Features of monitoring methods for various types of pollution. Methods, forms and types of control in the lesson

Of great importance in the organization of rational nature management is the study of the problems of nature management at the global, regional and local levels, as well as the assessment of the quality of the human environment in specific areas, in ecosystems of various ranks.

Monitoring is a system of observations, assessment and forecasting, which makes it possible to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic activity.

Along with a negative impact on nature, a person can also have a positive impact as a result of economic activity.

Monitoring includes:

monitoring changes in the quality of the environment, factors affecting the environment;

assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

forecast of changes in the quality of the environment.

Observations can be carried out on physical, chemical and biological indicators, integrated indicators of the state of the environment are promising.

Types of monitoring. Allocate global, regional and local monitoring. (What underlies such a selection?)

Global monitoring allows assessing the current state of the entire natural system of the Earth.

Regional monitoring is carried out at the expense of the stations of the system, where information about the territories subject to anthropogenic influence flows.

Rational nature management is possible if the information provided by the monitoring system is available and properly used.

Environmental monitoring is a system for monitoring, evaluating and predicting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact.

Monitoring tasks are:

Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the state of air, surface water, climate change, soil cover, flora and fauna, control of runoff and dust and gas emissions at industrial enterprises;

Drawing up a forecast on the state of the environment;

Informing citizens about changes in the environment.

Forecast and forecasting.

What is forecasting and forecasting? In various periods of the development of society, the ways of studying the environment have changed. One of the most important "tools" of nature management is currently considered forecasting. Translated into Russian, the word "forecast" means foresight, prediction.

Therefore, a forecast in nature management is a prediction of changes in the natural resource potential and needs for natural resources on a global, regional and local scale.

Forecasting is a set of actions that make it possible to make judgments about the behavior of natural systems and are determined by natural processes and the impact of humanity on them in the future.

The main purpose of the forecast is to assess the expected reaction of the natural environment to direct or indirect human impact, as well as to solve the problems of future rational nature management in connection with the expected states of the natural environment.

In connection with the reassessment of the system of values, the change of technocratic thinking to ecological thinking, there are changes in forecasting. Modern forecasts should be carried out from the standpoint of universal human values, the main of which are a person, his health, the quality of the environment, and the preservation of the planet as a home for humanity. Thus, attention to living nature, to man makes the tasks of forecasting ecological.

Types of forecasts. According to the lead time, the following types of forecasts are distinguished: ultra-short-term (up to a year), short-term (up to 3-5 years), medium-term (up to 10-15 years), long-term (up to several decades ahead), ultra-long-term (for millennia and more). -Lee forward). The lead time of the forecast, i.e. the period for which the forecast is given, can be very different. When designing a large industrial facility with a service life of 100–120 years, it is necessary to know what changes in the environment may occur under the influence of this facility in 2100–2200. No wonder they say: "The future is controlled from the present."

According to the coverage of the territory, global, regional, local forecasts are distinguished.

There are forecasts in specific branches of science, for example, geological, meteorological forecasts. In geography, a complex forecast, which many consider general scientific.

The main functions of monitoring are quality control of individual components of the natural environment and identification of the main sources of pollution. Based on monitoring data, decisions are made to improve the environmental situation, build new treatment facilities at enterprises that pollute the land, atmosphere and water, change logging systems and plant new forests, introduce soil-protective crop rotations, etc.

Monitoring is most often carried out by regional committees for hydrometeorological service through a network of points conducting the following observations: surface meteorological, heat balance, hydrological, marine, etc.

For example, monitoring of Moscow includes constant analysis of the content of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, the amount of nitrogen oxides, ozone and dust. Observations are carried out by 30 stations operating in automatic mode. Information from sensors located at the stations flows to the information processing center. Information about exceeding the MPC of pollutants is received by the Moscow Committee for Environmental Protection and the government of the capital. Both industrial emissions of large enterprises and the level of water pollution in the Moskva River are automatically controlled.

At present, there are 344 water monitoring stations in 59 countries in the world, which form the global environmental monitoring system.

Environmental monitoring

Monitoring(lat. monitor observing, warning) - a complex system of observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the biosphere or its individual elements under the influence of anthropogenic influences

Main tasks of monitoring:

monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact; monitoring the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

forecast of changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors and assessment of the predicted state of the natural environment.

Classifications of monitoring by features:

Control methods:

Bioindication - detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them;

Remote methods (aerial photography, sounding, etc.);

Physical and chemical methods (analysis of individual samples of air, water, soil).

environment. This system is administered by UNEP, a special body for environmental protection at the United Nations.

Types of monitoring. According to the scale of generalization of information, they distinguish: global, regional, impact monitoring.

Global monitoring- this is monitoring of world processes and phenomena in the biosphere and the implementation of a forecast of possible changes.

Regional monitoring covers individual regions in which processes and phenomena are observed that differ from natural in nature or due to anthropogenic impact.

Impact monitoring is carried out in especially hazardous areas directly adjacent to sources of pollutants.

According to the methods of conducting, the following types of monitoring are distinguished:

Biological (using bioindicators);

Remote (aviation and space);

Analytical (chemical and physico-chemical analysis).

The objects of observation are:

Monitoring of individual components of the environment (soil, water, air);

Biological monitoring (flora and fauna).

A special type of monitoring is basic monitoring, i.e. tracking the state of natural systems, which are practically not superimposed by regional anthropogenic impacts (biosphere reserves). The whole purpose of basic monitoring is to obtain data against which the results obtained by other types of monitoring are compared.

Control methods. The composition of pollutants is determined by methods of physical and chemical analysis (in air, soil, water). The degree of stability of natural ecosystems is carried out by the bioindication method.

Bioindication is the detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them. The essence of bioindication is that certain environmental factors create the possibility of the existence of a particular species. The objects of bioindicative studies can be individual species of animals and plants, as well as entire ecosystems. For example, radioactive contamination is determined by the state of coniferous trees; industrial pollution - for many representatives of the soil fauna; air pollution is very sensitively perceived by mosses, lichens, butterflies.

The species diversity and high abundance or, conversely, the absence of dragonflies (Odonata) on the shore of the reservoir indicate its faunal composition: many dragonflies - the fauna is rich, few - the aquatic fauna is depleted.

If lichens disappear on tree trunks in the forest, then sulfur dioxide is present in the air. Only in clean water are larvae of caddisflies (Trichoptera) found. But the small-scaled worm (Tubifex), larvae of chironomids (Chironomidae) live only in heavily polluted water bodies. Many insects, green unicellular algae, and crustaceans live in slightly polluted water bodies.

Bioindication allows timely detection of a not yet dangerous level of pollution and taking measures to restore the ecological balance of the environment.

In some cases, the bioindication method is preferred, since it is simpler than, for example, physico-chemical methods of analysis.

So, British scientists found several molecules in the liver of flounder - indicators of pollution. When the total concentration of life-threatening substances reaches critical values, a potentially carcinogenic protein begins to accumulate in the liver cells. Its quantitative determination is simpler than the chemical analysis of water, and provides more information about its danger to human life and health.

Remote methods are mainly used for global monitoring. For example, aerial photography is an effective method for determining the extent and extent of pollution from oil spills at sea or on land, ie tanker accidents or pipeline ruptures. Other methods in these extreme situations do not provide comprehensive information.

OKB im. Ilyushin, the aircraft builders of the Lukhovitsky Plant designed and built the Il-10Z, a unique aircraft to perform almost any task of state environmental and land monitoring. The aircraft is equipped with control and measuring and telemetry equipment, a satellite navigation system (СPS), a satellite communication system, an interactive on-board and ground-based measuring and recording complex. The aircraft can fly at altitudes from 100 to 3000 m, stay in the air for up to 5 hours, consumes only 10-15 liters of fuel per 100 km, and takes on board two specialists in addition to the pilot. The new Il-103 aircraft of the Aviation Center for Special Ecological Purposes, based at the Myachikovo airfield near Moscow, perform remote monitoring for environmentalists, aviation forest protection, emergency services and oil and gas pipeline transport.

Physical and chemical methods are used to monitor individual components of the natural environment: soil, water, air. These methods are based on the analysis of individual samples.

Soil monitoring provides for the determination of acidity, loss of humus, salinity. Soil acidity is determined by the value of the pH value (pH) in aqueous soil solutions. The pH value is measured using a pH meter or potentiometer. The content of humus is determined by the oxidizability of organic matter. The amount of oxidizing agent is estimated by titrimetric or spectrometric methods. Soil salinity, i.e., the content of salts in them, is determined by the value of electrical conductivity, since it is known that salt solutions are electrolytes.

Water pollution is determined by chemical (COD) or biochemical (BOD) oxygen consumption - this is the amount of oxygen consumed for the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances contained in polluted water.

Atmospheric pollution is analyzed by gas analyzers, which provide information on the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the air. “Multicomponent” analysis methods are used: C-, H-, N-analyzers and other devices that give continuous time characteristics of air pollution. Automated devices for remote analysis of atmospheric pollution, combining a laser and a locator, are called lidars.

Environmental quality assessment

What is evaluation and evaluation?

An important area of ​​monitoring research is the assessment of the quality of the environment. This direction, as you already know, has received priority in modern nature management, since the quality of the environment is associated with the physical and spiritual health of a person.

Indeed, they distinguish between a healthy (comfortable) natural environment, in which a person's health is normal or improving, and unhealthy, in which the state of health of the population is disturbed. Therefore, in order to preserve the health of the population, it is necessary to monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental quality- this is the degree of compliance of natural conditions with the physiological capabilities of a person.

There are scientific criteria for assessing the quality of the environment. These include standards.

Environmental quality standards. Quality standards are divided into environmental and production-economic.

Ecological standards establish maximum permissible norms of anthropogenic impact on the environment, the excess of which threatens human health, is detrimental to vegetation and animals. Such norms are established in the form of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants (MPC) and maximum permissible levels of harmful physical effects (MPL). Remote controls are installed, for example, for noise and electromagnetic pollution.

MPC is the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, which for a certain period of time does not affect human health and does not cause adverse consequences for its offspring.

Recently, when determining MPC, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also the impact of these pollutants on natural communities as a whole. Every year more and more MPCs are set for substances in the air, soil, and water.

Industrial and economic environmental quality standards regulate the environmentally safe mode of operation of a production, utility, and any other facility. The production and economic environmental quality standards include the maximum allowable emission of pollutants into the environment (MAE). How to improve the quality of the environment? Many experts think about this problem. Environmental quality control is carried out by a special state service. Measures to improve the quality of the environment. They are combined into the following groups. The most important are technological measures, which include the development of modern technologies that ensure the integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal. The choice of fuel with a lower combustion product will significantly reduce emissions of substances into the atmosphere. This is also facilitated by the electrification of modern production, transport and everyday life.

Sanitation measures contribute to the treatment of industrial emissions through various designs of treatment plants. (Are there treatment facilities at the nearest enterprises in your locality? How effective are they?)

The set of measures that improve the quality of the environment includes architectural planning activities that affect not only physical but also spiritual health. They include dust control, rational placement of enterprises (they are often taken out of the territory of a settlement) and residential areas, landscaping of populated areas, for example, with modern urban planning standards, cities with a population of one and a half million people need 40-50 m2 of green space , it is obligatory to allocate sanitary protection zones in the settlement.

To engineering and organizational measures include reducing parking at traffic lights, reducing the intensity of traffic on congested highways.

To legal measures include the establishment and observance of legislative acts to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, water bodies, soil, etc.

Requirements related to the protection of nature, improvement of the quality of the environment are reflected in state laws, decrees, and regulations. World experience shows that in the developed countries of the world, the authorities solve problems related to improving the quality of the environment through legislative acts and executive structures, which, together with the judicial system, are called upon to ensure the implementation of laws, finance large environmental projects and scientific developments, control enforcement of laws and financial costs.

There is no doubt that the improvement of the quality of the environment will be carried out through economic activities. Economic measures are associated, first of all, with the investment of funds in the shift and the development of new technologies that ensure energy and resource saving, and reduce emissions of harmful substances into the environment. The means of state tax and price policy should create the conditions for Russia's inclusion in the international system for ensuring environmental safety. At the same time, in our country, due to the economic downturn, the volume of introduction of new environmental technologies into the industry has significantly decreased.

educational measures are aimed at the formation of an ecological culture of the population. The quality of the environment largely depends on the formation of new value and moral attitudes, the revision of priorities, needs, and methods of human activity. In our country, within the framework of the state program "Ecology of Russia", programs and manuals for environmental education have been developed at all stages of obtaining knowledge from preschool institutions to the system of advanced training. Mass media are an important means in the formation of ecological culture. Only in Russia there are more than 50 types of environmental periodicals.

All activities aimed at improving the quality of the environment are closely interconnected and largely depend on the development of science. Therefore, the most important condition for the existence of all measures is the conduct of scientific research that improves the quality of the environment and the environmental sustainability of both the planet as a whole and individual regions.

However, it should be noted that the measures taken to improve the quality of the environment do not always bring a noticeable effect. An increase in the incidence of the population, a decrease in the average life expectancy of people, an increase in mortality indicate the development of negative environmental phenomena in our country.

Topic No. 4.2 "Technical means of individual and collective protection"

1. Means and methods of control and monitoring of dangerous and negative factors of natural and anthropogenic origin

2. Technical means of individual and collective protection.

2.1 General characteristics and classification of collective protection equipment.

2.2 Technical personal protective equipment.

LITERATURE:

1. Federal Law of 1998 No. 28-FZ “On Civil Defense”.

2. Federal Law of 1996 No. 61-FZ "On Defense".

3. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 2003 No. 794 "On a unified state system for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations."

4. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 2007 No. 804 "Regulations on civil defense in the Russian Federation".

5. Engineering protection of the population and territories in emergency situations of peacetime and wartime: Textbook for universities / Ed. V.A. Puchkova.- M.: Academic Project; Ekaterinburg: Business book, 2010. - 684 p. – (Fundamental textbook).

6. Organization of the medical service of civil defense of the Russian Federation / Ed. Yu.I. Pogodina, S.V. Trifonova - M.: Medicine for You, 2003. - 212 p.

7. Organization of medical care to the population in emergency situations: Uch. Allowance / V.I. Sakhno, G.I. Zakharov, N.E. Karlin, N.M. Pilnik. - St. Petersburg: LLC "FOLIANT Publishing House", 2003. - 248s.

8. Medical support in emergency situations: Textbook for medical schools / Ed. P.I. Sidorov. - M.: GEOTAR-MED, 2006. - 1040 p.

Means and methods of control and monitoring of dangerous and negative factors of natural and anthropogenic origin

In the general system of emergency response measures, priority should be given to a set of measures aimed at reducing the risk of emergencies and mitigating their consequences. It is based on emergency risk management, which is impossible without information support for the preparation and adoption of management decisions on the prevention and elimination of emergency situations. To manage the risk, monitoring of the state of the natural environment and technosphere objects, risk analysis and emergency forecasting are carried out.

The term "monitoring" first appeared in 1971 in the recommendations of a special commission of SCOPE (Scientific Committee on Environmental Problems) at UNESCO, and in 1972 the first proposals for a global environmental monitoring system were developed (UN Stockholm Conference on the Environment).

Environmental monitoring - monitoring the state of the habitat and warning about emerging negative situations. Its main tasks are

- monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact;

- observation of anthropogenic impact factors;

- monitoring the state of the environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

- assessment of the actual state of the environment;

- forecast of dangerous changes in the natural environment under the influence of negative factors and assessment of the predicted state.

Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated March 31, 2003 No. 177 approved the “Regulations on the organization and implementation of state environmental monitoring”, according to which information obtained during environmental monitoring is used in predicting emergencies and taking measures to prevent them.

The information strategy of the state and each production facility for the promotion of health and the prevention of diseases of the population should include:

Regular information on habitat hazards;

Regular information on toxic releases into the environment;

Regular information for workers on negative factors of production and their impact on health;

Information on the state of health of the population of the region and occupational diseases;

Information about the means and methods of protection against hazards;

Information about the responsibility of the heads of enterprises and security services for the violations committed in the field of health protection, the safe state of the environment.

In general, under monitoring [from lat. Monitor - warning] refers to a certain system of observation (as well as assessment and forecast) of the state and development of natural, man-made, social processes and phenomena. It consists in monitoring the state of certain structures, objects, phenomena and processes, and its results are used to warn about emerging dangers, threats and critical situations and provide management bodies with information support to prepare and make management decisions to change the state and development of the system in the right direction. , process or phenomenon.

Monitoring data and information about various processes and phenomena serve as the basis for risk analysis and forecasting. The purpose of forecasting an emergency is to identify the time of its occurrence, its possible location, scale and consequences for the population and the environment.

There are a large number of types of monitoring that differ in the sources and factors of anthropogenic impacts taken into account, the responses of the biosphere components to these impacts, observation methods, etc. In the literature, the classification of types of monitoring is most often found according to the following criteria:

Spatial coverage;

The object of observation (atmospheric air, land and sea waters, soils, geological environment, flora and fauna, man);

Physical factors of influence (ionizing radiation, electromagnetic radiation, thermal radiation, noise, vibration);

Methods (direct instrumental measurement, remote shooting, indirect indication, surveys, diary observations);

Degrees of relationship between effect and process being observed;

Type of impact (geophysical, biological, medical-geographical, socio-economic, public);

Objectives (determination of the current state of the environment, research of phenomena, short-term forecast, long-term conclusions, optimization and increase in the economic efficiency of research and forecasts, control over the impact on the environment, etc.).

In accordance with the types of pollution, monitoring is divided into global, regional, impact and basic.

Global monitoring monitors global processes and phenomena in the biosphere and forecasts possible changes.

Regional monitoring covers individual regions within which processes and phenomena are observed that differ in natural character or anthropogenic impacts from natural biological processes.

Impact monitoring provides observations in especially dangerous zones and places directly adjacent to pollution sources.

Base monitoring monitors the state of natural systems, which are practically not superimposed by regional anthropogenic impacts. For basic monitoring, territories remote from industrial regions are used.

During monitoring, the state of air, surface water, climate change, soil cover properties, the state of flora and fauna are qualitatively and quantitatively characterized. Each of the listed components of the biosphere is subject to special requirements and specific methods of analysis are being developed.

The main objectives of monitoring are to provide timely and reliable information allowing:

Assess indicators of the state of the ecosystem and the human environment;

Identify the causes of changes in these indicators and assess the consequences of such changes;

Determine corrective actions in cases where targets for environmental conditions are not being met;

Create prerequisites for determining measures to correct emerging negative situations before damage is caused.

In our country, a system of state measures has been established by law, enshrined in law and aimed at preserving, restoring and improving favorable conditions necessary for people's lives and the development of material production.

The environmental legislation includes the Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection" and other legislative acts of complex legal regulation.

An important role is played by regulatory rules - sanitary, construction, technical and economic, technological, etc. These include environmental quality standards: norms for permissible radiation, noise levels, vibration, etc. Quality standards are the maximum allowable standards for the impact on the environment of anthropogenic activities.

Standardization of the quality of the natural environment is the process of developing and giving a legal norm to scientifically based standards in the form of indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on nature or the environment. The maximum permissible norm is the legally established size of human impact on the environment. The maximum permissible norms are a kind of forced compromise, which allows developing the economy, protecting human life and well-being.

In accordance with the Law, the following requirements are imposed on the content of the standards:

Environmental safety of the population;

Preservation of the genetic fund;

Ensuring the rational use and reproduction of natural resources;

Sustainable development of economic activity.

Quality standards are evaluated according to three indicators:

Medical (set the threshold level of threat to human health, its genetic program).

· Technological (assess the level of established limits of technogenic impact on humans and the environment).

· Scientific and technical (assess the ability of scientific and technical means to control compliance with exposure limits for all characteristics).

Quality standards do not have legal force until approved by the competent authority. Such bodies are the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance under the Government of the Russian Federation (Goskomsanepidnadzor), the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation and the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection (Goskomekologiya)

Goskomsanepidnadzor of Russia monitors the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population. The Ministry of Natural Resources monitors subsoil (geological environment), including monitoring of groundwater and dangerous exogenous and endogenous geological processes; monitoring of the aquatic environment of water management systems and structures in the places of catchment and wastewater discharge. The tasks of the State Committee for Ecology include:

Coordination of activities of ministries and departments, enterprises and organizations in the field of environmental monitoring;

Organization of monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment and zones of their direct impact;

Organization of monitoring of flora and fauna;

Ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems;

Maintaining data banks on the environment, natural resources and their use with interested ministries and departments.

When developing an environmental monitoring project, the following information is required:

Sources of pollutants;

Transfers of pollutants (processes of atmospheric transfer and transfer in the aquatic environment);

Data on the state of anthropogenic emission sources.

A number of systems for monitoring environmental pollution and the state of natural resources operate on the territory of the Russian Federation. In the state system of environmental management in Russia, the formation of a unified state system of environmental monitoring (EGSEM) plays an important role.

EGSEM includes:

Monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment;

Monitoring of pollution of the abiotic component of the environment;

Monitoring of the biotic component of the environment;

Socio-hygienic monitoring;

Ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems.

All environmental regulation and standardization is based on the following norms:

MPC - maximum permissible concentrations;

SDA - maximum permissible doses;

PDU - maximum permissible levels of harmful agents;

MPE - maximum allowable emissions (into the atmosphere);

MPD - maximum allowable discharges (into water bodies).

MPC - the highest concentration of substances in the environment and sources of biological consumption (air, water, soil, food), which, with more or less prolonged exposure to the body - contact, inhalation, ingestion - does not affect health and does not cause delayed effects. Since the effect of harmful effects depends on many factors (duration of action, characteristics of the situation, sensitivity of recipients), MPCs are distinguished:

MPCs - average daily MPC;

MPCmr - maximum one-time MPC;

MPKrz - working area.

The means of control are divided into:

Contact;

Non-contact (remote);

Biological.

Controlled indicators:

Functional (productivity, assessment of the circulation of substances, etc.);

Structural (absolute or relative values ​​of physical, chemical or biological parameters).

Contact methods for monitoring the state of the environment are represented by both classical methods of chemical analysis and modern methods of instrumental analysis.

Contact control methods are divided into chemical, physico-chemical and physical.

The most used are spectral, electrochemical and chromatographic methods for the analysis of environmental objects.

The general control scheme includes the following steps:

1) sampling;

2) sample processing for the purpose of conservation of the measured parameter and its transportation;

3) storage and preparation of the sample for analysis;

4) measurement of the controlled parameter;

5) processing and storage of results.

Non-contact (remote) methods are based on the use of two properties of probing fields (electromagnetic, acoustic, gravitational): interaction with a controlled object and transfer of the information received to the sensor is aerospace and geophysical control.

Biological control is carried out for the purpose of a comprehensive assessment of the quality of the habitat and gives an integral description of its state. Biological methods of observation - bioindication and biotesting.

According to the classification of hazardous and harmful production factors, the following are most often controlled:

Noise level;

The level of ionizing radiation;

The level of electromagnetic radiation;

The presence of pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, spirochetes, fungi, protozoa) and their metabolic products.

In this case, various modifications of sound level meters (Testo 815, etc.), dosimeters and radiometers (DKG-RM1621, IMD-7, MKS-07N, ID-1, etc.), meters of parameters of electric and magnetic fields (BE-METR-AT -002, P3-31, RADEKS EMI 50, etc.), universal gas analyzers for various hazardous chemicals (UG-2, GSA-3M, IGS-98 "Binom-V", etc.), etc.

In emergency situations, one of the main hazards that can be controlled is the impact of people with radioactive or poisonous (RH) and emergency chemicals (AOHV), which requires rapid identification and assessment of the radiation and chemical situation in the conditions of contamination. The organization of radiation and chemical surveillance is designed to warn the population about the danger of infection. The state of the atmosphere is constantly monitored by meteorological service posts that monitor radiation and chemical contamination.

In a nuclear explosion, accidents at nuclear power plants and other nuclear transformations, a large amount of radioactive substances (RS) is formed. Substances are called radioactive, the nuclei of which are capable of spontaneous decay and transformation into the nuclei of atoms of other elements and emit ionizing radiation. They infect the area and people on it, objects, property and various objects.

Along with ionizing radiation, OM during the use of chemical weapons, as well as AHB during industrial accidents, pose a great danger to people and the entire environment.

Injury to people can be caused by direct contact with toxic agents and AOOH, as a result of contact of people with contaminated soil and objects, consumption of contaminated food and water, and also by inhalation of contaminated air.

In order to timely notify the population of possible radiation and chemical contamination, the radiation and chemical reconnaissance services of civil defense have appropriate devices that can monitor the state of the environment.

Dosimetric devices are designed to determine the levels of radiation on the ground, the degree of contamination of clothing, human skin, food, water, fodder, transport and other various items and objects, as well as to measure the doses of radioactive exposure of people when they are at objects and areas contaminated radioactive substances.

In accordance with their purpose, dosimetric instruments can be divided into devices for radiation reconnaissance of the area, for monitoring the degree of contamination, and for monitoring exposure.

The group of devices for radiation reconnaissance of the area includes indicators of radioactivity and radiometers; the group of devices for monitoring the degree of contamination includes radiometers, and the group of devices for monitoring exposure includes dosimeters.

Detection and determination of the degree of contamination of OM and AOX, terrain, structures, equipment, vehicles, personal protective equipment, clothing, food, water, fodder and other objects is carried out using chemical reconnaissance devices or by taking samples and their subsequent analysis in chemical laboratories.

The principle of detecting and determining agents by chemical reconnaissance devices is based on the change in color of the indicators when they interact with agents. Depending on which indicator was taken and how it changed color, the type of OM is determined, and a comparison of the intensity of the obtained color with a color standard makes it possible to judge the approximate concentration of OM in the air or the density of infection.

Monitoring as a method of monitoring and evaluating learning outcomes

Supervisor - Ph.D., Associate Professor

The relevance of the problem of control is associated with the recent achievement of certain successes in the implementation of the practical role of teaching at school, due to which the scope of application of control has expanded, its possibilities for a positive impact on the educational process have increased, and conditions have arisen for the rationalization of control itself as an integral part of this process.

An analysis of the views of teachers and psychologists on the problem of control functions in the pedagogical process allows us to identify the following control functions:

- social function manifests itself in the requirements imposed by society on the level of training of the student;

- educational function determines the result of comparing the expected learning effect with the actual one;

- educational function expressed in the consideration of the formation of positive motives for learning and readiness for self-control as a factor in overcoming students' low self-esteem and anxiety;

- emotional function manifests itself in the fact that any type of assessment (including marks) creates a certain emotional background and causes a corresponding emotional reaction of the student;

- information function is the basis for the diagnosis of planning and forecasting;

- control function It is very important for the development of self-control of the student, his ability to analyze and correctly evaluate his activities, to adequately accept the assessment of the teacher.

The control of students' knowledge opens up great opportunities for improving the learning process. The most accurate and high-quality assessment of students' knowledge allows a variety of types and forms of control, such as traditional (oral survey, independent work, blitz survey, dictation, test, test, test, Olympiad, practical work, laboratory work) and non-traditional (research work , creative work, conference, composition, KVN, abstract and others). Control will be carried out at the proper level only if such requirements as regularity, comprehensiveness, differentiation, objectivity and, of course, compliance with the educational impact of control are met.

The following types of control of learning outcomes are distinguished: current - the most prompt, dynamic and flexible test of learning outcomes; thematic - consists in checking the assimilation of the program material on each major topic of the course, and the assessment fixes the result; preliminary - is carried out after the assimilation of a large amount of material, usually at the end of a quarter, half a year; final - is carried out as an assessment of learning outcomes for a certain, sufficiently large period of study time - a quarter, half a year, a year.

For the successful implementation of the educational process in all its diversity, analytical control of its current state and the effectiveness of the educational process is becoming more and more relevant, and when planning - analysis of changes, forecasting and flexibility of response. Therefore, there is a need to organize information and analytical work, the main tool of which should be the monitoring system of the educational process. Understanding the process, its analysis, and even more so the targeted impact on it, become more effective if it is possible to track the history of this process in time. A necessary tool for this is monitoring.

Monitoring of the learning process as a method is itself a certain system of elements.

The MONITORING system is understood as a set of elements, the interaction of which ensures the implementation of monitoring procedures. Such elements that make up the structure of the monitoring system are:

* subjects of monitoring;

* a set of monitoring indicators;

* tools and tools for monitoring activities;

* monitoring activities

THE MAIN TASKS solved in the course of monitoring the learning process are as follows:

1. Development of a set of indicators that provide a holistic view of the state of the learning process, of qualitative and quantitative changes in it.

2. Systematization of information about the state and development of the learning process.

3. Ensuring regular and visual presentation of information about the learning process.

4. Information support for analysis and forecasting of the state of the learning process, development of managerial decisions.

Monitoring is directly related to its object, subject and subject.

The OBJECT of monitoring is the learning process, which is targeted by specific monitoring procedures.

The SUBJECT of monitoring is the state of this process in certain periods of time and specific changes within this process.

Under SUBJECTS of monitoring we mean carriers of monitoring functions.

Monitoring subjects can be conditionally divided into two large groups: those who provide information, and those who collect and process it.

A well-known teacher points out the types of educational monitoring: didactic monitoring - tracking various aspects of the learning process; educational monitoring - tracking various aspects of the educational process, taking into account the system of relationships, the nature of the interaction of participants in the learning process; managerial monitoring - tracking the nature of interaction at various levels in the learning process: leader - teaching staff; leader - student team; leader - a team of parents; leader - out-of-school environment, teacher - teacher; teacher - students; teacher is family. Socio-psychological monitoring - monitoring the process of collective-group, personal relations, the nature of the psychological atmosphere of the class team.

Monitoring the control of learning outcomes is characterized by the main characteristics of the general scientific method of the theory of knowledge of the world: the stages of research, the acquisition and interpretation of data, the prediction of further development, the constant feedback between theory and research practice. Monitoring is also inherent in multidimensionality: it can be studied in any field of knowledge.

The introduction of monitoring as a method of control in the educational process has an impact on the methodology of the teacher. More precisely, monitoring sets specific methodological tasks for it, the solution of which creates the conditions for its application in the learning process. The technology for the implementation of pedagogical monitoring can be constantly improved through the use of new information technologies, in particular computer packages of test tasks, which makes it possible to qualitatively change the control over the activities of students, while ensuring the flexibility of managing the educational process. The computer allows you to check all the answers, and in many cases it not only fixes the error, but quite accurately determines its nature, which helps to eliminate the cause that causes its occurrence in time.

Checking and evaluating the knowledge of schoolchildren as a method of pedagogical control depends on many objective and subjective factors. All types and forms of system analysis have an effective impact on the dynamics of monitoring procedures, help to rank the information received in all its variants.

Currently, monitoring is the most effective method of control, since it can be used to diagnose the learning process, predict results, track the dynamics of the development of the learning process, plan the learning process, which allows you to observe and control, as necessary, the student's progress from ignorance to knowledge.

Thus, monitoring the learning process allows you to respond in a timely manner to changes in managed objects. Monitoring is due to the need to constantly monitor the state of the educational process, its individual links in order to diagnose, analyze, correct, predict management actions to achieve the planned result.

Literature

1. And . System approach as a means of managing the quality of education in general educational practice: dis. cand. ped. Sciences /. - Stavropol, 2003.-148s.

2. Gorb monitoring of the educational process as a factor in increasing its level and results //Standards and monitoring in education. - 2000. - No. 1. - P. 32-35.

3. Dikan activity as a basis for education quality management //Standards and monitoring in education. - 2003.- No. 3. - S. 43-53.

4. Kamensky methods and means of evaluating learning outcomes at school // Science and School. – 2005.- №2.- S. 7-10.

5. Kuprin's interpretation of the concept of "monitoring" in the educational process. - Shadrinsk: ShGPI, 2001. - P.126-128

6. Sailor quality education based on new information technologies and educational monitoring. 2nd edition. - M., 2001. - 126s.

The learning process is impossible without the control of knowledge and skills. The development of the control system is carried out not only by scientists - teachers who publish various manuals, but also by each teacher - a subject in particular. Modern requirements for training programs require the mandatory availability of control and measuring materials. Before compiling them, it is necessary to answer a number of questions:

• What are the functions of educational control?
• What kind, type and form of control would be appropriate in a particular topic?
• What control method would be most appropriate for this lesson?
• What controls need to be developed for the lesson?

Functions of educational control

Control, in simple words, is a check of the correspondence of the results obtained with the learning goals set in advance. But its functions are not limited to checking the compliance of knowledge and competencies with the requirements of the educational standard. In modern didactics, the following functions are distinguished:

• Diagnostic. The teacher receives reliable information about gaps in knowledge of students, about frequently made mistakes and their nature. This helps to choose the most effective methods and means of training.
• Controlling. As a result, the level of mastery of competencies and knowledge is established; the level of intellectual development of students.
• Educational. Performing tasks and solving problems, students improve their knowledge and skills, applying them in new situations.
• Prognostic. Based on the results of the control, it is possible to understand whether knowledge is learned enough and competencies are formed in order to move on to new educational material.
• Developing. Its essence lies in the development of speech, memory, attention, thinking, creative abilities of students, which occurs in the process of completing tasks.
• Orienting. Its essence is to identify the degree of study of the topic.
• Educational. Periodic inspection contributes to the formation of a sense of responsibility, accuracy; discipline students.

By compiling control and measuring materials that perform the listed functions, the teacher will be able to increase the effectiveness of training several times.

Variety of controls

The type of control in the lesson depends on the stage of learning. In this regard, there are:

• Preliminary
• Current
• Thematic
• Final control

When moving to the study of a new topic or section, the teacher needs to determine what knowledge and skills the student already possesses. This is especially true in the fifth and tenth grades, as students arrive with varying degrees of preparedness. In addition, for example, in history lessons, the concentric system involves a repeated, but deeper, scientific study of almost all topics in the 10th grade. Therefore, here holding preliminary control especially important. The value of this type of review is shown in identifying issues that need to be given increased attention.

One of the main conditions for the success of training is the constant detection of existing knowledge gaps for their timely elimination. This will help current control, which is basically part of the lesson.

Name « thematic control» speaks for itself. It is held after studying a new topic or section, mainly in the lessons of control and correction of knowledge. The main goal is to prepare students for tests or final control.

At the end of the academic year and after the end of a certain stage of education (primary, basic school) final control. We can say that all previous types of checks are prepared for the main, final check. Based on its results, the degree of mastering the curriculum for a year or several years is determined.

Forms of control of knowledge and skills of students.

In school practice, five main forms of control are used:

• Frontal. The assignment is given to the entire class. Usually the guys give short answers from the spot.
• group. The class is divided into groups. Each group is given a task to complete together.
• Individual. Each student has his own task, which must be completed without anyone's help. This form is suitable for clarifying the knowledge and abilities of an individual.
• Combined. This form of control combines the previous three.

Control methods

Methods of control are called methods that help to identify the degree of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of the required competencies. Also, control methods allow you to evaluate the effectiveness of the teacher's work. The school uses such methods as oral survey, written work, tests, tests.

Oral questioning is one of the most common verification methods. It can be carried out both in individual and in frontal, and in combined forms. Let's consider their differences.

• Individual survey is carried out in order to determine the depth of assimilation of knowledge by an individual, specific student. Usually he is called to the board and gives a detailed answer either to a general question with subsequent clarifications, or to a number of individual ones.
• Frontal survey involves several related questions asked by several students. Answers should be concise. The advantage of this method is the ability to interview several students at the same time and the obvious time savings. But there is also a significant drawback - the impossibility of checking the depth of knowledge. In addition, the answers may be random.
• Combined survey will be the "golden mean" when choosing between individual and frontal. One student gives a detailed answer, and several others perform individual tasks.

Written work can be offered in different forms, depending on the subject: dictations, essays, reports, tests, tests, graphic works. Dictations can be used not only in Russian language lessons; they can be historical, geographical, mathematical and others. Also now they produce various printed notebooks for almost every subject.

In connection with the introduction of the Unified State Examination and the OGE, the test method has recently become very popular. It allows you to quickly test your knowledge on one or more topics. This method should not be used all the time as it cannot test creativity, students may respond at random; the test method does not allow the student to deeply analyze the topic.

Control types

Depending on who makes the control, they are divided into:

• External control. Produced by the teacher on the activities of students.
• mutual control. It is carried out by students on top of each other.
• self control. The student checks himself using ready-made samples or correct answers.

It is advisable to combine different types, and not always use only one of them.

Controls

The teacher faces the difficult task of choosing the means of assessing knowledge and skills that are appropriate for the lesson. As mentioned above, one of the most common methods currently is test. A great variety of tests in all subjects are now being published. In addition, the teacher himself can compose test questions or entrust this task to students (of course, for a separate mark). Test questions can be:

• multivariate. In this case, the question is offered several answers, where only one or more will be correct.
• Alternative. Two judgments or answers are offered, you need to choose the right one.
• Cross-Selection Questions. You need to find a match between the proposed options.
• open. Answer options are available.
• closed. You have to answer yourself. There are no options.

Questions should be accurate, not controversial, correspond to the curriculum and the material covered.

In addition to tests, handouts can be used to control. Now you can develop it yourself, buy it or download it from the Internet. These can be cards with questions, maps, diagrams, etc.

Also, one of the means of control is homework. It can take different forms, but if it is completely absent or irregular, then the homework itself will simply depreciate.

Computer assessment tools are now very popular. Their advantages: no need to waste material for compilation, quick check (carried out by a computer), students' interest is activated.

Requirements for control in training

Control will give the desired effect if its implementation meets the following requirements:

• Systematic. You need to check your knowledge and skills regularly. Students should be aware that after each new topic there will be a test; homework is checked at every lesson, etc.
• Objectivity. Control should realistically assess the abilities and knowledge of students. Any personal relationships and preferences of the teacher are not relevant here. It is recommended to take into account not only the correct answer, but also the method of obtaining it: the course of reasoning, the method of solving the problem.
• Pedagogical tact. The essence of this requirement is to maintain a calm and businesslike atmosphere. Subject to this condition, students will not be afraid to answer questions, express their opinions.
• Time-saving.
• Variety of used methods and forms of control.

Control is a necessary link in any lesson. The effectiveness of training depends on its organization, conduct and evaluation.

After reviewing the stages presented in the diagram, you can see that - high-level goals, strategic goals (stage 1) are taken out separately, but they are taken into account when the goals and objectives of operational planning are determined at stage 2.

The goals and objectives defined in step 2 must be measurable, otherwise how can you know that the goals have been achieved?

At stage 3, the appropriate quantitative and qualitative parameters are selected, with the help of which it is possible to assess, for example, the quality of vocational education in an educational institution, the implementation of the plan for the admission and graduation of students, the personnel potential of the organization, the material and technical base, etc.

At stage 4, the planned values ​​of these parameters are set, called norms or criteria, required from the performer (learning rate, levels of knowledge and skills learning, plans, staffing, qualification requirements, job descriptions, etc.)

Steps 1-4 can be seen as

• definition of controlled activities (managerial - deputies, pedagogical - teaching staff, educational - students)
• reorientation of current activities (since one can return to these stages due to dissatisfaction with current results).

Steps 5-8 form the core of the monitoring process.

Having measurable goals and plans, you need to provide yourself with information about how things are going (stage 5); measure performance (step 6) and compare these results with the standards set in step 4.

At step 7, we obtain information leading to a decision at step 8.

In step 8, one of three possible decisions is made. Steps 9-11 represent these three alternatives.

Step 9: Performance is in line with established standards, no significant issues are identified and therefore no corrective action is required. Monitoring should continue in steps 5-8.

Step 10. If the established plans, considered realistic, are nevertheless not being implemented, then corrective actions are taken to improve performance, after which monitoring continues.

Step 11. It is recognized that the cause of unsatisfactory progress is the wrong choice of goals, parameters for measuring results or norms. You need to go back to step 2, 3 or 4.

From the analysis of the scheme, it is clear that there is a connection between planning and control. Namely, control in the monitoring mode is the basis for tracking the course of movement towards goals and a mechanism for adjusting goals and ways to achieve them, gives new impetus to work, serves as a reliable means of improving the forms, methods, style of work, and identifying reserves.

Control as a management process consists mainly in encouraging people to do some things and not to do others, to motivate people to perform appropriate activities, to fulfill the planned, to achieve the intended goals.

With any type of planning, according to the areas of work of an educational institution or according to the goals and objectives that an educational institution needs to solve for a certain period, a monitoring system is built.

It should include:

• goals (operational and strategic);
• objects of control;
• regulatory framework;
• information base;
• terms;
• mechanisms, methods of tracking;
• practical way out.

Let's make an attempt to put the monitoring system into the scheme (Appendix 2).

Control planning within an educational institution includes:

• determination of goals and objectives of control;
• identification of objects of control, determination of the type of control;
• determination of the range of issues requiring study;
• determination of terms of control;
• definition of participants, distribution of their duties;
• determination of forms and methods of control;
• definition of summing up types;
• preparation of the final document (analytical report, order, etc.);
• determining the timing of verification of the implementation of proposals, recommendations.

The manager should observe the following control rules:

• setting deadlines for control;
• control should not be total;
• controlling, the manager reveals both shortcomings and successes in work;
• the results of control should be discussed, be public;
• the manager must be convinced that the performer agrees with his conclusions and understands how to correct the shortcomings.

Let's show comparative possibilities of various forms of control