how difficult they may be, to boldly go towards dangers. The desire to realize the seemingly impossible, permeating the entire history of mankind, helps to understand the incredible efforts made by people in various parts of the world in order to adapt to harsh natural conditions. Man has always had the ability to adapt to the natural and artificial environment - from primitive hunters who went out to the beast with a stone ax in their hands, to space travelers of the second half of our century, who have been in a state of weightlessness for a long time, mobilizing all their physical and mental capabilities. Survival is active, expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. It is for people whose lives are constantly fraught with dangers that preliminary preparation, both physical and psychological, is very important. Rescuers, military personnel of many branches of the armed forces, tourists who go on long routes, many scientists and researchers must first go through a complete adaptation process, as a result of which the body gradually acquires resistance to certain environmental factors that was absent before and, thus, gets the opportunity to "live in conditions previously incompatible with life”, which means complete adaptation to the conditions of the polar cold, hot deserts or lack of oxygen at mountain heights, fresh water in the salty sea. People who have undergone full adaptation have a chance not only to save life itself, but also to solve problems that were previously unsolvable.

The adaptation process is very complex and multi-stage. At its first stage, the stage of adaptation to any new factor, the body is close to the maximum of its capabilities, but it does not solve the problem that has arisen completely. However, after some time, if a person (or animal) does not die, and the factor requiring adaptation continues to act, the possibilities of the living system increase - the extreme, or urgent, stage of the process is replaced by the stage of effective and stable adaptation. This transformation is the key link in the whole process, and its consequences are often striking. Extreme conditions - an event (or a sequence of events) in which a person, through his own preparedness, the use of equipment and gear, as well as the involvement of additional, pre-prepared resources, has the opportunity to prevent an emergency, and, if necessary, help himself and others after an emergency. An extreme situation is an event beyond the limits of personal human experience, when a person is forced to act (or remain inactive) in the complete absence of equipment, equipment and initial training. (Basic information about ways to overcome the ES is not formalizable in principle, based on the very definition of an extreme situation). Most people and animals placed in extreme situations from which there is no way out do not die, but acquire one or another degree of adaptation to them and save their lives until better times. Such stressful situations - long periods of hunger, cold, natural disasters, interspecific and intraspecific conflicts - are always widely represented in the natural habitat of animals. The same scheme operates in the human social environment. During a relatively short period of its history, humanity went through periods of slavery, serfdom, world wars, but did not degrade, demonstrating high efficiency of adaptation to extreme situations. Of course, the price of such adaptation is unreasonably high, but these indisputable facts inevitably lead to the conclusion that the body must have sufficiently effective specialized mechanisms that limit the stress response and prevent stress damage and, most importantly, allow one to save life and health. In general, all this corresponds to a well-known everyday observation - people who have gone through severe life tests acquire a certain resistance to damaging environmental factors, i.e. resilient in any extreme situation. Imagine that a miracle happened, and today's man suddenly found himself in the primitive conditions of the existence of mankind. Making his way along the damp walls of the cave, to the sonorous chatter of his own teeth, our hero recalls the fire with unexpected joy. What about chopping wood? Well, okay, you can break the branches. He habitually hits himself in the pocket. Oh, horror, no matches! At first, our time traveler does not realize the full depth of the catastrophe that has befallen him. But in a minute it is covered with cold sweat. He has no idea how to make a fire without matches! Feverish attempts to make fire by rubbing wooden sticks against each other, cutting sparks lead to nothing - kindling stubbornly does not want to flare up. Further, with inexorable consistency, it turns out that a representative of our time cannot hunt without a gun, fish without lines and hooks, cannot build even the most primitive shelter, has no idea how to protect his mortal body from hundreds of dangers lurking from all sides. Hunted looking around, he rushes through the ancient forest, occasionally attacking the berries, which do not saturate at all. Our contemporary is doomed. He has to survive in conditions of autonomous existence. Autonomous existence is the activity of a person (a group of people) without outside help. The only chance to prolong their existence is to seek help from the local natives. Nothing to do about! And then he meets the real masters of that era: the genius of getting food, the genius of making fire. With great effort, starting from the very basics, the unlucky traveler comprehends the science of "survival", with difficulty pulling himself up to the level of development of primitive man. There is nothing exaggerated in this fantasy. Even astronauts, before taking their place in the spacecraft, walk hundreds of kilometers along the paths of survival - forest wilds, hot sands of deserts. A modern person, and even more so a professional rescuer, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement in terrestrial and extraterrestrial space, timing and geographical location, must be ready to act in an emergency, without communication with the outside world, when you can rely only on yourself. For a person who finds himself in an extreme situation due to unforeseen circumstances, such as a plane crash, a shipwreck, military personnel, as well as lost tourists, survival is mainly a psychological issue, and the most important factor in this case is the desire to survive. Regardless of whether a person is left alone or as part of a group, emotional factors may appear in him - experiences due to fear, despair, loneliness and boredom. In addition to these mental factors, trauma, pain, fatigue, hunger, and thirst also influence the will to survive. How long will a person in trouble have to stay in conditions of autonomous existence in extreme conditions? It depends on a number of reasons that determine the duration of autonomous existence.

The reasons for the duration of autonomous existence:

Remoteness of the area of ​​search and rescue operations from settlements;

Violation or complete absence of radio communications and other types of communications;

Unfavorable geographical, climatic and meteorological conditions of the area of ​​search and rescue operations;

Availability of food stocks (or lack thereof);

The presence in the area of ​​search and rescue operations of additional search and rescue forces and means.

Goals and tasks of rescuers on survival issues

The purpose of training rescuers for survival is to develop in them stable skills for actions in various conditions of the situation, to develop high moral and business qualities, self-confidence, reliability of rescue equipment and equipment, and the effectiveness of search and rescue support.

The basis of survival is solid knowledge in various fields, from astronomy and medicine to the recipe for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

Survival techniques in each climatic and geographical region are different. What can and should be done in the taiga is unacceptable in the desert and vice versa.

A person must know how to navigate without a compass, give a distress signal, go to a settlement, get food with the help of gathering, hunting, fishing (including without a gun and the necessary gear), provide himself with water, be able to protect himself from natural disasters and much more. other.

The practical development of survival skills is extremely important. It is necessary not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it. When the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning. Before high-risk trips, it is necessary to conduct several emergency field exercises that are as close as possible to the real situation of future routes. It is necessary to calculate in advance theoretically and, if possible, check almost all possible emergencies.

The main tasks of training rescuers for survival are to provide the necessary amount of theoretical knowledge and teach practical skills for:

Orientation on the ground in various physical and geographical conditions;

Providing self- and mutual assistance;

The construction of temporary shelters and the use of improvised means of protection from the effects of adverse environmental factors;

Obtaining food and water;

Use of means of communication and signaling for the withdrawal of additional forces and means to the area of ​​search and rescue operations;

Organization of crossings through water barriers and swamps;

Use of rescue boats;

Preparation of sites for landing helicopters;

Evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

Factors affecting survival

Training in survival actions is the main factor determining the favorable outcome of autonomous existence.

Risk factors

Climate. Adverse weather conditions: cold, heat, strong wind, rain, snow can reduce the limit of human survival many times over.

Thirst. Lack of water entails physical and mental suffering, general overheating of the body, rapidly developing heat and sunstroke, dehydration in the desert - inevitable death.

Hunger. Prolonged lack of food depresses a person morally, weakens physically, increases the impact on the body of adverse environmental factors.

Fear. Reduces the body's resistance to thirst, hunger, climatic factors, leads to the adoption of erroneous decisions, provokes panic, mental breakdowns.

Overwork. It appears as a result of strenuous physical activities, insufficient food supply, difficult climatic and geographical conditions, due to the lack of proper rest.

Natural disasters: hurricanes, tornadoes, snowstorms, sandstorms, fires, avalanches, mudflows, floods, thunderstorms.

Diseases. The greatest threat is posed by injuries, diseases associated with exposure to climatic conditions, and poisoning. But we should not forget that in an emergency, any neglected callus or microtrauma can lead to a tragic outcome.

Survival Factors

Will to live. With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. Bounces off a falling tree, clings to stationary objects when falling. Another thing is long-term survival. Sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical, mental stress and the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. You can call it the will to live. Any skill and knowledge becomes meaningless if a person resigns himself to fate. Long-term survival is ensured not by the spontaneous desire “I don’t want to die”, but by the goal set – “I must survive!”. The desire to survive is not an instinct, but a conscious necessity! Survival tool - various standard and homemade emergency kits and emergency supplies (for example, a survival knife). If you are going on a dangerous journey, you need to complete emergency kits in advance, based on the specific conditions of the trip, terrain, time of year, and the number of participants. All items must be tested in practice, repeatedly checked, duplicated if necessary. General physical preparation does not require comments. Psychological preparation consists of the sum of such concepts as the psychological balance of each member of the group, the psychological compatibility of the participants, the similarity of the group, the real idea of ​​the conditions of the future route, training trips that are close in terms of loads and climatic and geographical conditions to the real upcoming ones (or better twice exceeding them). Of no small importance is the correct organization of rescue work in a group, a clear distribution of duties in marching and emergency modes. Everyone should know what to do in the event of a threat of an emergency.

Naturally, the above list is far from exhausting all the factors that ensure long-term survival. Once in an emergency, first of all, it is necessary to decide what tactics should be followed - active (independent exit to people) or passive (waiting for help). With passive survival, when there is absolute certainty that the missing person or the group is being sought, that the rescuers know their whereabouts, and if there is a non-transportable victim among you, you should immediately start building a capital camp, installing emergency signals around the camp, providing food on the spot.

Life support. Assessing the situation and making an informed decision

How to behave in extreme cases? Let's start with the basics and remember the key word for this situation "SURVIVAL":

S - assess the situation, recognize dangers, look for ways out of a hopeless situation.

U - excessive haste harms, but make decisions quickly.

R - remember where you are, determine your location.

V - conquer fear and panic, constantly control yourself, be persistent, but if necessary - obey.

I - improvise, be creative.

V - cherish the means of existence, recognize the limits of your capabilities.

A - act like a local, know how to evaluate people.

L - learn to do everything yourself, be independent and independent.

A group of people. First of all, it is necessary to choose an elder, a person who knows and is able to take all the necessary measures aimed at survival. If your group takes the following tips into account, then the chances of being rescued and returning home will increase significantly. Should:

Decisions are made only by the senior of the group, regardless of the situation;

Follow the orders of the senior group only;

To develop a sense of mutual assistance in the group.

All this will help to organize the activities of the group in such a way as to best ensure survival.

First of all, it is necessary to assess the current situation, which in turn consists of an assessment of the factors affecting survival.

The health status of group members, physical and mental condition;

The impact of the external environment (air temperature and the state of atmospheric conditions in general, terrain, vegetation, the presence and proximity of water sources, etc.).

Availability of emergency supplies of food, water and emergency equipment.

Provide self- and mutual assistance (if necessary) and draw up an action plan based on specific conditions, which should include:

Carrying out orientation on the ground and determining your location;

Organization of a temporary camp. Choosing a suitable place for building a shelter, taking into account the relief, vegetation, water sources, etc. Determination of the place of cooking, food storage, placement of a latrine, location of signal fires;

Provision of communication and signaling, preparation of radio equipment, operation and maintenance of them;

Distribution of responsibilities among group members;

Establishment of duty, tasks of duty officers and determination of the order of duty;

Preparation of visual signaling means;

As a result, an optimal mode of behavior in the current situation should be developed.

Help from local residents.

In most areas where a person or group of people injured in a disaster may be, there are always local residents. If you find yourself in a civilized country, the locals will always come to your aid and do everything necessary to get you home as soon as possible.

To enlist the support of local residents, be guided by the following:

It is better if the locals make contact first;

Deal on all matters with a recognized leader or leader; - Show friendliness, courtesy and patience. Don't show that you are afraid;

Treat them like human beings;

Respect their local customs and habits;

Respect the personal property of local residents; treat women with special respect;

Learn from the locals how to hunt and get food and water. Heed their advice regarding dangers;

Avoid physical contact with them, but in a way that is imperceptible to them;

Leave a good impression of yourself. Other people after you may need the same help.

When conducting RPS, rescuers often have to perform tasks far from populated areas, spend several days in the “field conditions”, and face various extreme situations, which imposes additional requirements on their ability to work in these conditions. Solid knowledge in various fields, the ability to use them in any conditions are the basis of survival. Going to the RPS, rescuers must, along with tools and protective equipment, have the following set of necessary items that can be useful in any climatic and geographical zone: a signal mirror, with which you can send a distress signal at a distance of 30-40 km; hunting matches, a candle or tablets of dry fuel for making a fire or heating a shelter; whistle for signaling; a large knife (machete) in a sheath, which can be used as a knife, ax, shovel, spear; a compass, a piece of thick foil and polyethylene, fishing equipment, signal cartridges, an emergency kit of medicines, a supply of water and food.

Signaling

Rescuers must know and be able to put into practice special signals. Rescuers can use fire smoke during the day and bright lights at night to indicate their location. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into a fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To get white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

To give a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft), a special signal mirror can be used (Fig. 1). It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane; turning the mirror, match the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

Rice. 1 Special signal mirror.

At night, the light of a hand-held electric flashlight, a torch, a fire can be used for signaling.

A fire built on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good means of signaling are brightly colored objects and a special coloring powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, earth, water, and ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal rockets, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest developments in target designation is a small rubber balloon with a nylon shell, covered with four luminous colors, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90 m by a nylon cable. The mass of the kit is 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to use the International code table of air signals "Ground - Air" (Fig. 2). Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie down on the ground, snow, ice, trampled on the snow.

Fig.2. International air signal code table

"Earth - Air"

1 - Need a doctor - serious bodily injury;

2 - Medicines are needed;

3 - Unable to move;

4 - Need food and water;

5 - Requires weapons and ammunition,

6 - Map and compass required:

7 - We need a signal lamp with a battery and a radio station;

8 - Specify the direction of travel;

9 - I am moving in this direction;

10 - Let's try to take off;

11 - Vessel seriously damaged;

12 - Here you can safely land;

13 - Fuel and oil required;

14 - All right;

15 - No or negative;

16 - Yes or positive;

17 - Did not understand;

18 - Need a mechanic;

19 - Operations completed;

20 - Nothing found, keep searching;

21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction;

22 - We found all the people;

23 - We only found a few people:

24 - We are unable to continue, returning to base;

25 - Divided into two groups, each follows the indicated direction.

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors. Monitoring the state and forecasting of the weather is carried out by special meteorological services. Weather information is transmitted by means of communication, in special reports, is applied to maps using conventional signs.

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict it according to local characteristics. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.

Signs of persistent good weather

It is quiet at night, the wind intensifies during the day, and calms down in the evening. Direction

wind near the ground coincides with the direction of movement of clouds.

At sunset, the dawn is yellow, golden or pink with a greenish tint in the distant space.

Fog accumulates in the lowlands at night.

After sunset, dew appears on the grass, with sunrise it disappears.

In the mountains, haze covers the peaks.

Cloudy at night, clouds appear in the morning, increase by noon and disappear in the evening.

Ants do not close the passages in the anthill.

Hot during the day, cool in the evening.

Signs of approaching storm

The wind intensifies, becomes more even, blows with the same force both day and night, sharply changes direction.

Cloudiness is intensifying. Cumulus clouds do not disappear by evening, but are added.

Evening and morning dawns are red.

In the evening it seems warmer than during the day. Temperatures drop in the mountains in the morning.

There is no dew at night or it is very weak.

Near the ground, fog appears after sunset, and by sunrise it dissipates.

During the day, the sky becomes cloudy, becomes whitish.

The crowns around the moon are decreasing.

The stars twinkle intensely.

Chickens and sparrows bathe in the dust.

Smoke begins to creep across the ground.

Signs of persistent bad weather

Light continuous rain.

The ground is foggy and dewy.

Both at night and during the day it is moderately warm.

Dampness in the air day and night, even in the absence of rain.

Small crowns closely adjacent to the Moon.

When stars twinkle, they cast a red or bluish light.

Ants close the passages.

The bees don't leave the hive.

Crows scream heart-rendingly.

Small birds clog in the middle of the tree crown.

Signs that the weather is changing for the better

The rain stops or comes intermittently, in the evening a creeping fog appears, dew falls.

The difference between day and night temperatures increases.

It gets cold.

The air is getting drier.

The sky is clear in the gaps.

The crowns around the moon are increasing.

The twinkling of the stars is decreasing.

The evening dawn is yellow.

The smoke from the chimneys and from the fire rises vertically.

The bees in the hives are noisy. Swifts and swallows rise higher.

Mosquitoes swarm

The coals in the fire quickly turn to ash.

Signs of stable partly cloudy weather

The predominance of the north or northeast wind.

The wind speed is low.

Creeping fog at night.

Abundant hoarfrost on grass land or tree branches.

Rainbow pillars on the sides of the Sun or a reddish pillar across the solar disk. Sunset with a yellowish tint.

Signs of a change to cloudy, snowy weather

Change in wind direction to the southeast, then to the southwest. Wind change from south to north and its strengthening - to a blizzard. Increase in cloud cover. Light snow begins. The frost is easing.

Blue spots appear over the forest.

Dark forests are reflected in low dense clouds.

Signs of persistent cloudy, snowy weather without major frosts

Slight frost or, with a southwesterly wind, a thaw.

By the thaw, blue spots over the forest intensify.

Steady southeast or northeast wind.

The direction of movement of the clouds does not coincide with the direction of the wind near the ground.

Light continuous snow.

Signs of a change to frosty weather without precipitation

The wind from the southwest turns to the west or northwest, the frost intensifies.

Cloudiness is decreasing.

Frost appears on the grass land and trees.

The blue spots over the forest weaken and soon completely disappear.

The weather imposes certain requirements on the organization of a bivouac, temporary housing, life and rest during multi-day RPS. With this in mind, rescuers organize a bivouac. It should be located in avalanche-proof and rock-fall-safe areas, close to a source of drinking water, have a supply of deadwood or firewood. It is impossible to arrange a bivouac in the dried up beds of mountain rivers, near the shallows, in dense shrubs, coniferous thickets, near dry, hollow, rotten trees, in thickets of flowering rhododendron. After removing stones, branches, debris from the site and leveling it, rescuers can proceed with setting up the tent. (Fig. 3)

Tents differ in design features, capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect a person from cold, rain, wind, dampness, and insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

Expand the tent;

Stretch and secure the bottom;

Install the racks and tighten the guys;

Fasten the exit and tighten the roof braces;

Eliminate creases on the roof by tightening (loosening) the braces;

Dig a ditch around the tent with a width and depth of 8-10 cm to drain water in case of rain.

Under the bottom of the tent, you can put dry leaves, grass, ferns, reeds, moss. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, and foam rubber should be placed on the floor.

The pegs are hammered in at an angle of 45° to the ground to a depth of 20-25 cm. Trees, stones, ledges can be used to secure the tent. The back wall of the tent must be placed in the direction of the prevailing winds.

In the absence of a tent, you can spend the night under a piece of tarpaulin, polyethylene, or equip a hut from improvised materials (branches, logs, spruce branches, leaves, reeds). It is installed on a flat and dry place, in a clearing or the edge of a forest.

In winter, the campsite should be cleared of snow and ice.

Fig.3 Options for setting up tents.

In snowy winter conditions, rescuers must be able to arrange shelters in the snow. The simplest of them is a hole dug around a tree, the size of which depends on the number of people. From above, the pit must be closed with branches, dense cloth, covered with snow for better thermal insulation. You can build a snow cave, a snow dugout, a snow trench. When entering a snow shelter, you should clean your clothes from snow and dirt, take a shovel or knife with you, which can be used to make ventilation holes and a passage in case of snow collapse.

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "nodya", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "star", " pyramid". "Shalash" is convenient for making tea quickly and lighting the camp. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot. “Well” (“log house”) is kindled, if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes. In the "well" the fuel burns out more slowly than in the "hut"; a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature. On the "taiga" you can cook food at the same time in several pots. On one thick log (approximately 20 cm thick), several thinner dry logs are placed, which approach each other at an angle of 30 °. necessarily on the leeward side. Fuel burns for a long time. Near such a fire you can stay for the night. "Nodya" is good for cooking food, heating during the night, drying clothes and shoes. Two dry logs up to 3 m long are placed close to each other, flammable fuel (thin dry twigs, birch bark) is ignited in the gap between them, after which a third dry log of the same length and 20-25 cm thick is placed on top. To prevent the logs from rolling out, with flyers are driven into the ground on two sides of them. They will simultaneously serve as supports for the stick on which the bowlers are hung. The “nodya” flares up slowly, but it burns with an even flame for several hours. Any fire must be made only after careful preparation of the site: collection of dry grass and deadwood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing with stones the place where it will be bred. The fuel for the fire is dry forest, grass, reeds, shrubs. It has been noticed that burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch give a lot of sparks. Oak, maple, elm, beech burn quietly. To quickly kindle a fire, kindling is needed (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel). It is tightly packed with a “hut” or “well”. To make the kindling light up better, put a piece of candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood. In wet weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, a thick cloth. You can kindle a fire with matches, a lighter, sunlight and a magnifying glass, friction, flint, a shot. In the latter case, you need:

Open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;

Lay dry cotton wool on top of the gunpowder;

Shoot at the ground, while observing safety measures;

The smoldering cotton wool will ensure the kindling of the fire.

To set up a fire in winter, it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a deck of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire. To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it should not be made under low tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reeds and reeds, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine undergrowth. In these places, the fire spreads at high speed and is difficult to extinguish. In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones. The safe distance from the fire to the tent is 10m. To dry clothes, shoes, equipment near the fire, they should be hung on poles or ropes located on the leeward side at a sufficient distance from the fire. An obligatory rule is to extinguish the fire (with water, earth, snow) when leaving the bivouac. Successful fulfillment by rescuers of the tasks assigned to them is possible only if the body restores and maintains high mental and physical performance throughout the entire period of work. This is based on a balanced diet. It is important not only the correct ratio of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in food, but also the mandatory presence of vitamins and other biologically active substances in it. The rescuer's daily diet should include at least 1.5 g of protein per kilogram of body weight, almost the same 4 times more carbohydrates, as well as about 30-35 g of table salt, vitamins, water, etc.

LITERATURE

1. Search and rescue work-M., EMERCOM of Russia, 2000.

2. Disasters and people - M., "Publishing house AST-LTD", 1997.

3. Accidents and catastrophes - M., Publishing house of the Association of construction universities, 1998.

4. Survival - Mn., "Lazurak", 1996.

5. Self-rescue without equipment - M., "Russian Journal", 2000.

6. Military topography - M., Military Publishing House, 1980.

7. Manual on the aviation search and rescue service of the USSR. - M., Military Publishing House, 1990.

8. Instructions to the crew of the Mi-8MT helicopter. - Military Publishing House, 1984.

9. Instructions for the crew of the Mi-26 helicopter. - Military Publishing House, 1984.

10. Instructions to the crew of the An-2 aircraft. - Military Publishing House, 1985.

11. Textbook "Fundamentals of military topography" Svetlaya Grove, IPPC Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus, 2001.

12. First aid for injuries and other life-threatening situations - St. Petersburg, DNA Publishing House LLC, 2001.

The centuries-old experience of mankind shows that psychologically prepared people are able to quickly and without panic cope with fear, excitement, anxiety and resist danger in emergency situations. Those who do not know how to control their psyche, most often find themselves helpless in the face of impending disaster. Fear and panic paralyze the will and consciousness of a person, cause disorderly, disorganized behavior. In a panic, a person is like a driven animal, which, by its unconscious actions, destroys itself.

Mentally trained people- these are those who are constantly working to increase their attention, develop their sensations (especially visual and auditory), improve their memory, thinking, control over emotions and will. The science of psychology, which you met in biology classes, can offer many exercises to develop all of the listed qualities in a person. However, it is important not only to know and want, but also to engage in psychological improvement, Because your ability to survive in various dangerous situations depends on this.

Temperament is the basis of human character. Psychologists under temperament They understand the characteristics of a person by the intensity, speed, pace and rhythm of his mental processes and states.

Allocate 4 main types of a person by temperament.

sanguine- a person is balanced, active, mobile, easily experiencing troubles and failures, practical;

Phlegmatic person- a person with slow reactions, imperturbable, constant in his feelings, measured in actions and speech;

Choleric- a person excitable, impulsive, unrestrained in emotions, with frequent mood swings, speaking quickly;

melancholic- a person with a weak type of nervous system, very impressionable, touchy, deeply worried about everything, but able to subtly feel and perceive more information than others, which makes him tired faster.

The images of musketeers from the famous novel by A. Dumas "The Three Musketeers" have long become classics in practical psychology. Therefore, in order to determine the 1st swap type of temperament, decide which kyu you liked most of the 4 musketeers, if the eccentric and romantic d "Artagnanlo you are most likely a choleric: if the silent, reserved and mysterious Athos, then the melancholic: friendly, self-sufficient and balanced Porthos - phlegmatic: restrained, purposeful and reasonable Aramis - sanguine

In emergency situations, people can behave differently depending on their temperament. For example, in dangerous situations Choleric He will start to thrash about, get nervous and, if he cannot control himself, will most likely succumb to panic. melancholic Falls into deep despondency and begins to imagine possible terrible pictures of what could happen. This is. usually prevents him from making the right decision. Phlegmatic person Because of his inhibition, he most often underestimates the danger. sanguine Most likely, he will be able to quickly overcome his fear and even find the strength to make fun of what is happening. But at the same time, he lacks sensitivity to his neighbors.

But if temperament is given to us by nature, then character is that. what we create in ourselves. The older a person is, the more life experience he has, the more the formation of his character depends on himself. Therefore, if in case of any, even the most insignificant danger, you are used to avoiding responsibility, constantly hiding behind someone's back, then you are developing a dependent character. And in case of danger, when no one is around, he can let you down. Learn to make decisions and act competently on your own in emergency situations!

Any emergencies of a natural or man-made nature are frightening, first of all, to those. that they are usually sudden. It is impossible to get used to emergencies and completely protect yourself from them. Almost all the people who survived them. have severe psychological trauma. But nonetheless, Remember:You can help yourself survive if you counter the emergency with your knowledge, skills, willpower, character and abilities! A way out of an emergency situation, if it did develop, must be found. The main thing is to have confidence in this. But it cannot be brought up either by a book, or a film, or a conversation, even though both and the third will be beneficial. It takes experimentation and experience.

From the media, from this and other books, you get knowledge about certain emergency situations, about the rules of safe behavior in the event of a threat of their occurrence and during their action. If a person assumes in advance the possibility of a particular emergency situation, thinks out the course of action, then when such a situation arises, this person feels more confident and calmer.

However, sometimes the destructive power of natural disasters, the consequences of emergency situations are so great that even battered, hardened, psychologically trained people sometimes find it difficult to cope with their emotions and feelings. Therefore, with a threat to life and health, a person, regardless of the nature and type of temperament, can survive panic attacks to one degree or another. During a panic in fear, people can commit ridiculous and sometimes dangerous actions for themselves and those around them, they cannot consciously take measures for self-rescue and mutual assistance.

Panic It has both physiological and psychological manifestations. To Physical manifestations of panic Relate:

Strong heartbeat:

Profuse sweating:

Vomiting and indigestion (so-called "bear disease");

Chest tightness, inability to breathe deeply;

Trembling all over;

Numbness of the limbs and tingling in the body;

Poor sleep or insomnia;

Muscle tension and pain;

Fast fatiguability. Psychological manifestations of panic are:

clouding of consciousness, feeling like you are going crazy;

Unrealistic perception of what is happening; the body becomes as if not yours;

Feeling like you are dying or about to die;

nervousness; a person is on the first stage of a psychological breakdown;

fearfulness;

A person cannot concentrate or even disconnect from what is happening.

Remember:Panic can be dealt with! Learn to do the following exercises:

Relax the muscles of the face, limbs, the whole body;

Breathe calmly and deeply:

Inspire yourself with the desired state (there are other exercises that you will learn in biology lessons).

The mental state of people in emergency situations is characterized as stressful. Stress- this is a state of the body that occurs under the influence of significant in strength or duration of adverse effects (the so-called "stressors").

To adverse effects of various kinds, causing strong negative emotions, experiences, unrest (fear, humiliation, pain, illness - one's own and loved ones, loss, death of loved ones, social upheavals, epidemics, disasters), the body responds with an appropriate reaction. Stress is a phenomenon in which both psychological and physiological mechanisms are intertwined. The creator of the theory of stress, Canadian scientist G. Selye, defines it as a set of genetically programmed non-specific reactions of the body that primarily prepare the individual for physical activity (resistance or flight).

With weak negative effects on the body that do not cause a negative reaction, a person can cope with the usual protective actions. Stress occurs when the influence of the stimulus (stressor) exceeds the adaptive capabilities of the body and psyche.

Physiological mechanism of stress It consists in. that under the influence of a strong stimulus, certain hormones are released into the blood. Under their influence, the mode of operation of the heart changes, blood pressure rises, the pulse rate increases, the protective properties of the body change (for example, blood clotting increases). Psychological mechanism of stress It manifests itself in the need to make a particularly responsible decision, a sharp change in the strategy of behavior, etc.

There are 3 stages in the development of stress:

1. Anxiety stage. It lasts from several hours to 20 days. Includes Phases of shock And countercurrent. During

The last phase is the mobilization of the body's defenses and capabilities.

2. resistance stage. It is characterized by increased resistance of the organism to various influences.

3. Stage of stabilization (recovery). If the level of stress exceeds the protective reserve capacity, then the state of the body may deteriorate until it dies.

Unfortunately, stress is an integral part of our lives. Sometimes it is simply impossible to avoid its occurrence. However, the degree of response to it varies from person to person. Some react actively to stress, their performance continues to grow up to a certain limit (the so-called "lion stress"), while others have a predominantly passive reaction, and the level of activity decreases sharply ("rabbit stress").

Often the process of waiting for danger turns out to be much more unpleasant, exhausting, requiring great tension than the danger itself. It has been proven that when there is a lot of stress in a person's life, the reserves and protective capabilities of his body are gradually reduced. As a result, a number of so-called psychosomatic diseases develop (hypertension, peptic ulcer, cardiovascular disease, cardiac arrhythmia, up to a heart attack and stroke).

Special studies have allowed psychologists to describe various forms of stress manifestations in people after they have experienced emergency situations.

Hysterics It manifests itself in a sharp motor excitement: a person moves quickly or even runs without any visible purpose; makes strange sounds, shouts something, exclaims; laughs or weeps bitterly at every little thing; becomes aggressive, overexcited; quickly aroused.

Stupor - the second, no less common form of behavior of people in emergency situations. This reaction to stress manifests itself in the form of immobilization, stupor. A person who is in a stupor is often silent, stands or sits motionless, hunched over, crouching. The gaze is directed to nowhere.

Apathy Or Depression It manifests itself in a person in lethargy, sleep disturbance, loss of appetite, increased irritability, in complete indifference to everything that happens. A person who is in a state of apathy suffers from dizziness, often faints.

If there are no professional psychologists nearby who can help people return to normal health and behavior, then they must do it themselves. In addition, in an extreme situation, the human body reveals its hidden capabilities - unusual physical endurance, strength, endurance. This is a kind of protective reaction of the body to a stressful situation.

It is known, for example, that a person in ordinary life uses the intellectual and physical capabilities of his body only by 10-20%. There are cases in history when, at critical moments in life, the human body showed remarkable capabilities: a young mother lifted huge floor slabs with her bare hands in order to extract her child from under the rubble; during the Great Patriotic War, an artillery soldier alone dragged an artillery gun up a high mountain, while in a normal situation, a special tractor moved the gun with difficulty; an elderly woman carried a chest of drawers from a burning house, which, after a fire, was hardly lifted by 2 men.

To make it easier to cope with your mental state in an emergency and not succumb to panic, you must follow the following rules.

Don't despair when you're alone or surrounded by people in the same mental state;

Provide all possible assistance to adults in the aftermath of emergencies (in clearing debris, providing first aid, etc.), this will distract you, especially if people close to you have suffered as a result of an emergency. Remember:caring for someone- Here is salvation in a difficult psychological situation!

Spend more time in the company of those who endured the danger more easily, engage in joint work with them;

Organize the daily routine;

Avoid the one who sows panic, talks about the hopelessness of the situation, try to isolate the alarmist;

If you still find yourself alone, then voice everything that happens around you, express your thoughts aloud (the so-called "Chukchi method"); if you can't speak, write; Speak out yourself and let someone who also finds himself in a similar situation speak out;

Engage in psychological training to improve your will and ability to manage your emotions.

Try to understand your own and forgive other people's mistakes;

Decide on your life values ​​and priorities Assess your strengths and weaknesses, set yourself worthy but realistic goals Sometimes incredible efforts are spent on the wrong goals,

Be more tolerant and generous with the actions of others Avoid uncomfortable life situations and people with whom you do not like to communicate Life is too short to waste time on them1

Enjoy communicating with active people, feeling the energy they radiate1

Trust yourself, appreciate your life successes even if they are very few

Even today, it is not uncommon for a person, as a result of the prevailing circumstances, to find himself in conditions of autonomous existence, the favorable outcome of which largely depends on his psychophysiological qualities, sound knowledge of the basics of survival and other factors. The main task of a person in an autonomous situation is to survive. The word "survive" has always been used in a very specific sense - "stay alive, survive, protect yourself from death." Survival is understood as active, intelligent actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. But an extreme situation is easier to prevent than to get out of it. Therefore, do not go anywhere without telling someone your route and the approximate time of return, know the area of ​​\u200b\u200btravel, when setting off, take with you: a first aid kit, comfortable shoes and clothes for the season, a cell phone / pager / walkie-talkie. And offline:

To survive you need:

1. OVERCOME FEAR.

Under any circumstances, the survival of a person primarily depends on himself. It's not just about his skills. More often than not, a situation of autonomy arises unexpectedly, and the first reaction of anyone who finds himself in a dangerous situation is fear. But the obligatory conditions for the successful overcoming of all difficulties in an autonomous situation are the manifestation of will, perseverance, and competent action. Panic and fear dramatically reduce the chances of salvation.

With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation: bounces off a falling tree, clings to immovable objects when falling, tries to stay on the surface of the water in case of a threat of drowning. There is no need to talk about some kind of will to live in such cases. Another thing is long-term survival. In the conditions of autonomous existence, sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food supplies.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful, and must be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity.

Fear is an emotional response to danger that can be accompanied by physical sensations such as trembling, rapid breathing, and a strong heartbeat. This is a natural reaction, and it is characteristic of every normal person. It is the fear for one's life that causes the desire to act in the name of one's own salvation. If a person knows how to act, fear sharpens the reaction, activates thinking. But if he has no idea what to do, feels pain or weakness from blood loss, then fear can lead to stress - excessive tension, inhibition of thoughts and actions. These sensations can be so intense that sudden intense fear can lead to death. There are various ways to overcome fear. If a person is familiar with the method of auto-training, then he will be able to relax, calm down, and analyze the situation impartially in a matter of minutes. If not, then thinking about something else will help the person relax and be distracted. Breathing exercises also have a good effect. You need to take a few deep breaths. When a person experiences fear or stress, his pulse speeds up, and he begins to breathe very quickly. Forcing yourself to breathe slowly means convincing the body that the stress is passing, whether it has passed or not.

In addition, a person cannot act successfully if he does not have a clear goal and a plan to achieve it. Sometimes it seems that professional rescuers, pilots, and the military act in difficult situations without hesitation. But this is not so: they just have a ready-made, often already proven plan, or even several options. At first, it may seem to a person that he knows nothing and can do nothing. But one has only to divide the situation and tasks into its component parts, as it turns out that much is within his power. The surest way to overcome fear and confusion is to organize planned actions to ensure survival. To do this, a person needs to set himself a clear attitude to act in a possible extreme situation.

2. HELP THE VICTIMS

(including self help)

It is good to have a first aid kit to help, so when you go on a trip, it is better to take it with you. The set of necessary medicines depends on climatic conditions. For example, in the desert you need serum against snake venom, sunburn cream, etc. In a tropical first-aid kit, there should be repellent against leeches, insects, powder for fungal diseases, and an antimalarial drug. Every first aid kit should have:

• individual dressing package for each
• bandages
• sterile wipes
• plaster (bactericidal and simple)
• potassium permanganate
• medical alcohol
• syringe tubes of morphine or other pain medication
• broad spectrum antibiotics
• nitroglycerine
• corvalol/validol
• caffeine solution
• adrenaline solution
• synthomycin emulsion (for burns / frostbite)
• tetracycline ointment (for eye inflammation)
• pantocide (for water disinfection)

You should have medicines individually selected for everyone in sufficient quantities (at least the required minimum). Names and uses of medicines must be signed with indelible pencil/ink. Pack the first-aid kit carefully, excluding the possibility of damage to medicines. Scissors or a scalpel, if not available, can be replaced with a disinfected razor blade.

Must be able to use medicinal herbs, as well as

distinguish them from poisonous plants. Only well-known herbs can be used, therefore, when going to another climatic zone, it is better to remember local poisonous plants and at least 5 medicinal / edible ones in advance. For example, strawberries, celery, elm bark help with fever. Lilac, sunflower, nettle tincture with garlic, wild rose, willow bark help against malaria.

To provide medical assistance immediately after an accident or if a long autonomous existence is necessary, skills are needed, therefore everyone should be able to provide first aid. With autonomous survival, the most likely:

• BURN. The burnt place should be cooled, wiped with an alcohol solution, apply a dry bandage. The affected area can be rubbed with a decoction of oak bark, raw potatoes, urine. Do not lubricate the burn with oil, do not open the resulting bubbles.
• BLEEDING. Press the damaged vessel (artery - from above, except for the arteries of the head, neck) or apply a tourniquet / pressure bandage from improvised means (except for wires, ropes, cords). Treat the wound with iodine / hydrogen peroxide / brilliant green and close with a plaster / bandage. You can apply viburnum berries, wild rose, plantain, aloe to a bleeding wound. For purulent wounds, a decoction of burdock is applied. The tourniquet can not be kept longer than 1.5 hours in summer and 30 minutes. in winter.
• FRACTURES / DISTRUCTIONS. The injured limb must be immobilized (for which a splint or stick/ski/board is used). Pain can be reduced by applying ice. Finely chopped onion helps (with dislocations). You can not take painkillers, you can not try to set the limb yourself.
• CPR/HEART MASSAGE necessary in case of clinical death (no pulse and breathing or spasmodic breathing, pupils do not react to light). The caregiver inhales air into the mouth / nose of the victim about 24 times per minute. The nose / mouth of the victim should be clamped. Circulation can be restored by pressing on the chest. The patient should lie on a hard surface, unbutton the clothes. Death occurs within 5 minutes. after clinical death, but resuscitation should be continued for 20-30 minutes. Sometimes it works.
• FAINTING. If breathing and cardiac activity are not disturbed, it is enough to unbutton the clothes, bring a swab with ammonia to the nose, and lay the person down so that the head is lower than the legs.

In case of any injuries, it is best to try to deliver the victim to a doctor.

3. ORIENTATE ON THE TERRAIN.

When traveling in unfamiliar terrain, it is best to have a map. If it is not there, you can navigate without it.

The sides of the horizon can be determined by the compass, celestial bodies, according to some signs of local objects. When unbraked, the compass needle is set with its northern end in the direction of the north magnetic pole, respectively, the other end of the arrow will point south. The compass has a circular scale (limb), which is divided into 120 divisions. The price of each division is 3 or 0-50. The scale has a double digit. The inner one is applied clockwise from 0 to 360 degrees in 15 degrees. For sighting on local objects and taking readings on the compass scale, a sighting device and a reading pointer are fixed on the rotating compass ring. When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or closely spaced metal objects deviate the magnetic needle from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railway tracks, combat vehicles and other large metal objects.

You can determine the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies:

• according to the sun: the sun at 7 o'clock in the morning is in the East, at 13 o'clock in the South, at 19 o'clock in the West;
• by the sun and the clock with arrows. To determine the direction in this way, it is necessary to hold the clock in a horizontal position and turn it so that the hour hand with its sharp end is directed towards the sun. A straight line dividing the angle between the hour hand and the direction of the number 1 indicates South.
• By moving the shadow from a vertically placed stick, it will show the approximate East-West direction;

At night, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the North Star. To do this, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. An imaginary line is drawn through the last two stars of the bucket, and the distance between these stars is plotted on it 5 times. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - Polaris. The direction to it will correspond to the direction to the north. The sides of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local objects.

1. The bark of most trees is rougher on the north side.
2. Stones, trees, wooden, tiled and slate roofs on the north side are covered with moss earlier and more abundantly. On coniferous trees, resin is more abundant on the south side. It is useless to look for all these signs on the trees among the thicket. But they are clearly expressed on a separate tree in the middle of a clearing or at the edge.
3. Anthills are located on the south side of trees and stones.
4. Snow melts faster on the southern slopes of the hills and mountains.

Magnetic azimuth is used - a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0 degrees to 360 from the north direction of the magnetic meridian to the direction to be determined.

To determine the magnetic azimuth, it is necessary: ​​to stand facing the observed object (landmark), release the brake of the compass needle and, having given the compass a horizontal position, turn it until the northern end of the arrow is against the zero division of the scale. While holding the compass in an oriented position, turn the rotating cover to direct the line of sight passing through the slot and the front sight in a given direction to a given object. The average error in measuring the azimuth with a compass is about 2 degrees. Movement, during which a given direction is maintained and an accurate exit to the designated point is carried out, is called movement in azimuth. Movement along azimuths is used mainly in the forest, in the desert, at night, in fog and tundra, and other terrain and visibility conditions that make visual orientation difficult. When moving in azimuth, at each turning point of the route, starting from the initial one, they find the desired direction of the path on the ground using the compass and move along it, counting the distance traveled. When moving in azimuth, it becomes necessary to bypass obstacles that cannot be overcome directly. In doing so, proceed as follows. They notice a landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle in the direction of movement, determine the distance to it, add it to the distance traveled. After that, having bypassed the obstacle, they go to the chosen landmark and determine the direction of movement by the compass.

In mountainous terrain, landmarks are chosen so that they are distributed in the direction of action of the subunits not only along the front and in depth, but also in height. In a forest area, maintaining a route of movement passing along dirt roads and clearings requires the ability to accurately recognize on the ground those of them along which the path selected on the map passes. At the same time, it should be taken into account that forest roads are often hardly visible on the ground, and some of them may not be shown on the maps. At the same time, you can find roads that are not shown on the map, but at the same time they are well traveled. As landmarks in the forest, roads, clearings, intersections, and forks in roads and clearings, rivers and streams, glades crossing the route of movement are used. Clearings are usually cut in mutually perpendicular directions, as a rule, in a northerly direction, respectively, west-east.

There are several ways to measure angles and distances on the ground.

1. Measuring angles on the ground with binoculars.

In the field of view of the binoculars there are two perpendicular goniometric scales for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. The value (price) of one large division corresponds to 0-10, and the small one - 0-05. To measure the angle between two directions, looking through binoculars, combine any stroke of the angular scale with one of these directions and count the number of divisions to the second direction and count the number of divisions to the second direction. Multiplying, then, this reading by the division price, we get the value of the measured angle in "thousandths".

1. Measuring angles with a ruler.

In some conditions of the situation, a situation may arise when there is no binoculars at hand, then it can measure angular values ​​using a ruler. To do this, you need to hold the ruler in front of you at eye level at a distance of 50 cm. One millimeter of the ruler will correspond to 0-02. The accuracy of measuring angles in this way depends on the ability to maintain distances from the eyes (50 cm), which requires some training.

3. Measuring angles with improvised means.

Instead of a ruler, you can use various objects whose sizes are well known: a matchbox, a pencil, fingers and palms of your hands. You can measure angles with a compass. Measuring angles on the ground is a preparation for determining distances on the ground. Various methods and instruments are used to determine distances on the ground. Often people are forced to determine distances in various ways: by eye or by the measured angular magnitude of objects on the ground, by the speedometer of a car, by measuring steps, by average speed.

EYE - the main way and the easiest way to determine distances, available to everyone. This method does not give high accuracy in determining distances, but with some training, you can achieve an accuracy of up to 10 m. To develop your eye, you need to constantly practice in determining distances on the ground.

One way to measure distances on the ground is to use known distances on the ground (power lines - distance between supports, distance between communication lines, etc.).

For a rough estimate of distances on the ground, the following data can be used:

For each person, this table can be refined by him.

Determination of distances by the angular dimensions of objects is one of the main methods for determining distances and has a fairly high accuracy. To determine distances by angular values, it is necessary to know the linear dimensions of a local object, determine the angle at which it is visible, and then determine the distance to this object using the formula:

D= 1000*B

At

In this formula: D - range

H - height

Y - the angle in "thousandths" under which the object is visible; 1000 - constant coefficient.

Measuring distances in steps.

It is necessary for each commander to know that a person's step is approximately equal to 0.75 m, but it is inconvenient to make calculations at this size and, therefore, it is assumed that a couple of steps are equal to 1.5 m. In this case, it is much more convenient to carry out calculations. With this method, the accuracy of determining distances can be 98%.

It is advisable to determine distances by the speed of movement and by the speedometer of the car in cases of movement. One of the ways to determine distances can be a method by sound, flashes. Knowing that the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s i.e. rounded 1 km. For 3 sec. you can determine the distance by doing a little calculation. In some cases, the distance can be determined by ear, i.e. listening to different sounds. From the experience of assessing the audibility of various sounds, it becomes clear that:

• walking on a dirt road can be heard at a distance of 300 m, and when driving on a highway - 600 m.
• movement of cars on a dirt road - 500 m, on a highway - up to 1000 m.
• Loud screams - 0.5 - 1 km.
• Driving stakes, felling trees - 300-500m.

The given data is very approximate and depends on the hearing of the person.

At the heart of any method of determining distances is the ability to select landmarks on the ground and use them as marks indicating the desired directions, points and boundaries. Landmarks are usually called well-visible objects on the ground and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of targets and other objects. Landmarks are chosen as evenly as possible. The selected landmarks can be numbered by choosing a direction, or given a conventional name. To indicate your location on the ground relative to a landmark, determine the direction and distance from it.

1. TRY TO GET OUT

Getting out as soon as possible is especially important if there are wounded among the lost or if the lost are in a dangerous zone. It is difficult to move among the rubble and windbreaks, in thick forests overgrown with shrubs. The apparent similarity of the environment - trees, terrain folds, etc. - can completely disorient a person, and he often moves in circles, unaware of his mistake.

In order to maintain the chosen direction, some well-marked landmark is usually marked every 100-150 m of the route. This is especially important if the path is blocked by a blockage or a dense thicket of shrubs, which force you to deviate from the direct direction. Trying to go ahead is always fraught with injury, which will aggravate the already difficult situation of the person in distress. But it is especially difficult to make transitions in the swamp zone. It is not easy to find a safe walking path among the shifting green space.

Of particular danger in the swamp are the so-called windows - areas of clear water on the gray-green surface of the swamps. Sometimes their sizes reach tens of meters. It is necessary to overcome the swamp with the utmost care and be sure to arm yourself with a long, strong pole. It is held horizontally at chest level. Having failed, in no case should you flounder. It is necessary to get out slowly, leaning on the pole, without making sudden movements, trying to give the body a horizontal position. For a short rest when crossing the swamp, you can use outcrops of hard rock. Water obstacles, especially rivers with a fast current and a rocky bottom, are overcome without taking off their shoes, for greater stability. Before taking the next step, the bottom is probed with a pole. It is necessary to move obliquely, sideways to the current, so that the stream does not knock you down.

In winter, you can move along the beds of frozen rivers, while observing the necessary precautions. So, it must be remembered that the current usually destroys the ice from below, and it becomes especially thin under snowdrifts near steep banks, that in the channels of rivers with sandy shallows, streaks often form, which, when frozen, turn into a kind of dam. At the same time, water usually finds a way out along the coast under snowdrifts, near snags, rocks, where the current is faster.

In cold weather, the streaks soar, resembling the smoke of human habitation. But much more often, streaks are hidden under deep snow, and they are difficult to detect. Therefore, it is better to bypass all obstacles on the river ice; in places where rivers bend, one must stay away from the steep bank, where the current is faster and therefore the ice is thinner.

Often, after the river freezes, the water level drops so quickly that pockets form under the thin ice, which pose a great danger to pedestrians. On the ice, which seems not strong enough, and there is no other way, they crawl. In spring, the ice is thinnest in areas overgrown with sedge, near flooded bushes.

If there is no firm confidence in the ability to quickly get out of the situation, and the situation does not require immediate departure from the scene, it is better to stay in place, make a fire, build a shelter from improvised materials. This will help you to protect yourself well from the weather and keep your strength for a long time. In addition, in parking conditions it is much easier to get food. In some cases, this tactic will facilitate the actions of the search and rescue service, which received information about the incident in a particular area. Having made the decision to “stay in place”, you need to draw up a plan for further action, in which to provide for the necessary measures.

4BUILD A SHELTER

Organizing an overnight stay is hard work. First you need to find a suitable site. First of all, it must be dry. Secondly, it is best to settle down near the stream, in an open place, in order to always have a supply of water on hand.

The simplest shelter from wind and rain is made by linking individual elements of the base (frame) with thin spruce roots, willow branches, and tundra birch. Natural cavities in the steep bank of the river allow you to comfortably sit on them so that the place of sleep is between the fire and the vertical surface (cliff, rock), which serves as a heat reflector.

When preparing a place to sleep, two holes are dug - under the thigh and under the shoulder. You can spend the night on a bed of spruce branches in a deep hole dug or thawed to the ground with a large fire. Here, in the pit, one should keep the fire in the fire all night long in order to avoid a serious cold. In the winter taiga, where the thickness of the snow cover is significant, it is easier to arrange a shelter in a hole near a tree. In severe frost, you can build a simple snow hut in loose snow. To do this, the snow is raked into a heap, its surface is compacted, watered and allowed to freeze. Then the snow is removed from the pile, and a small hole is made in the remaining dome for the chimney. A fire built inside melts the walls and makes the whole structure strong. Such a hut retains heat. You can not climb under clothes with your head, because from breathing the material becomes damp and freezes. It is better to cover the face with clothes that are easy to dry later. From a burning fire, an accumulation of carbon monoxide is possible and you need to take care of a constant influx of fresh air to the combustion center.

A canopy, a hut, a dugout, a tent can serve as a temporary shelter. The choice of type of shelter will depend on the skill, ability, diligence and, of course, the physical condition of the people, since there is no shortage of building material. However, the more severe the weather, the more reliable and warmer the dwelling should be. Make sure that the future home is spacious enough. There is no need to adhere to the principle of "in close quarters, but not offended."

Before starting construction, it is necessary to clear the site well, and then, having estimated how much building material is needed, prepare it in advance: cut down poles, chop spruce branches, branches, collect moss, cut bark. To make the pieces of bark sufficiently large and strong, deep vertical cuts are made on the larch trunk, up to the very wood, at a distance of 0.5-0.6 m from each other. After that, the strips are cut from above and below with large teeth of 10-12 centimeters in diameter, and then the bark is carefully torn off with an ax or a machete knife.

Rice. 10. Hut, canopy and bonfires: A - combined gable hut and “star” bonfire; B - the simplest canopy and fire "pyramid"

Rice. II. Trench, hut and fire: A - snow trench near a tree; B - gable hut and taiga fire *

Rice. 12. Chum tent

In the warm season, you can limit yourself to building a simple canopy (Fig. 10, B). Two one and a half meter stakes as thick as a hand with forks at the end are driven into the ground at a distance of 2.0-2.5 m from each other. A thick pole is laid on the forks - a load-bearing beam. 5-7 poles are leaned against it at an angle of approximately 45-60 ° and, having secured them with a rope or vine, a tarpaulin, parachute or any other fabric is pulled over it. The edges of the awning are bent from the sides of the canopy and tied to a beam laid in the base of the canopy. Litter is made from spruce branches or dry moss. The canopy is dug in with a shallow groove to protect it from water in case of rain.

A gable hut is more convenient for housing (Fig. 10, A and Fig. 11, B). After driving in the racks and laying the load-bearing beam on them, the poles are laid on it at an angle of 45-60 ° on both sides, and three or four poles are tied to each slope parallel to the ground - rafters. Then, starting from the bottom, spruce branches, branches with dense foliage or pieces of bark are laid on the rafters so that each subsequent layer, like a tile, covers the bottom one to about half. The front part, the entrance, can be hung with a piece of fabric, and the back part is covered with one or two poles and braided with spruce branches.

With a high snow cover at the foot of a large tree, you can dig a “snow trench” (Fig. 11, A). From above, the trench is covered with a tarpaulin or parachute cloth, and the bottom is lined with several layers of spruce branches.

1. GET FIRE

A bonfire in the conditions of autonomous existence is not only warm, it is dry clothes and shoes, hot water and food, protection against midges and an excellent signal for a search helicopter. And most importantly, a fire is an accumulator of cheerfulness, energy and vigorous activity. But before starting a fire, all measures should be taken to prevent a forest fire. This is especially important during dry, hot seasons. A place for a fire is chosen away from coniferous, and especially withered trees. Thoroughly clean the space for a meter and a half around from dry grass, moss and shrubs. If the soil is peaty, then, so that the fire does not penetrate the grass cover and cause the peat to ignite, a “cushion” of sand or earth is poured.

In winter, with a high snow cover, the snow is carefully trampled down, and then a platform is built from several tree trunks.

To get fire you need use a flint and flint, a piece of flint. Any steel object can serve as a flint and flint, in extreme cases, the same iron pyrites. Fire is struck by sliding blows on flint so that sparks fall on tinder - dry moss, crushed dry leaves, newspaper, cotton wool, etc. Fire can be mined friction. For this purpose, a bow, a drill and a support are made: a bow - from a dead trunk of a young birch or hazel 2-3 cm thick and a piece of rope as a bowstring; drill - from a pine stick 25 - 30 cm long, pencil-thick, pointed at one end; the support is cleaned of bark and a hole 1-1.5 cm deep is drilled with a knife. The drill, wrapped once with a bowstring, is inserted with a sharp end into the hole, around which tinder is laid. Then, pressing the drill with the palm of the left hand, the right hand quickly moves the bow perpendicular to the drill. In order not to damage the palm, a gasket is placed between it and the drill from a piece of cloth, tree bark, or a glove is put on. As soon as the tinder smolders, it must be blown up and put into kindling prepared in advance. To achieve success, you should remember three rules: the tinder must be dry, you must act in strict sequence, and most importantly, show patience and perseverance. For cooking and drying clothes, the “hut” fire is most convenient, giving a large, even flame, or “starry” of 5-8 dry trunks arranged star-shaped. They are set on fire in the center and shifted as they burn. For heating during an overnight stay or in cold weather, 3-4 thinner stems are placed in a fan on a thick trunk. Such a fire is called taiga. For heating for a long time they use a fire Node. Two dry trunks are laid one on top of the other and fixed at the ends on both sides with stakes. Wedges are inserted between the trunks and kindling is laid in the clearance. As the wood burns, the ashes and ashes are cleaned from time to time. Leaving the parking lot, smoldering coals must be carefully extinguished by filling them with water or throwing earth. To make fire in the absence of matches or a lighter, you can use one of the methods that have long been known to mankind before their invention.

1. GET FOOD AND WATER

A person who finds himself in conditions of autonomous existence must take the most energetic measures to provide himself with food by collecting edible wild plants, fishing, hunting, i.e. use everything that nature gives. Over 2,000 plants grow on the territory of our country, partially or completely suitable for food. When collecting plant gifts you have to be careful. About 2% of plants can cause severe and even fatal poisoning. To prevent poisoning, it is necessary to distinguish between such poisonous plants as the crow's eye, wolf's bast, poisonous milestone (hemlock), bitter henbane, etc. Food poisoning is caused by poisonous substances contained in some mushrooms: pale grebe, fly agaric, false honey agaric, false chanterelle, etc. It is better to refrain from eating unfamiliar plants, berries, mushrooms. When forced to use them for food, it is recommended to eat no more than 1-2 g of food mass at a time, if possible, drinking plenty of water (vegetable poison contained in such a proportion will not cause serious harm to the body). Wait 1-2 hours. If there are no signs of poisoning (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, intestinal disorders), you can eat an additional 10-15 g. You can eat without restrictions a day later. An indirect sign of the edibility of a plant can be: fruits pecked by birds; many seeds, scraps of peel at the foot of fruit trees; bird droppings on branches, trunks; plants gnawed by animals; fruits found in nests and burrows. Unfamiliar fruits, bulbs, tubers, etc. it is desirable to boil. Cooking destroys many organic poisons.

There are many trees and shrubs that give edible fruits: mountain ash, actinidia, honeysuckle, wild rose, etc. From edible wild plants, you can use the stems and leaves of hogweed and angelica, arrowhead tubers, cattail rhizome, as well as a variety of edible mushrooms. In food, you can use garden or grape snails. They are scalded with boiling water or fried. They taste like mushrooms. Snails without shells - slugs, also need to be boiled or fried first.

Suitable for food are the pupae of single bees in the stems of blackberries, raspberries or elderberries, pupae of the woodcutter beetle, which can be found in stumps, logs, oak logs. The larvae can be eaten after gutting, cutting off the back end and rinsing in water. At the bottom of rivers and lakes in winter there are bivalve shells of toothless and barley, quite suitable for food. In stagnant water, there are snails with a curled shell of coils and pond snails. Ant pupae or, as they are called, ant eggs are a high-calorie food source. In the warm season, ant eggs, similar to white or yellowish rice grains, are found in abundance in anthills near the surface. To collect "prey" near the anthill, in a site lit by the sun, they clear a site 1 X 1 m and spread a piece of cloth on it, wrapping the edges and placing a few small branches under the bottom. Then the upper part of the anthill is torn off and scattered in a thin layer on the fabric. After 20-30 minutes, the ants drag all the pupae under the wrapped edges of the fabric, saving them from the sun. In conditions of autonomous existence fishing, perhaps the most affordable way to provide yourself with food. Fish has a higher energy value than vegetable fruits, and is less labor intensive than hunting. Fishing tackle can be made from improvised materials: fishing line - from loose shoelaces, thread pulled out of clothes, untwisted rope, hooks - from pins, earrings, hairpins from badges, "invisible", and spinners - from metal and mother-of-pearl buttons, coins and etc.

It is permissible to eat fish meat raw, but it is better to cut it into narrow strips, dry them in the sun, so it will become tastier and last longer. In order to avoid fish poisoning, certain rules must be observed. You can not eat fish covered with spines, spikes, sharp growths, skin ulcers, fish that are not covered with scales, devoid of lateral fins, having neo

Topic No. 12 "Basics of survival in various emergency situations"

Class:

Actions of the population in a natural disaster.

Natural emergencies

Natural disasters are usually unexpected. In a short time they destroy territories, dwellings, communications, and bring hunger and disease in their wake.

In recent years, emergencies of natural origin have been on the rise. In all cases of earthquakes, floods, landslides, their destructive power increases.

Natural emergencies are divided into: geological, meteorological, hydrological, natural fires, biological and space.

Natural emergencies are subject to some general patterns:

Each type of emergency is facilitated by a certain spatial confinement;

The more intense the dangerous natural phenomenon, the less often it happens;

Each emergency of natural origin has predecessors - specific features;

The appearance of a natural emergency, for all its unexpectedness, can be predicted;

It is often possible to provide for both passive and active protection measures against natural hazards.

The role of anthropogenic influence on the manifestation of natural emergencies is great. Human activity disturbs the balance in the natural environment. Now, when the scale of the use of natural resources has sharply increased, the features of the global ecological crisis have become very noticeable. An important preventive factor that makes it possible to reduce the number of natural emergencies is the observance of natural balance.

All natural disasters are interconnected, these are earthquakes and tsunamis, tropical cyclones and floods, volcanic eruptions and fires, poisoning of pastures, death of livestock.

Taking protective measures against natural disasters, it is necessary to minimize the secondary consequences, and with the help of appropriate training, if possible, eliminate them completely.

The study of the causes and mechanisms of natural emergencies is a prerequisite for successful protection against them, the possibility of their prediction. An accurate and timely forecast is an important condition for effective protection against hazardous phenomena.

Protection from natural phenomena can be active (construction of engineering structures, reconstruction of natural objects, etc.) and passive (use of shelters),

Natural disasters associated with geological natural phenomena include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, snow avalanches, landslides, precipitation of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes are underground shocks and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from tectonic processes, transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. Earthquakes can cause volcanic activity, the fall of small celestial bodies, collapses, dam breaks, and other causes.

The causes of earthquakes are not fully understood. Stresses arising under the action of deep tectonic forces deform the layers of earth rocks. They shrink into folds, and when overloads reach critical levels, they tear and mix. A break in the earth's crust is formed, which is accompanied by a series of shocks and the number of shocks, and the intervals between them are very different. Shocks include foreshocks, mainshock and aftershocks. The main push has the greatest force. People perceive it as very long, although it usually lasts a few seconds.

As a result of research, psychiatrists and psychologists have obtained data that often aftershocks have a much more severe mental impact on people than the main shock. There is a feeling of inevitability of trouble, a person is inactive, while he should defend himself.

The focus of an earthquake is a certain volume in the thickness of the Earth, within which energy is released. The center of the focus is a conditional point - the hypocenter or focus. The epicenter of an earthquake is the projection of the hypocenter onto the Earth's surface. The greatest destruction occurs around the epicenter, in the pleistoseist region.

The energy of earthquakes is estimated by magnitude (lat. value). The magnitude of an earthquake is a conditional value that characterizes the total amount of energy released in the earthquake source. The strength of the earthquake is estimated according to the international seismic scale MSK - 64 (Merkalli scale). It has 12 conditional gradations - points.

Earthquakes are predicted by registering and analyzing their "predecessors" - foreshocks (preliminary weak shocks), deformation of the earth's surface, changes in the parameters of geophysical fields, and changes in the behavior of animals. Until now, unfortunately, there are no methods for reliable earthquake prediction. The time frame for the beginning of an earthquake can be 1-2 years, and the accuracy of predicting the location of an earthquake varies from tens to hundreds of kilometers. All this reduces the effectiveness of earthquake protection measures.

In seismically hazardous areas, the design and construction of buildings and structures is carried out taking into account the possibility of earthquakes. Earthquakes of 7 points and above are considered dangerous for structures, so construction in areas with a 9-point seismicity is uneconomical.

Rocky soils are considered the most reliable in seismic terms. The stability of structures during earthquakes depends on the quality of building materials and work. There are requirements to limit the size of buildings, as well as requirements to take into account the relevant rules and regulations (SP and N), which boil down to strengthening the structure of structures built in seismic zones.

Antiseismic measures are divided into two groups:

Preventive, preventive measures are the study of the nature of earthquakes, the determination of their predecessors, the development of methods for predicting earthquakes;

Activities that are carried out immediately before the start of an earthquake, during it and after it ends. The effectiveness of actions in earthquake conditions depends on the level of organization of rescue operations, the training of the population and the effectiveness of the warning system.

A very dangerous immediate consequence of an earthquake is panic, during which people, out of fear, cannot meaningfully take measures for salvation and mutual assistance. Panic is especially dangerous in crowded places - at enterprises, in educational institutions and in public places.

Death and injury occur when debris from destroyed buildings falls, as well as as a result of people being in the rubble and not receiving timely assistance. Earthquakes can cause fires, explosions, emissions of hazardous substances, traffic accidents and other dangerous phenomena.

Volcanic activity is the result of active processes that constantly occur in the bowels of the Earth. Volcanism is a set of phenomena that are associated with the movement of magma in the earth's crust and on its surface. Magma (Greek thick ointment) is a molten mass of silicate composition, which is formed in the depths of the Earth. When magma reaches the earth's surface, it erupts as lava. Lava does not contain gases that escape during an eruption. This is what distinguishes it from magma.

Volcanoes are divided into active, dormant and extinct volcanoes. Three main types of eruptions are known: effusive (Hawaiian), mixed (Strombolian) and extrusive (dome).

Volcanic activity and earthquakes are interconnected: seismic shocks mark the beginning of an eruption. Volcanic activity initiates landslides, collapses, avalanches, tsunamis (on the seas and oceans).

Landslides are the displacement of soil masses along the slope under the influence of gravity. Rocks sliding down form the slopes of hills, mountains, river and sea terraces. Landslides are caused by natural and artificial causes. Natural causes: undermining of slope bases by water, increase in steepness of slopes, seismic tremors, etc.

Artificial causes: improper agricultural practices, deforestation, too much soil removal, etc. Modern landslides are 80% related to the anthropogenic factor.

In the mechanism of the landslide process, landslides, shears, extrusion, and hydrodynamic removal are distinguished. Landslides are distinguished by the depth of surface slip: surface (up to 1m), shallow (up to 5m), deep (up to 20m), very deep (more than 20m). According to the speed of displacement, landslides are divided into slow, medium and fast. It is the latter of them that are the cause of disasters with many victims. The scale of landslides is determined by the area involved in the process. In terms of thickness, landslides are determined by the volume of shifting rocks - from several hundred cubic meters to 1 million m3.

Mudflows are violent floods on mountain rivers, mud-stone flows caused by heavy rains, washings of reservoir dams, intensive snowmelt, earthquakes. Anthropogenic factors also contribute to the occurrence of mudflows. The high speed of mud streams (15 km/h) is the main danger. Mudflows are divided into strong, medium and weak flows according to their power. Mudflows are characterized by linear dimensions, volume, density, structure, speed of movement, duration, repeatability.

To prevent mudflows, mudflow-retaining and mudflow-directing hydraulic structures are built, the vegetation layer is fixed on mountain slopes, and other anti-mudflow measures are carried out.

A variety of landslides are snow avalanches, a mixture of snow and air crystals. These huge masses of snow sliding down the mountain slopes claim about 100 human lives every year in Europe. Avalanches can be caused by earthquakes. Avalanches according to the nature of movement are divided into slope, flume and jumping. The large kinetic energy contained in an avalanche has tremendous destructive power. On mountain treeless slopes at 30-400C, the most optimal conditions for the formation of avalanches are created. The speed of avalanches can reach from 20 to 100 m/sec. Predicting the exact time of avalanches is impossible.

Preventive measures are divided into passive and active.

Passive methods include the construction of dams, avalanche cutters, snow guards, and planting forests.

Active methods include artificially provoking an avalanche in a certain place and at the right time. This is the shelling of avalanches with projectiles and directional explosions, as well as the use of strong sound sources.

Meteorological emergencies are caused by the following reasons:

Wind, storm, hurricane, tornado;

heavy rain;

Large hail;

Heavy snowfall;

Blizzards at speeds above 15m/s;

frosts;

Frost and heat.

Wind is the movement of air relative to the earth. Air moves from an area of ​​high pressure to an area of ​​low pressure.

Uneven heating leads to atmospheric circulation, which affects the weather and climate of the planet. The direction of the wind is divided by the azimuth of the side of the horizon from which it blows, measured in m / s, km / h, in knots or points on the Beaufort scale. It was accepted in 1963. World Meteorological Organization.

The cyclic activity of the atmosphere is the main cause of hurricanes, storms and tornadoes. The atmosphere is divided into troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere, depending on the temperature distribution.

An area of ​​low pressure in the atmosphere with a minimum in the center is called a cyclone. In diameter, it can reach several thousand kilometers, and the speed of its movement is from 30 to 200 km / h. Cyclones are divided according to their origin into tropical and extratropical. The cyclone has the following structure:

Its central part, where the lowest pressure, weak winds and cloudiness, is called the "eye of the storm (hurricane)";

The outer part of the cyclone, where the maximum pressure, hurricane speeds of air flows - the "wall of the cyclone", giving way to the peripheral part, in which the pressure of the atmosphere sharply decreases and the winds weaken.

In the Northern Hemisphere in a cyclone, air masses move counterclockwise, in the Southern Hemisphere - clockwise. During a cyclone, cloudy weather with strong winds prevails.

A hurricane (typhoon) is a wind of great destructive power and long duration. Its speed is 32 m / s or more (on the Beaufort scale - 12 points). Hurricanes are subdivided depending on the place of occurrence of cyclones into extratropical and tropical. Tropical hurricanes move mainly in a meridional direction, while extratropical hurricanes move from west to east.

Hurricanes occur at any time of the year, but in Russia they pass mainly in August and September. A certain cyclicity of their origin contributes to their more accurate forecasting. Forecasters give names to hurricanes, mostly female, or use a four-digit numbering.

Hurricanes are accompanied by showers, snowfalls, hail, electrical discharges. They can cause dust and snow storms.

A storm (storm) is a very strong and continuous wind with a speed of 20 m/s. Storms bring much less destruction and damage than hurricanes.

Storms are vortex and stream.

Vortex storms are caused by cyclonic activity and spread over large areas.

Among the vortex storms, dust, snow and squalls are distinguished.

Dust (sand) storms occur in deserts, in plowed steppes and are accompanied by the transfer of huge masses of soil and sand.

Snowstorms move large masses of snow through the air. They operate on a strip from several kilometers to several tens of kilometers. Snow storms of great strength occur in the steppe part of Siberia and on the plains of the European part of the Russian Federation. In Russia in winter, snow storms are called snowstorms, blizzards, snowstorms.

Flurries are short-term wind amplifications up to a speed of 20-30 m/s. They are characterized by a sudden beginning and the same sudden end, a short duration of action and great destructive power.

Squall storms operate in the European part of Russia both on land and at sea.

Stream storms are local phenomena with a small distribution. They are divided into stock and jet. During katabatic storms, air masses move down the slope from top to bottom.

Jet storms are characterized by horizontal or upslope air movement. Most often they occur between chains of mountains that connect valleys.

A tornado (tornado) is an atmospheric vortex that occurs in a thundercloud. Then it spreads in the form of a dark "sleeve" towards land or sea. The upper part of the tornado has a funnel-shaped extension that merges with the clouds. When a tornado descends to the Earth's surface, its lower part sometimes expands, resembling an overturned funnel. The height of the tornado is from 800 to 1500m. Rotating counterclockwise at a speed of up to 100 m/s and rising in a spiral, the air in the tornado draws dust or water. The decrease in pressure inside the tornado leads to the condensation of water vapor. Water and dust make the tornado visible. Its diameter above the sea is measured in tens of meters, and above land - hundreds of meters.

According to the structure, tornadoes are divided into dense (sharply limited) and vague (indistinctly limited); in time and spatial effect - on small tornadoes of mild action (up to 1 km), small (up to 10 km) and hurricane whirlwinds (more than 10 km).

Hurricanes, storms, tornadoes are extremely powerful elemental forces, in their destructive effect they are comparable only to an earthquake. It is very difficult to predict the place and time of the appearance of a tornado, which makes them especially dangerous and does not allow predicting their consequences.

Hydrological disasters are caused by the following reasons:

Too high water level - floods, in which part of the settlements and crops are flooded, damage to transport and industrial facilities;

Too low water level, which disrupts the navigation and water supply of cities;

Snow avalanches;

Early freezing, the appearance of ice on navigable waterways.

This group of emergencies includes marine hydrological phenomena - tsunamis, storms, ice pressure, their intense drift.

Floods. There are such basic concepts as high water, high water and flood.

High water is an annual recurring seasonal rise in the water level.

A flood is a short-term and non-periodic increase in the water level in a river or reservoir.

Floods following one after another can cause floods, and the last floods.

Flooding is one of the most common natural hazards. They arise from a sharp increase in the amount of water in the rivers as a result of the melting of snow or glaciers, due to heavy rains. Floods are often accompanied by blockage of the river bed during ice drift (jam) or blockage of the river bed by an ice plug under a fixed ice cover (jamming).

On sea coasts, floods can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. Floods caused by the action of winds that drive water from the sea and raise the water level due to its retention at the mouth of the river are called surge floods.

Experts believe that people are in danger of flooding if the water layer reaches 1m and its flow speed is more than 1m/s. If the rise of water reaches 3 m, this leads to the destruction of houses.

Flooding can occur even when there is no wind. It can be caused by long waves arising in the sea under the influence of a cyclone. In St. Petersburg, the islands in the Neva delta have been flooded since 1703. more than 260 times.

Floods on rivers differ in the height of the water rise, the area of ​​flooding and the magnitude of damage: low (small), high (medium), outstanding (large), catastrophic. Low floods can be repeated in 10-15 years, high ones in 20-25 years, outstanding ones in 50-100 years, catastrophic ones in 100-200 years.

They can last from several to 100 days.

The flood in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, which happened 5600 years ago, had very serious consequences. In the Bible, the flood was called the Flood.

Tsunamis are marine gravity waves of great length, resulting from shifts of large sections of the bottom during underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other tectonic processes. In the area of ​​their occurrence, waves reach a height of 1-5 m, near the coast - up to 10 m, and in bays and river valleys - more than 50 m. Tsunamis propagate inland to a distance of up to 3 km. The coast of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is the main area of ​​tsunami manifestation. They produce very large destruction and pose a threat to people.

Breakwaters, embankments, harbors and jetties protect against tsunamis only partially. On the high seas, tsunamis are not dangerous for ships.

Protection of the population from tsunamis - warnings of special services about the approach of waves, based on advanced registration of earthquakes by coastal seismographs.

Forest, steppe, peat, underground fires are called landscape or natural fires. Forest fires are the most common, causing huge losses and leading to human casualties.

Forest fires are uncontrolled burning of vegetation, which spontaneously spreads through the forest area. In dry weather, the forest dries up so much that any careless handling of fire can cause a fire. In most cases, the culprit of the fire is a person. Forest fires are classified according to the nature of the fire, the speed of propagation and the size of the area covered by the fire.

Depending on the nature of the fire and the composition of the forest, fires are divided into grassroots, riding and soil fires. At the beginning of their development, all fires are ground fires, and when certain conditions arise, they turn into crown or soil fires. Mounted fires are subdivided according to the parameters of the edge advancement (burning band bordering the outer contour of the fire) into weak, medium and strong. Ground and crown fires are divided into stable and runaway fires according to the speed of fire spread.

Peatlands burn without a flame, with the accumulation of a large amount of heat. Peat fires continue for a very long time, it is difficult to extinguish them.

Methods of fighting forest fires. The main conditions for the effectiveness of fighting forest fires are the assessment and forecast of fire danger in the forest. State forestry authorities control the state of protection in the territory of the forest fund.

To organize fire extinguishing, it is necessary to determine the type of fire, its characteristics, the direction of its spread, natural barriers (places that are especially dangerous for intensifying the fire), the forces and means necessary to fight it.

When extinguishing a forest fire, the following main stages are distinguished: stopping, localization, extinguishing the fire and guarding the fire (preventing the possibility of catching fire from unexplained sources of combustion).

There are two main methods of fighting a fire according to the nature of the impact on the combustion process: direct and indirect fire extinguishing.

The first method is used when extinguishing ground fires of medium and low intensity with a propagation speed of up to 2m/min. and flame height up to 1.5m. An indirect method of extinguishing a fire in a forest is based on the creation of protective strips along the path of its spread.

Biological emergencies include epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties.

Epidemic - a widespread infectious disease among people, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given area.

A pandemic is an unusually large spread of morbidity both in terms of level and scale of distribution, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.

All infectious diseases are divided into four groups:

intestinal infections;

Respiratory tract infections (aerosol);

Blood (transmissible);

Infections of the outer integument (contact).

Epizootics. Infectious animal diseases are a group of diseases that have such common features as the presence of a specific pathogen, the cyclical nature of development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one, and to take on epizootic spread.

All infectious diseases of animals are divided into five groups:

The first group - alimentary infections, are transmitted through soil, feed, water. The organs of the digestive system are mainly affected. Pathogens are transmitted through infected feed, soil, manure. Such infections include anthrax, foot and mouth disease, glanders, brucellosis.

The second group - respiratory infections - damage to the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and lungs. These include: parainfluenza, exotic pneumonia, sheep and goat pox, canine distemper.

The third group is transmissible infections, the mechanism of their transmission is carried out with the help of blood-sucking arthropods. These include: encephalomyelitis, tularemia, infectious anemia of horses.

The fourth group is infections, the pathogens of which are transmitted through the outer integument without the participation of carriers. These include: tetanus, rabies, cowpox.

The fifth group - infections with unexplained ways of damage, i.e. unqualified group.

Epiphytotics. To assess the scale of plant diseases, such concepts as epiphytoty and panphytoty are used.

Epiphytoty is the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a certain period of time.

Panphytotia is a mass disease covering several countries or continents.

Plant diseases are classified according to the following criteria:

Place or phase of plant development (diseases of seeds, seedlings, seedlings, adult plants);

Place of manifestation (local, local, general);

Current (acute, chronic);

Affected culture;

Cause (infectious, non-infectious).

Space is one of the elements that influence earthly life. Dangers threatening from outer space:

Asteroids are small planets whose diameter ranges from 1-1000 km. Currently, about 300 space bodies are known that can cross the Earth's orbit. In total, according to the forecasts of astronomers, there are approximately 300 thousand in space. asteroids and comets.

The meeting of our planet with celestial bodies poses a serious threat to the entire biosphere. Calculations show that the impact of an asteroid with a diameter of about 1 km is accompanied by the release of energy ten times greater than the entire nuclear potential available on Earth.

It is supposed to develop a system of planetary protection against asteroids and comets, which is based on two principles of protection, namely, changing the trajectory of dangerous space objects or destroying it into several parts.

Solar radiation has a huge impact on earthly life.

Solar radiation acts as a powerful health-improving and preventive factor, at the same time it poses a rather serious danger, excessive solar radiation leads to the development of severe erythema with skin edema and deterioration in health. Special literature describes cases of skin cancer in people who are constantly exposed to excessive solar radiation.

Actions of the population in a natural disaster

To attract attention in emergency cases, sirens, as well as other signaling means, are turned on before the transmission of information. Sirens and intermittent beeps of enterprises, vehicles mean the civil defense signal "Attention to all." In this case, it is necessary to immediately turn on the loudspeaker, radio or television receiver and listen to the message of the civil defense headquarters. With the threat of an earthquake, such a message may begin with the words:

"Attention! Says the headquarters of the civil defense of the city.. Citizens! Due to the possibility...

People actions:

A) with a warning signal:

"Attention everyone!" (sirens, intermittent beeps)

Upon hearing the “Attention everyone!” signal, people need to do the following:

Immediately turn on the radio or TV to listen to the emergency messages of the civil defense headquarters.

Inform neighbors and relatives about what happened, bring the children home and act in accordance with the information you receive.

If evacuation is necessary, follow these guidelines:

Pack in a small suitcase (or backpack) essentials, documents, money, valuables;

Pour water into a container with a tight-fitting lid, prepare canned and dry food;

Prepare the apartment for conservation (close windows, balconies; turn off the supply of gas, water, electricity, put out the fire in the stoves; prepare a second copy of the keys for delivery to the REP; take the necessary clothing and personal protective equipment);

Help the elderly and sick living in the neighborhood.

The population living in landslide, mudflow, collapse and avalanche zones should know the sources, possible directions and characteristics of these dangerous phenomena. On the basis of forecasts, residents are provided with information in advance about the danger of landslide, mudflow, landslide centers and possible zones of their action, as well as about the procedure for signaling danger. This reduces the impact of stress and panic that can arise from the transmission of emergency information about an imminent threat.

The population of dangerous mountainous regions is obliged to take care of strengthening the houses and the territory on which they are built, to participate in the construction of protective hydraulic and other engineering structures.

Primary information about the threat of landslides, mudflows and collapses comes from landslide and mudflow stations, parties and posts of the hydrometeorological service. It is important that this information be brought to the destination in a timely manner. The notification of the population about natural disasters is carried out in the prescribed manner by means of sirens, radio, television, as well as local warning systems that directly connect the subdivisions of the hydrometeorological service, the Ministry of Emergency Situations with settlements located in dangerous zones.

If there is a threat of a landslide, mudflow or collapse, an early evacuation of the population, farm animals and property to safe places is organized.

Houses or apartments abandoned by residents are brought into a state that helps to reduce the consequences of a natural disaster and the possible impact of secondary factors, facilitating their excavation and restoration later. Therefore, the transferred property from the yard or balcony must be removed into the house, the most valuable thing that cannot be taken with you, sheltered from moisture and dirt. Close doors, windows, ventilation and other openings tightly. Turn off electricity, gas, water. Remove flammable and toxic substances from the house and place in remote pits or separate cellars. In all other respects, you should proceed in accordance with the procedure established for organized evacuation.

In the event that there was no advance warning of the danger and the residents were warned about the threat immediately before the onset of a natural disaster or noticed its approach themselves, everyone, not caring about property, makes an emergency exit to a safe place on their own. At the same time, relatives, neighbors, all people meeting along the way should be warned about the danger. For an emergency exit, you need to know the directions of movement to the nearest safe places. These paths are determined and communicated to the population on the basis of the forecast of the most probable directions of the arrival of a landslide (mudflow) to a given settlement (object).

Avalanche actions

Before the avalanche struck!

Going to the mountains, you need to familiarize yourself with the maps of avalanche hazards and consult with experts.

After heavy snowfalls, it is necessary to postpone the exits to the mountains for 2 - 3 days, waiting until the avalanches come down, or the snow settles. When declaring an avalanche danger, one should generally refrain from hiking in the mountains.

If you still find yourself in the mountains, then in no case go out onto steep snowy slopes, but move only along roads and well-found paths at the bottom of valleys and along ridges.

You can not go to the snow cornices, cross the slopes across or move along them in a zigzag. As a last resort, go down the slope along the line of falling water - "on the forehead." Immediately return to a safe place if you feel that the snow layer under your feet is sagging and you hear a characteristic hissing sound.

If you need to cross a steep snowy slope, you must:

Check the stability of the snow cover. Coming to the edge of the slope with insurance,

Post an observer over the top of the slope,

Zip up clothes, loosen avalanche cords, remove hands from lanyards of ski poles, loosen backpack straps,

Cross the slope strictly one track after the next.

When organizing an overnight stay, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of avalanches coming down from both sides of the valley. Do not stop in avalanche areas.

Actions of the population in the danger zone

Observe the basic rules of conduct in avalanche areas:

Do not go to the mountains in snowfall and bad weather;

Being in the mountains, monitor the weather;

Going out into the mountains, know in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bhis path or walk the places of possible avalanches.

Avoid areas where avalanches may occur. They most often descend from slopes with a steepness of more than 30 ', if the slope is without bushes and trees - with a steepness of more than 20 '. With a steepness of more than 45 ', avalanches come down almost every snowfall.

In conditions of the threat of avalanches, control over the accumulation of snow in avalanche-prone directions is organized, artificial descent of emerging avalanches is caused, protective structures are built in avalanche-prone directions, rescue equipment is prepared and rescue operations are planned.

If the avalanche breaks high enough, quickly move or run out of the path of the avalanche to a safe place or take cover behind a rock ledge, in a recess (you cannot hide behind young trees). If it is impossible to get away from the avalanche, get rid of things, take a horizontal position, pulling your knees to your stomach and orienting your body in the direction of the avalanche. Close the nose and mouth with a mitten, scarf, collar; moving in an avalanche, with swimming movements of the hands try to stay on the surface of the avalanche, moving to the edge, where the speed is lower. When the avalanche has stopped, try to create space around your face and chest to help you breathe. If possible, move towards the top (the top can be determined with the help of saliva, allowing it to flow out of the mouth). Once in an avalanche, do not scream - the snow completely absorbs sounds, and screams and senseless movements will only deprive you of strength, oxygen and heat. Don't lose your temper, don't let yourself fall asleep.

Actions after an avalanche

Report by any means about what happened to the administration of the nearest settlement and start searching and rescuing the victims.

Having got out from under the snow on your own or with the help of rescuers, inspect your body and, if necessary, help yourself. When you reach the nearest settlement, report the incident to the local administration. Contact a first-aid post or a doctor, even if you think you are healthy. Then proceed as directed by the doctor or the head of the rescue team.

Inform your family and friends about your condition and whereabouts.

If your companion got into an avalanche!

Try to trace the path of his movement in the avalanche. After it stops, if there is no danger of another avalanche, start looking for a comrade down from the place where you last saw him. As a rule, the victim lies between the point of disappearance and the location of the lightest items of his equipment.

Having found the victim, first of all, free his Head and chest from snow, clear the airways, and then provide him with first medical aid.

If within half an hour it was not possible to find the victim on their own, it is necessary to call a rescue team.

Actions during the convergence of mudflows and landslides.

Usually, the places where mudflows can go are known. Before going to the mountains, you need to study these places on the route of your movement and avoid them, especially after heavy rains. Always remember that it is almost impossible to escape if caught in a mudflow. You can save yourself from a mudflow only by avoiding it.

Before leaving the house, in case of early evacuation, turn off electricity, gas and water supply. Close doors, windows and ventilation openings tightly.

Hearing the noise of an approaching mudflow, you should immediately rise from the bottom of the hollow up the drain, at least 50-100 m. At the same time, you need to remember that stones of great weight that threaten life can be thrown out of the roaring stream for long distances.

To provide assistance to the victims and assistance to the formations and bodies that sort out the blockages and drifts along the path of the mudflow and in the places where the main mass of the mudflow is removed.

If you are injured, try to get yourself first aid. The affected areas of the body, if possible, should be kept in an elevated position, apply ice (wet matter) to them, a pressure bandage. Contact a doctor.

In case of capture of someone by a moving stream of mudflow, it is necessary to provide assistance to the victim by all available means. Such means may be poles, ropes or ropes supplied to the rescued. It is necessary to take the rescued out of the stream in the direction of the stream with a gradual approach to its edge.

During landslides, it is possible for people to fall under the ground, to strike and injure them with falling objects, building structures, and trees. In these cases, it is necessary to quickly provide assistance to the victims, if necessary, give them artificial respiration.

In a sudden earthquake

Well, in this case, when the danger is too close and the earthquake threatens your life, you must:

At the first push, try to immediately leave the building within 15-20 seconds up the stairs or through the windows of the first floor (it is dangerous to use the elevator). Going downstairs, on the go knock on the doors of neighboring apartments, loudly notifying the neighbors about the need to leave the building. If you stayed in the apartment, stand in the doorway or in the corner of the room (near the main wall), away from windows, lamps, cabinets, hanging shelves and mirrors. Beware of pieces of plaster, glass, bricks, etc. falling on you, hide under a table or bed, turn away from the window and cover your head with your hands, avoid going out onto the balcony.

As soon as the tremors subside, immediately leave the building up the stairs, pressing your back against the wall. Try to turn off the gas, water, electricity, take a first-aid kit with you, the necessary things, close the door with a key. Do not let your actions cause panic.

If there are children and the elderly in neighboring apartments, break open the doors and help them get out into the street, give first aid to the wounded, call an ambulance at the payphone, or send a messenger to the nearest hospital for a doctor.

If an earthquake catches you driving, stop immediately (preferably in an open area) and get out of the car before the aftershocks end. In public transport, stay in your seats and ask the driver to open the doors; after tremors, calmly leave the salon without crushing.

Together with your neighbors, take part in clearing debris and extracting victims from under the rubble of buildings, using personal vehicles, crowbars, shovels, car jacks and other improvised means to extract them.

If it is impossible to remove people from the rubble by yourself, immediately report this to the headquarters for the elimination of the consequences of the earthquake (the nearest fire station, police station, military unit, etc.) for assistance. Dismantle the rubble until you are sure that there are no people under them. To detect victims, use all possible methods, locate people by voice and knock. After rescuing people and providing first aid, immediately send them on passing cars to the hospital.

Keep calm and order yourself, demand it from others. Together with your neighbors, stop the spread of panic rumors, all cases of robbery, looting, and other violations of the law, listen to messages on the local radio. If your house is destroyed, go to the collection point for medical and material assistance along the middle of the streets and bypassing buildings, poles and power lines.

Actions of the population during floods

During floods, people, agricultural and wild animals die, buildings, structures, communications are destroyed or damaged, other material and cultural values ​​are lost, economic activity is interrupted, crops die, fertile soils are washed away or flooded, the landscape changes, the sanitary and epidemiological situation is complicated. Flooding can occur suddenly and last from a few hours to 2-3 weeks. If your area is affected by floods, study and remember the boundaries of possible flooding, as well as elevated, rarely flooded places located in the immediate vicinity of where you live, and the shortest routes to them. Familiarize family members with the rules of conduct for organized and individual evacuation in the event of a sudden and rapidly developing flood, as well as the places where boats, rafts and building materials for their manufacture are stored. Make a list of documents, valuables, medicines, warm clothes, food supplies, water taken out during the evacuation in advance, and put everything in a special suitcase or backpack.

The signal "Attention everyone!", Transmitted by sirens, intermittent beeps of enterprises and vehicles, can warn of flooding. When you hear the signal, turn on the radio, TV (local program guide) and listen to the information and instructions to the public (diagram 1 and diagram 2). In the message about the threat of flooding, in addition to hydrometeorological data, they indicate the expected time of flooding, the boundaries of the flooded territory according to the forecast, the procedure for the population to act in case of flooding and evacuation.

An example of a flood report

Attention! Says the Main Directorate of EMERCOM of Russia in the Voronezh region.

Citizens! Due to the rise in the water level in the Don River, flooding of houses in the area of ​​Solnechnaya, Sadovaya, Cherry streets is expected. The population living on these streets must collect the necessary things, food and water, turn off gas and electricity, go to the Sokolovaya Gora area to evacuate to a safe zone.

Public actions for early warning of floods

1. Turn on the TV, radio, listen to the recommendations.

2. Turn off water, gas, electricity, put out the fire in the stove.

3. Create a supply of food and water in an airtight container.

4. Strengthen (hammer) the windows, doors of the lower floors.

5. Move your valuables to the upper floors.

6. Take the necessary things and documents. Follow the evacuation point.

Upon receipt of information about the beginning of the evacuation, you should quickly pack up and take with you: a package with documents and money, a first-aid kit; a three-day supply of food, bed linen and toiletries; a set of outerwear and shoes. All evacuees are required to arrive at the evacuation point by the set date to be registered and sent to a safe area. Depending on the current situation, the population is evacuated by vehicles specially allocated for this purpose or on foot. Upon arrival at the final destination, registration is carried out and transportation to accommodation places for temporary residence is organized.

In case of a flash flood (Scheme 3), it is recommended to take the nearest safe elevated place as soon as possible and be ready for an organized evacuation by water using various watercraft or on foot along the fords. In such an environment, one should not succumb to panic, lose self-control. It is necessary to take measures to allow rescuers to timely detect people cut off by water and in need of help. In the daytime, this is achieved by hanging a white or colored cloth on a high place, and at night - by giving light signals. Until the arrival of help, people who find themselves in the flood zone should remain on the upper floors and roofs of buildings, trees and other elevated places. Usually, staying in a flood zone lasts until the water subsides or help arrives.

Actions of the population in the event of a flash flood

Before help arrives

1. Evacuate to the nearest safe place.

2. Prepare boats or build a raft from improvised materials in case of forced self-evacuation.

3. Stay in the nearest safe place until the water runs out.

4. In the daytime, hang out a white or colored banner, at night, give light signals.

In case of forced self-evacuation 1. Quickly take the nearest high ground.

2. For evacuation, use a raft from improvised means.

3. Evacuate only when the rising water level threatens your safety.

The most important rule for people who find themselves in a flooded area is not to eat food that has come into contact with incoming water, and not to drink unboiled water. Use wet electrical appliances only after thorough drying. People standing in water or in a damp room are prohibited from touching electrical wiring or electrical appliances.

Self-evacuation to an unflooded area is carried out only in hopeless situations - if it is necessary to provide emergency medical care to the victims, when water threatens your safety and there is no hope for rescuers. Lack of food (even for a long time) cannot be considered a valid reason for the risk of self-evacuation.

The decision on self-evacuation must be carefully thought out and well prepared: watercraft, protection from the cold, route and consideration of the situation (current, rise or fall of water, no signs of rescue activity, etc.).

If you find yourself in the water as a result of the flood, do not lose your temper. Diagram 4 describes the order of your actions.

Actions of a person in the water

Hold on to floating objects.

Tie a raft out of floating objects and climb onto it.

If there is a risk of drowning (no foot contact with the bottom), take off heavy clothing and shoes.

Push away dangerous objects with sharp protruding parts

Swim to the nearest realistically reachable unflooded area, taking into account the current drift, moving at an angle to it.

After the water subsides, you should beware of torn and sagging electrical wires. Products and supplies of drinking water that have fallen into the water must be checked by representatives of the sanitary inspection before use, and the existing wells with water must be drained by pumping. Before entering a house (or building) after a flood, you should make sure that its structures have not undergone obvious damage and do not pose a danger. Then it needs to be ventilated for several minutes by opening the front doors or windows. When inspecting interior rooms, it is not recommended to use matches or lamps as a light source due to the possible presence of gas in the air; for these purposes, battery-powered electric lights should be used. Before checking the condition of the electrical network by specialists, it is forbidden to use sources of electricity for lighting or other needs. After opening all doors and windows, removing debris and excess moisture, dry the building.

Actions of the population in industrial accidents and catastrophes.

Industrial accidents and disasters

An accident is damage to a machine, machine tool, equipment, building, structure. There are accidents at public utility networks, industrial enterprises. If these incidents are not so significant and did not entail serious human casualties, they are usually classified as accidents.

A catastrophe is a major accident with a large loss of life, i.e. An event with very tragic consequences. The main criterion in distinguishing between accidents and catastrophes is the severity of the consequences and the presence of human casualties. As a result of industrial accidents, explosions and fires are possible, and their consequences are destruction and damage to buildings, machinery and equipment, flooding of the territory, failure of communication lines, energy and utility networks. They are most frequent at enterprises that produce, use or store emergency chemically hazardous substances (AHOV). The consequences of accidents are explosions and fires.

During explosions, the shock wave not only leads to destruction, but also to human casualties. The degree and nature of the destruction depends, in addition to the power of the explosion, on the technical condition of the structures, the nature of the building and the terrain. Which businesses are most likely to experience explosions? Where hydrocarbon gases (methane, ethane, propane) are used in large quantities. Boilers in boiler houses, gas equipment, products and semi-finished products of chemical plants, vapors of gasoline and other components, flour in mills, dust in elevators, powdered sugar in sugar factories, wood dust in woodworking enterprises explode.

Explosions are possible in residential areas when people forget to turn off the gas. Explosions on gas pipelines occur with poor control over their condition and compliance with safety requirements during their operation, as happened in Bashkortostan on July 3, 1989. A mixture of propane, methane and gasoline exploded. The flames instantly covered a huge area. There were two passenger oncoming trains in the fiery cauldron. A large number of people suffered, many were injured and injured.

Firedamp explosions in mines lead to serious consequences, causing fires, landslides, flooding with groundwater. Sudden collapses of buildings, bridges, and other engineering structures bring great material damage, and in some cases human casualties. The reasons are errors in research and design, poor quality of construction work. On March 23, 1993, one of the workshops of the Bratsk aluminum plant turned into ruins. Under the rubble of the building were 14 night shift workers. Fires occur everywhere: at industrial enterprises, agricultural facilities, educational institutions, preschool institutions, in residential buildings. They arise during the transportation of fuel by all modes of transport. Chemicals such as turpentine, camphor, naphthalene ignite spontaneously. In the process of burning foam rubber, poisonous smoke is released, which leads to dangerous poisoning. In the production process, under certain conditions, wood, coal, peat, aluminum, flour, grain dust, as well as cotton, flax, and hemp dust become dangerous and ignite. In the summer of 1985, fine cotton fluff, which was formed after washing and drying clothes in the laundry room of the Cosmos Hotel (Moscow), clogged the ventilation shaft. Laundry workers decided to get rid of it with the help of ... fire, forgetting that under certain conditions it explodes like gunpowder. So, that's exactly what happened. As soon as a match was struck, an explosion thundered. Eight people were burned and injured. The shock wave tore apart the roof.

It seems the laundry is the most peaceful production, but it exploded.

On March 14, 1993, the largest fire in Russia in the last 10 years began. The plant for the production of engines burned down at KamAZ. The total fire area is 200 thousand m2. Restoration, or rather the construction of a new one, is still being done. In the event of a catastrophe and a major accident, it is very important to promptly notify and organize the protection of workers and employees, all in the vicinity of the population living in danger. First of all, it is necessary to organize rescue operations, provide first aid to the victims and deliver them to medical institutions. After reconnaissance of the affected areas of the object, localization and extinguishing of the fire are organized, measures are taken to prevent further destruction. Separate structures that threaten to fall, collapse or, on the contrary, strengthen, carry out urgent work on the municipal energy networks. At the same time, compliance with safety requirements is of great importance. For example, it is forbidden to unnecessarily walk through the rubble, enter destroyed buildings, carry out work near structures that threaten to collapse. Do not touch bare wires and various electrical devices. The area for rescue and restoration work must be fenced, guards and observers must be posted in a timely manner. As a result of an accident or catastrophe, flammable and corrosive liquids can spread. This must be taken into account when organizing work. The most characteristic types of injuries in accidents and catastrophes are wounds, bruises, bone fractures, ruptures and crushing of tissues, electric shock, burns, and poisoning.

On rail transport

The main causes of accidents and disasters are malfunctions of the track, rolling stock, signaling, centralization and blocking means, dispatcher errors, inattention and negligence of drivers. Most often, rolling stock derails, collisions, collisions with obstacles at crossings, fires and explosions directly in the cars occur. Washout of railway tracks, landslides, landslides, floods are not excluded. When transporting dangerous goods, such as gases, flammable, explosive, caustic, poisonous and radioactive substances, explosions, fires of tanks and other wagons occur. Eliminating such accidents is quite difficult.

Actions in case of an accident (catastrophe or crash) on railway transport.

Usually emergency braking occurs suddenly. If possible, the least traumatic place would be sitting on the floor. If you are standing, be sure to find yourself some kind of support. Rest your feet on a wall or seat, and hold onto the handrail with your hands. Muscles should be tensed to avoid damage to the bone apparatus. There may be several shocks, so do not relax until you realize that the movement of the train has finally stopped. Stay away from windows during an accident, as you can get injured from shrapnel. When buying tickets, you should be aware that the outermost carriages are damaged the most, in the center - the risk of severe damage is minimal. Each car has emergency windows. They should be used immediately after the train stops, as there is a high probability of a fire.

When leaving the car, take only the most necessary things with you: documents, money. Don't look for your luggage, it's not worth your life. Get out only on the field side to avoid getting hit by a train going on the other way. The most dangerous situation in which you can find yourself in the event of an accident on a railway transport is a fire. From open fire, you should go to other cars, closing the doors tightly behind you. Opening windows will be a big mistake. This will only increase the fire. Toxic gas - malminite, which is released during the melting of wagons, is life-threatening. Don't inhale it. Cover your nose and mouth with any damp cloth or piece of clothing. When moving, the train car can completely burn out within half an hour. In this case, the evacuation should take place very quickly and clearly. Once in a safe place, start helping other passengers. Don't give in to panic. Follow the instructions of conductors and other employees of the train. After leaving the damaged train, you should move away from it for a long distance. If there is smoke and fire, then an explosion is possible later. You can protect yourself from a broken electrical wire in case of an accident on a railway transport if you move in small jumps. By doing so, you can avoid being affected by step voltage. It can usually spread up to 30 m on damp ground. In situations where doors and emergency exits are blocked by stones, water, mudflows, you should remain calm and let them know about your location by knocking. Rescue teams will definitely come to the aid of all the victims.

Car accidents and disasters

The causes of road traffic accidents can be very different. First of all, these are violations of traffic rules, a technical malfunction of a car, speeding, insufficient training of persons driving cars, their weak reaction, and low emotional stability. Often the cause of accidents and disasters is driving a car by persons in a state of intoxication. Serious traffic accidents result from non-compliance with the rules for the transport of dangerous goods and the failure to comply with the necessary safety requirements.

Another cause of road accidents is poor road conditions.

Sometimes on the roadway you can see open hatches, unprotected and unlit areas of repair work, and the absence of danger signs. All this together leads to huge losses.

In order to protect yourself and your loved ones in case of accidents in road transport, you must follow the following recommendations:

Control your emotions, do not let go of the steering wheel until the collision. In this case, you will be able to drive the car to the end, and you may be able to rectify the situation or at least avoid serious damage;

Passengers should group and provide head protection;

The muscles must be in a tense state, so they will take on all the force of the blow, and not the bones;

Do your best to resist moving your body forward;

The driver needs to use the back of the seat as a support, tighten his muscles, and squeeze into it. You need to put your hands forward and rest them on the steering wheel;

The side position is the safest, so if you are not wearing a seat belt, it is recommended to roll to the side;

Do not attempt to get out of the vehicle until it has completely stopped. The chances of survival are increased by 10 times if you are inside the cabin, and do not jump out of it while moving;

In case of overturning or in case of fire, the car should immediately leave the passenger compartment;

If there is a child next to you, then cover him with you and take a side position together. The most dangerous passenger seat is the front seat. This is due to the fact that upon impact, the door may jam and you will have to leave the passenger compartment through the windshield or window.

How to get out of a sinking car?

In most cases, when a car has fallen into a body of water, the people in it begin to panic and take rash actions, which exacerbate their situation. They simply do not quite understand what is happening with their vehicle at the moment.

The main actions in case of an accident on a road transport when it is immersed in water are as follows:

Unfasten your seat belt. Surprisingly, often people in a panic forget to do this, and desperate attempts to get out lead to its breakdown.

Help your passengers with seat belts, starting by seniority. Get out from the back of the car. Usually the car sinks, leaning forward due to the heavy engine. For some time after the fall, the car will be afloat.

Open windows first. By opening the doors, you let the flow of water into the cabin and the flooding will accelerate. You need to turn on the headlights, so it will be easier to find your car later. In addition, the light from them will help you navigate in muddy water.

If it is not possible to lower the windows, break them with any heavy object or with your feet. Heavy or metal objects in your pockets, as well as shoes, will interfere with your swimming.

If possible, get rid of all unnecessary things and clothes. Get the kids out of the car first. Explain to them that you need to push off on the roof of the car and swim quickly up.

Once on shore, report the incident and call for medical assistance. In such an extreme situation, a short action plan is suitable for memorization, which is as follows: "Belt, window, children, exit." Remember that due to stress and adrenaline, you may not feel injuries, so a doctor's examination is a must.

In the event of a disaster, the main thing is to provide first aid to the victims in a timely manner. And this should be done no later than the first 20, at most 30 minutes. Otherwise it will be too late. It must be borne in mind that the driver and passengers are most often injured in the head, limbs and chest from impacts with door structures, the steering column, the front wall of the body and the windshield. Additional injuries are caused by objects in the car. Pedestrians receive the most damage from bumpers, fenders, headlights, and hoods. About 60% of all injuries are the result of a secondary impact on the roadway, a curbstone.

What to do? Every driver of a passing car, every pedestrian must immediately take all possible measures to save people, provide them with the very first medical aid, especially to stop bleeding. Traffic police officers, emergency medical and technical assistance are called to the scene.

The crash site is protected by warning signs. The victims, after providing them with first aid, are taken to the nearest medical institutions. The main work in case of major car accidents is carried out by special teams with truck cranes, technical assistance vehicles with metal cutting devices, rack jacks, wedges, grosses and other necessary tools.

Aviation accidents and disasters

Aviation accidents are accidents that did not lead to human casualties, but caused the destruction of the aircraft of varying degrees.

A disaster is an accident with human casualties.

The destruction of individual aircraft structures, engine failure, disruption of control systems, power supply, communications, piloting, lack of fuel, interruptions in the life support of the crew and passengers lead to serious consequences. Today, perhaps the most dangerous and common tragedy on board an aircraft is fire and explosion.

Airplane fire: rules of conduct

Fire during flight can occur for various reasons. This can be facilitated by a breakdown on board, an unforeseen situation during landing or takeoff, or an electrical short circuit. In addition, often the passengers themselves become the culprits of such a terrible and dangerous situation. Some people simply ignore the prohibitions on smoking on board and the use of open flames. Actions in case of fire in an aircraft include the following: Before the flight, carefully listen to the flight attendant, who explains the location of not only the main entrances to the board, but also where the emergency exits are located. Remember how far you are from the exit, count the seats to be able to navigate by touch in a smoky cabin. In the event of a fire, do not try at all costs to get to the exit through which you boarded the plane. Almost all passengers will do this, and there will be a crush. Remember about emergency exits, most often there are very few people there. There is only 1.5-2 minutes to evacuate from a burning plane. Do not linger at the inflated ladder. No need to squat down and move out quietly. Just jump on it. Get rid of all flammable clothing. This is especially true for girls. Leggings and nylon tights will need to be removed so as not to get severe burns. Also remove high-heeled shoes to avoid dislocations, injury to other passengers, and damage to the emergency slide. Hold it in your hands so that once on the ground you can quickly put on shoes. Cover open areas of the skin with a dense cloth made of natural materials. Protect head and respiratory tract from combustion products. In cases of heavy smoke, it is necessary to bend down to the floor or crawl to the exit. Do not open hatches yourself. This action can intensify the flame. If the fire occurred during the flight, then you should prepare for a hard landing. Smaller fires can be dealt with using the available fire extinguishers on board. Remember that flight attendants and crew are doing everything to save passengers and the aircraft, so do not ignore their instructions, do not panic or interfere with their work.

Aircraft depressurization: what to do to survive?

The loss of tightness by an aircraft under the influence of internal or external factors is called depressurization. In this situation, decompression is extremely dangerous. It represents a sharp drop in air pressure in the cabin.

At the same time, it can be extremely fast, accompanied by loud noise and the sound of air leaving the cabin, and slow, when its signs are detected only when hypoxia occurs. In the event of a depressurization in an aircraft, the actions must be clear and quick, as the loss of even a few minutes can cost you your life. This situation often leads to accidents in which no one manages to survive.

However, modern aircraft provide a security system that can help passengers even in such a seemingly hopeless situation. Fasten your seat belts. They will be able to keep you in the chair, and you will not be carried away by the air flow from the cabin. Put on an oxygen mask immediately. A common mistake is to put the mask on your face and hold it with your hand.

With any strong shaking or deterioration of health, the mask will fall out and you will suffocate. Take care of yourself first, then help your loved ones and neighbors. Don't get up. Group as instructed. The mask will allow you to breathe normally for 15 minutes. This time may be enough for pilots to lower the board to a height of 3 km, at which the air is not so strongly discharged. In this case, people will be able to breathe on their own without causing severe harm to health.

Accidents at hydraulic structures

The danger of flooding of low-lying areas occurs when dams, dams and hydroelectric facilities are destroyed. The immediate danger is the rapid and powerful flow of water, causing damage, flooding and destruction of buildings and structures. Casualties among the population and various violations occur due to the high speed and the huge amount of running water sweeping everything in its path. The height and speed of the breakthrough wave depend on the size of the destruction of the hydraulic structure and the difference in heights in the upstream and downstream. For flat areas, the speed of the breakthrough wave varies from 3 to 25 km/h, in mountainous areas it reaches 100 km/h. Significant areas of the terrain in 15 - 30 minutes. Usually they are flooded with a layer of water with a thickness of 0.5 to 10 m or more. The time during which territories can be under water ranges from several hours to several days. There are diagrams and maps for each hydroelectric complex, which show the boundaries of the flood zone and give a characteristic of the breakthrough wave. The construction of housing and businesses is prohibited in this zone.

In the event of a dam break, all means are used to alert the population: sirens, radio, television, telephone and loudspeakers. Having received the signal, it is necessary to immediately evacuate to the nearest elevated areas. Stay in a safe place until the water subsides or a message is received that the danger has passed. When returning to their original places, beware of broken wires. Do not consume foods that have been in contact with water streams. Do not take water from open wells. Before entering the house, one must carefully inspect it and make sure that there is no danger of destruction. Be sure to ventilate the building before entering. Do not use matches - gas may be present. Take all measures to dry the building, floors and walls. Remove all wet debris.

One of the most significant in terms of the number of victims, emergency situations of a social nature in peacetime, are situations that have developed as a result of mass gatherings of people (the tragedy at Nemiga on May 30, 1999; the funeral of I.V. Stalin in 1953)

The main psychological picture of the crowd:

- an increase in the emotional background (shouts, calls, etc.);

- Decreased ability to think individually (blind obedience to the leader);

- calls of the leader or the appearance of an object of hatred. People will obey or smash only at the same time;

- a decrease in aggression and assessment of what is happening by people occurs after the goal is achieved;

- first blood, the first stone in the window brings the crowd to a new level of danger.

Psychology of the crowd

A number of researchers believe that the crowd is a special biological organism. It operates according to its own laws and does not always take into account the interests of individual components, including their safety.

Very often, the crowd becomes more dangerous than the natural disaster or accident that caused it to form. However, she does not look for alternative solutions and does not see the consequences of her decision, sometimes the main ones, as in a case typical of fires: a jump from a doomedly high height.

Categorical commands, an ardent conviction that there is no danger and even the threat of execution of alarmists, as well as a strong emotional brake or miracle, can stop the crowd. It is precisely among miracles that cases should be attributed when a strong-willed person, who enjoys the confidence of the audience, managed to prevent a dramatic development of events.

Sociologists and psychologists have long studied the so-called "crowd phenomenon". As scientists note, in a large group of people there is some kind of averaging. In the crowd, personality and feelings disappear, and the thoughts of individuals are smoothed out. She has a single soul. The intellect of individual members of the crowd is turned off, a person ceases to be aware of himself as an individual and begins to think and act in unison with those around him. He becomes easily controlled and suggestible, cannot fully control his emotions and actions. People live by the emotions of the crowd, and these emotions are very vivid: violence, ferocity, enthusiasm, heroism.

As observations and photographs taken from helicopters have shown, all crowds at the beginning of their formation and in a state of relative rest tend to acquire an annular shape (if this is not prevented by the terrain, buildings, etc.). This is characterized by the movement of some people to the center of the crowd, while others, on the contrary, to the periphery. This process (mixing movements) has a dual meaning: on the one hand, it is considered as a means of disseminating information in the crowd, on the other hand, it allows you to divide people according to their degree of activity. The most active and ready to take part in the actions of the crowd tend to its center; the more passive gravitate toward the periphery. It is important to note that the state of fear and uncertainty contributes to the attraction of people towards the center of the crowd.

The crowd also has certain boundaries. They are usually very mobile in nature, as a result of which the situation of people is constantly changing, often against their will and desire. So, just a curious person may suddenly find himself in the center of the crowd as a result of the addition of a new group of people to it.

Panic begins with the cry: "Keep calm." Explosion, gases, fire, and the crowd begins to rush about. The main thing is not to succumb to its influence. In this situation, your protector is the mind.

How to behave in a crowd

Any mass gathering is fraught with very dangerous consequences. If precautions are not followed, serious injury can result. As statistics show, the largest number of victims, in the event of riots and terrorist acts, is observed in crowded places. People, being in a crowd, in the event of an emergency, endanger their health, and sometimes their lives. Therefore, it is very important to know the following basic rules of safe behavior in the crowd.

Always avoid crowds. Strange as it may seem, crowds are even more dangerous in the street than in closed spaces. No need to approach out of idle curiosity to find out what's going on. If the crowd blocks your way, it is better to find a workaround.

Once in the crowd by chance, in no case do not be indignant, and even more so do not behave aggressively. Even if you fundamentally disagree with the ideas of the audience, this is not the place to state your point of view. Such behavior can provoke aggression and lead to very sad consequences. Therefore, it is better to pretend that you share the convictions of the audience, if necessary, you can even support some slogans, while trying to calmly and leisurely leave the crowd. If the crowd is dense but motionless, you can try to get out of it using psychosocial tricks, for example, pretending to be sick, drunk, crazy, pretending to be sick, and so on. The most dangerous place in the crowd is on the edge. People are just smeared on the walls. Any protrusion can be fatal.

If you find yourself in a crowd and are forced to move in a mass of people, remember that the main thing is to keep your balance. A fall will likely result in you being trampled. To avoid this, zip up and tuck in your clothing so you don't get caught on anything. If you have any items with you (umbrella, bag) - it is better to press them to the body. In a critical situation, they generally need to be disposed of without regret, life and health are more important. If you are squeezed with a child, drop all unnecessary items (bag, backpack, etc.). In a crush, they will cling, and because of them you can fall. In a dense crowd, with the right behavior, the probability of falling is not as great as the probability of squeezing. Therefore, protect the diaphragm with your clasped hands, folding them over your chest. Pushes from behind should be taken on the elbows, the diaphragm should be protected by arm tension. If the crowd stays still, you need to turn around so that with two neighboring people form a triangle with your shoulders: this will save you a little room for chest movement. Remember: Protect your chest. The main thing is not to fall. Get up by any means. Don't spare personal items. None of them are worth your life. Ignore the pain. Dodge everything that is stationary on the way, otherwise you can simply be crushed, smeared. Do not cling to anything with your hands, they can be broken. If possible, zip up. High heels can cost you your life, as can an untied shoelace. If you managed not to succumb to the crowd, then you are already half saved. If you decide to run away from a place of danger, remember: this makes sense if you are in the forefront and the aisles are free. Never keep your hands in your pockets.

If you still could not resist and fell - do not panic. Shouting and asking for something around is usually useless. But if you still - fell, then you need to protect your head with your hands and immediately get up. This is very difficult, but it can be done if you use this technique: quickly pull your legs up to you, group up and try to stand up with a jerk. It is unlikely that you will be able to get up from your knees in a dense crowd - you will be constantly knocked down. Therefore, with one foot you need to rest (with a full sole) on the ground and straighten up sharply, using the movement of the crowd. But, nevertheless, it is very difficult to get up, preliminary protection measures are always more effective.

In cases where tear gas has been used, hold a handkerchief, scarf, piece of cloth to your face and breathe through it. If possible, close your eyes. In no case do not rub the skin, and the eyes with your hands, this only enhances the negative effect. After getting out of the affected area, rinse the exposed skin and eyes with running cold water.

If the police began to disperse the crowd - do not panic. Try to get out of the line of movement of the running people. Do not make sudden movements, do not shout about your innocence, it is useless. If there are police officers nearby, raise your hands and in no case do not resist. In a fever, you can get a good baton. In case of detention, behave calmly, postpone indignation and explanations until the proceedings in the department.

It is better to be in a safe part of the crowd: away from the stands, garbage containers, boxes, the center of the crowd, from glass windows and metal fences; do not react to the skirmishes taking place nearby.

At a concert, a stadium, think in advance how you will exit (not necessarily the same way that you entered). Try not to be near the stage, locker rooms, etc. - in the center of events. Avoid walls (especially glass), partitions, mesh. The tragedy at the stadium in Sheffield (England) showed that most of the dead were crushed by the crowd on the barrier walls.

If the panic started due to a terrorist act, do not rush to exacerbate the disorder with your movement: do not deprive yourself of the opportunity to assess the situation and make the right decision.