Features of the pronunciation of foreign words. Norms of pronunciation of words of foreign origin

Many words of foreign origin are firmly mastered by the Russian literary language and are pronounced in accordance with existing orthoepic norms. A less significant part of foreign words relating to various fields of science and technology, culture and art, to the field of politics (also foreign proper names), when pronounced, deviate from generally accepted norms. In addition, in some cases there is a double pronunciation of foreign words (cf.: s[o]no - s[a]no, b[o]lero - b[a]lero, r[o]man - r[a]man, r[o]yal - r[a]yal, k[ o]ntsert - k[a]ntsert, p[o]et - p[a]et and etc.). pronunciation variants of the type k[o]ncert, r[o]man, n[o]wella, t[e]kst, mez[e]th, characterize the pronunciation as deliberately bookish. Such pronunciation does not meet the norms accepted in the literary language.

Deviating from the norms when pronouncing foreign words, they cover a limited layer of vocabulary and come down mainly to the following:

1. In unstressed syllables (pre-stressed and stressed) in foreign words in place of the letter about the sound [o] is pronounced: [o]tel, b[o]a, p[o]et, m[o]derat[o], radio[o], ha[o]s, kaka[o], p[ o]etessa; in proper names: B[o]dler, V[o]lter, Z[o]la, D[o]lores Ibarruri, P[o]rez, J[o]res, etc.

2. Before e in foreign words, predominantly dental consonants [t], [d], [h], [s] and [n], [p] are pronounced firmly: hotel, atelier, parterre, subway, interview; model, neckline, code, disorientation; highway, meringue, morse, based; scarf, pince-nez; Sorrento; Cut, Jaurès, also Flaubert, Chopin.

3. In unstressed syllables of foreign words with a solid consonant before [e] in place of the letter e the vowel [e] is pronounced: at [e] lie, at [e] ism, mod [e] lier, etc. In place of letters e after and in the following foreign words [e] is pronounced: di [e] ta, di [e] z, pi [e] tizm, pi [e] tet.

4. In place of the letter uh at the beginning of a word and after vowels, [e] is pronounced: [e] ho, [e] pos, po [e] t, po [e] tessa is pronounced softly: removed, from him, idler, idle, products, from business, withdraw - [snap], [from the field], [business], [product], [from-del], [from].

5. Prefix - preposition in before soft lips it is pronounced softly: in the song, in front - [f song], [f p and mouth].

6. The labials do not soften before the posterior ones: bets, breaks, chains [stafki], [breaks], [chains].

7. Final consonants [t], [d], [b] in prefixes before soft labials and dividing b do not soften: ate, drink - [ Ltjel], .

8. The consonant [r] before soft dental and labial, as well as before [h], [u] is pronounced firmly: artel, cornet, feed, samovar, welder - [ Lrtel], [kLrnet], [kLrmit], [smLvarchik], [welder].

Private rules relate to all sections of orthoepy. They are like variants of common pronunciation norms. These options allow fluctuation in the norms. They arise either under the influence of Leningrad or under the influence of Moscow.

The private orthoepic rules include the following:

1. A combination of letters - ch- in a few dozen words it is pronounced like [shn] or [shn`]: mustard plaster, scrambled eggs, bakery, of course etc. Many words do not fall under this rule and are pronounced with [ch]: fabulous, country, habitual, eternal and etc.

2. fricative [X] is in most cases non-literary, however, in some words its pronunciation is acceptable: good - blah [x] o, yeah - a [x] a.

3. In place of the letter sch you need to pronounce the sound [u]: crack, pike.

4. In many foreign words, in place of a letter about, denoting an unstressed vowel, contrary to the general rule, it is pronounced [about], not [L] or [ъ]: nocturne, poetry, cocktail and etc.

5. The correct pronunciation of some letter abbreviations has also recently become a matter of orthoepy. As a general rule, letter abbreviations are read in accordance with the alphabetic names of letters: Germany, USA.

6. In the 1st prestressed syllable a after w, w can be pronounced like a or how s. This pronunciation is called old Moscow: balls [shy ry].

7. In the endings of adjectives with a stem on g, k, x in adjective forms to nod - to nod the pronunciation of soft back-lingual is also acceptable. This is the old Moscow norm: quiet - quiet.

8. Return suffix -sya usually pronounced softly c`:learn to be proud.

9. Combination thu pronounced like [PCS]:what, to, but something.

A person who does not know the rules of orthoepy well or knows them, but does not apply them well in practice, makes many spelling errors, leading to a distorted reproduction of the sound form of words, as well as to incorrect intonation of speech.

There are several reasons why spelling errors are made.

Many pronunciation errors in Russian are explained by dialect influence, for example: clear instead of spring, rate instead of very, move instead of year etc. certain persons, having learned from childhood the articulation base and phonetic laws of a certain dialect, are not immediately, not always or not completely reorganized into literary pronunciation. However, with the development of society, as a result of universal education, under the influence of radio and television, dialects are increasingly disintegrating and disappearing, and the Russian literary language becomes the main means of communication; therefore, the number of dialectal pronunciation errors in the speech of our contemporaries - Russians - is declining.

A bunch of people of non-Russian nationality, who have studied the Russian language to a sufficient extent, make spelling errors, also associated with a mismatch between phonetic units (segment and super-segment) and the sound laws of Russian and native languages; For example: look instead of watch, flow instead of current, sateranitsa instead of page, niesu instead of bear.

Such mistakes, especially numerous at the initial stage of mastering the Russian language, may gradually disappear due to the widespread practice of Russian speech and orientation to the speech of Russians.

Third an important factor of deviation from the orthoepic norms of the Russian language is the interference of written texts. This reason can be combined with the first or second, supported by them. Firstly, a person who does not know the oral forms of some words well enough and at the same time not enough, only in general terms, aware of the sound meanings of Russian letters, is guided when reading words (and later when reproducing them without relying on a written text) by their spelling understood superficially. So, beginners to learn Russian read [h] then instead of [w] then, se [g] of one day instead of se [in] one day, honestly, but not th [sn] o. Secondly, a person (including a Russian native speaker of the Russian language who speaks it well) may develop a false belief, which he follows, that oral speech needs to be corrected in writing. Such false "correctness" is characteristic to one degree or another of most beginners to read Russian. Later, the native speaker refuses to do this, realizing the different principles of writing and pronunciation of words. However, the tendency to pronounce words of some degree on the norms of pronunciation of individual words and their groups. Consequently, as a result of this, a pronunciation of the type thin, strong instead of the previously literary tone [k] th, strong [k] th.

On the part of native Russian speakers who know foreign languages to some extent, there is sometimes a deliberate phonetic distortion of words of foreign origin. A person, speaking Russian, pronounces these words not in the way they should be pronounced in Russian, based on the Russian articulation base, but in a foreign way, pronouncing them in French, German or English, introducing them into Russian speech sounds alien to her and replacing individual sounds, for example: [hi] not instead of Heine, [zhu] ri instead of [zh`u] ri. Such pronunciation, including with sounds alien to the Russian language, does not contribute to the normalization and culture of speech.

In order to avoid the above mistakes, it is necessary: a) to constantly monitor your own pronunciation; b) to observe the speech of people who are fluent in the norms of the literary language; c) constantly study the rules of phonetics and orthoepy and constantly refer to reference dictionaries.

Normative speech is an obligatory sign of an educated, intelligent person, and the culture of sounding speech is just as important an aspect of national culture as the culture of the written word, the culture of communication, the culture of social life. All recommendations regarding the pronunciation norm can be divided into two unequal parts: the vast majority of them relate to how to pronounce individual words, and only a very small part concerns the features of the utterance or continuous speech. Meanwhile, observations show that the type of speech is very important for creating the phonetic appearance of an utterance.

The following types of speech can be distinguished: monologue - dialogic, prepared - spontaneous, thorough - relaxed. Monologue speech assumes that the speaker utters certain statements for a sufficiently long period of time. Any monologue speech differs from dialogic speech, the essence of which is the exchange of messages between two or more interlocutors. Prepared speech differs from spontaneous speech in that the speaker already knows not only what, but also how he should speak before the act of verbal communication. Examples of prepared speech - stage speech, reading a pre-written text; spontaneous speech is generated at the moment of communication, its form is not prepared in advance. Careful speech implies that the speaker pays special attention to the sound side - for example, when dictating a text, relaxed speech differs from careful speech by less attention to the sound side itself.

Each of the listed types of speech can be combined with other types.

monologue speech can be prepared and unprepared, thorough and unconstrained.

prepared speech can be monologue and dialogic, it is more often thorough than unconstrained.

Careful speech can be both monologue and dialogic, prepared or spontaneous.

Dialogic speech more often spontaneous and relaxed, but can be prepared and thorough.

Spontaneous speech it can be monologue and dialogic, careful and unconstrained.

Laid-back speech can be monologue and dialogic, prepared or spontaneous.

The specific combination of these types depends on the conditions of speech communication and is characterized as a pronunciation style. Most often, three styles of pronunciation are distinguished - solemnly official, neutral and colloquial. Of course, this is only an approximate classification of style features, since each of the three styles can appear in several varieties. The neutral style of pronunciation is such a combination of types of speech that can be characterized as not carrying information about the special conditions of speech communication: this is how the neutral style differs from solemn-official and colloquial. If we talk about the choice of phonetic means, then the neutral style is most likely characterized by those features of articulation, the phonetic formation of words, the intonation of statements, which we spoke about in this book without special mention as normal. In a solemn-official style, articulations become clearer, the volume of speech rises, the tempo slows down, and syntagmatic articulation becomes more vivid. This is, as a rule, a monologue, prepared, thorough speech (once I had a chance to look into the prepared text of a speech of one colleague: all the syntagmatic boundaries were put in red pencil, the main stressed words were underlined - and his speech was an example of an official solemn style). The conversational style is characterized by spontaneity and ease, and in phonetic terms - a faster pace, less clear articulation, more monotonous intonation figures. An important task of phonetics as a science of living speech is the development of criteria by which the differences between the literary colloquial style and vernacular are determined.

One way to rely on phonetic criteria to distinguish pronunciation styles is to use the notion of pronunciation type. The type of pronunciation is a way of implementing the phonemic model of the word in speech (perhaps in the future it will be possible to include here the method of implementing the intonation model of the utterance, but this issue has not yet been seriously developed). The type of pronunciation that is sufficient to unambiguously determine the phonemic model of a word will be called the full type of pronunciation. With an incomplete type of pronunciation, additional information is needed to determine the phonemic model of the word, i.e., to interpret its sound composition as a certain sequence of phonemes.

L. V. Shcherba wrote that in ordinary speech the full type of pronunciation is never found: only some sections are pronounced in the full type, while the rest are in the incomplete type, as a result of which such sound segments arise, the phonemic interpretation of which is impossible without recourse to more high levels of the language, i.e. without determining what kind of word it is or what kind of word form it is. We emphasize that this is a normal phenomenon, a property of any speech. Let's look at one specific example. At the end of nouns kind to them. case under stress, the exponent of the morpheme is the phoneme /A/ - /krAsa/, /dušA/, etc. What happens if this ending is preceded by a soft consonant, but it itself does not carry stress? Indeed, for the system of Russian vowels, the law of alternation of stressed /A/ after a soft consonant with unstressed /i/ is obligatory. Then in words melon, nanny, bullet, storm the phoneme /i/ should appear, which is the exponent of the ending of another case - melons, nannies etc.

If we isolate the last vowel from the words recorded in the normative pronunciation in the nominative case using a special device and rewrite it outside the context in which it was implemented, then almost everyone who listens to this vowel will define it as a front vowel and an upper or middle rise . However, not a single Russian specialist will agree that the last phoneme /i/ in these words. In this case, a kind of substitution occurs - instead of the allophone that is realized in the incomplete type of pronunciation, an allophone is discussed that is characteristic of a strong position and pronounced in the full type. We already know that the significant variability of allophones of the same phoneme is determined by combinatorial and positional conditions, so that the appearance of segments of an incomplete pronunciation type can be predicted on the basis of this knowledge. Thus, there is, as it were, a normative probability of the appearance of segments of an incomplete type, and if the characteristics of the speech sequence correspond to this probability, then we can say that this sequence belongs to the neutral style of pronunciation. If the number of sections of the full type of pronunciation is greater than expected, then this style of pronunciation should be defined as solemn-formal, and if less, then as colloquial. A further increase in areas of incomplete type of pronunciation should indicate the transition of speech to the category of non-normative. A quantitative description of the procedure that makes it possible to determine the style of speech on the basis of the type of utterance is a matter for further research, among which the main place should be occupied by studies of the phonetic organization of connected texts.

18. Pronunciation of borrowed words and morphemes.

Borrowed words, as a rule, obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian literary language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features. The most significant of them is the preservation of the sound [o] in unstressed syllables and solid consonants before the front vowel [e] in the pronunciation. In an unstressed position, the sound [o] is preserved, for example, in such words as m [o] del, m [o] turf, [o] asis, b [o] a, [o] tel, f [o] nema, m[o]dernism and in foreign proper names: F[o]ber, V[o]lter, T[o]lyatti, Sh[o]pen, M[o]passan. The same pronunciation [o] is also observed in stressed syllables: kaka [o], for the sake of [o]. However, most of the borrowed vocabulary, which are words firmly mastered by the Russian literary language, obeys the general rules for pronunciation [o] and [a] in unstressed syllables: b[a] cal, k[a] styum, canned goods, b[a] xer, r [a] yal, pr [a] gress, k [b] binet, f [b] formulate and DR- In most borrowed words before [e], consonants soften: ka [t ']et, pa [t ' ]efon, faculty [t ']et, [t '] theory, [duemy, [d '] espot, [n '] ervg, pio [n '] er, [s '] section, [s '] series, mu ['z] - her, ha [z "] eta, [r '] enta, [r '] vector.

Back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa [k'e) t, [k'e] gli, [k'e] ks, ba [g'e] t, [g'e) rtsog, s [x' e]ma. The sound [l] is also usually pronounced softly in this position: [l'e] di, mo[l'e] kula, ba[l'e] t, etc. However, in a number of words of foreign origin, the hardness of consonants before [e ] is preserved: sh[te]psel, o[te]l, s[te]id, co[de]ks, mo[de]l, ka[re], [de]miurge, [de]mping, kash[ ne], e [ne] - rgia, [de] march, mor [ze], k [re] do, etc. Moreover, usually in borrowed words, dental consonants [t], [d], [ s], [h], [g], [p]. Description of orthoepic norms can be found in the literature on the culture of speech, in special linguistic studies, for example, in the book by R. I. Avanesov “Russian literary pronunciation”, as well as in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian literary language.

Part of the borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language has some orthoepic features, which are fixed by the literary norm.

1. In some words of foreign origin in place of unstressed about pronounced sound [o]: hell a gio, bo a, bom about nd, bond about n like a oh r a dio, tr and about. In addition, there may be stylistic hesitation in high-style text; the preservation of unstressed [o] in words of foreign origin is one of the means of attracting attention to them, the means of highlighting them. The pronunciation of the words nocturne, sonnet, poetic, poet, poetry, dossier, veto, creed, foyer, etc. with an unstressed [o] is optional. Foreign names Maurice Thorez, Chopin, Voltaire, Rodin, Daudet, Baudelaire, Flaubert, Zola, Honore de Balzac, Sacramento and others also retain unstressed [o] as a variant of literary pronunciation.

In some borrowed words in literary pronunciation, after vowels and at the beginning of a word, the unstressed [e] duelist, muezzin, poetic, aegis, evolution, exaltation, exotic, equivalent, eclecticism, economics, screen, expansion, expert, experiment, exhibit, ecstasy, kurtosis, element, elite, embargo, emigrant, emission, emir, energy, enthusiasm, encyclopedia, epigraph, episode, epilogue, epoch, effect, effective, etc.

2. In oral public speech, certain difficulties are caused by the pronunciation of a hard or soft consonant in borrowed words before the letter e, for example, in the words pace, swimming pool, museum, etc. In most such cases, a soft consonant is pronounced: academy, pool, beret, beige, brunette, bill, monogram, debut, motto, recitation, declaration, dispatch, incident, compliment, competent, correct, museum, patent, pate, Odessa, tenor, term, plywood, overcoat; the word tempo is pronounced with a firm t.

In other words before e a firm consonant is pronounced: adept, auto-da-fe, business, western, child prodigy, riding breeches, dumbbell, grotesque, neckline, delta, dandy, derby, de facto, de jure, dispensary, identical, boarding school, international, intern, karate, square, cafe, muffler, codeine, codex, computer, tuple, cottage, bracket, marten, billionaire, model, modern, morse, hotel, parterre, pathos, polonaise, purse, poetess, resume, rating, reputation, superman and others. Some of these words have been known to us for at least a hundred and fifty years, but do not show a tendency to soften the consonant.

In loanwords beginning with a prefix de-, before vowels dez-, as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo-, with a general tendency to soften, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard d to n, for example: devaluation, de-ideologization, demilitarization, depoliticization, destabilization, deformation, disinformation, deodorant, disorganization, neo-globalism, neo-colonialism, neo-realism, neo-fascism.

Solid pronunciation of consonants before e recommended in foreign proper names: Bella, Bizet, Voltaire: Descartes, Dode, Jaurès, Carmen, Mary, Pasteur, Rodin, Flaubert, Chopin, Apollinaire, Fernandel [d uh], Carter, Ionesco, Minnelli, Vanessa Redgrave, Stallone and others. In borrowed words with two (or more) e, one of the consonants is often pronounced softly, while the other remains firm in front of the e strap [rete], g e nesis [gene], relay [relay], genetics [gene], cafeteria [fete], pince-nez [pe; ne], reputation [re; me], secretary [se; re; te], ethnogenesis [gene], etc.

In relatively few words of foreign origin, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of the consonant before e, for example: with the normative pronunciation of a solid consonant before e in the words businessman [ne; me], annexation [ne], pronunciation with a soft consonant is acceptable; in the words dean, the norm is a soft pronunciation, but hard [de] and [te] are also allowed; in the word session, the variants of hard and soft pronunciation are equal. It is not normative to soften consonants before e in the professional speech of representatives of the technical intelligentsia in the words laser, computer, as well as in the colloquial pronunciation of the words business, sandwich, intensive, interval.

Stylistic fluctuations in the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e are also observed in some foreign-language proper names: Bertha, "Decameron", Reagan. Major, Kramer, Gregory Peck, etc.

3. Solid [w] is pronounced in the words parachute, brochure. In the word of the jury, a soft hissing [zh '] is pronounced. The names Julien, Jules are also pronounced.

19. reflections of pronunciation norms in orthoepic dictionaries.

Orthoepy is closely related to phonetics - a science that studies normative literary pronunciation (Greek - correct; - word, speech). Orthoepic norms are subject to the pronunciation of speech sounds, stress, etc. The term Orthoepy It is used in linguistics in two meanings: 1) a set of norms of the literary language associated with the sound design of significant units: the norms of pronunciation of sounds in different positions, the norms of stress and intonation; 2) a science that studies the variation of the pronunciation norms of the literary language and develops pronunciation recommendations (orthoepic rules).

Of the norms that allow variability of pronunciation in the same position, it is necessary to note the following norms, updated in the school course of the Russian language:

Pronunciation of hard and soft consonant before E In loanwords;

Pronunciation in single word combinations Thu And Chn Like [pcs] and [shn];

Pronunciation of sounds [zh] and [zh ’] in place of combinations Zhzh, zhd, zzh;

Variability of positional softening of consonants in separate groups;

Variation of stress in individual words and word forms. It is these that are associated with the pronunciation of individual words

And the forms of words of the norm of pronunciation are the object of description in orthoepic dictionaries.

Remember a few rules that reflect modern orthoepic norms.

In place of combination Chn Pronounce [shn]: horse [shn] o, naro [shn] o, sku [shn] o.

Instead of a combination Thu Pronounce [pcs]: [pcs] about, something [pcs] about, [pcs] oby, but something [th].

Instead of G At the end - Wow - pronounce [in]: then [in] o, more-[in] o, new [in] o.

Y Combinations Zsh And ssh Pronounced as a long [w]: ra[w]it (embroider), [w] mind (with noise), be[w] inel (without an overcoat).

Y Combinations Szh And Zzh They pronounce it like a long [w]: [w] al (squeezed), ra [w] yog (fired up).

Y Combinations Zch And mid Pronounced as a long soft [u ’]: in [u ’] ik (carrier), sign [u ’] ik (subscriber).

Y Combinations DC And Tts Pronounced as a long [ts]: kolo [ts] a (well), young [ts] a (well done). Combination at the end of verbs - Tsya AND - Tsya Pronounced as [tsa]: I take [tsa] (taken).

Y Combinations PM And Dh Pronounced as a long soft [h ']: nala [h '] ik (fixer), le [h '] ik (pilot).

Y Double consonants in borrowed words are usually pronounced as a long consonant, but a number of words allow the pronunciation of a double consonant as a single sound: bath [n], flu [n].

Y Letter G At the end of a word God Pronounced as [x].

Y Letter combination GK Pronounced like [h'k'] in words Lightweight, soft.

Y Letter combination MS Pronounced like [hh'] in words lighter, softer.

Y In many foreign words, consonants are followed by E, and consonants are pronounced firmly: Studio [te], Muffler [ne], Cafe [fe], Summary [me], Stand [te], Masterpiece [de].

Y Letters at the beginning of words E And E Write according to pronunciation Huntsman, ellipse).

Y After And, as well as after the consonants, the letter is written E (Hygiene, diet, muffler, stand).Exceptions: foreign words Mayor, Sir And some proper names Ulan-Ude).

Y After other vowels, it is more often written E (Poetry, silhouette, maestro).

Y In other words, the letter is used E (Project, register). Errors in stress can be caused by various reasons that must be taken into account.

Y Errors associated with ignorance of the stress inherent in the language from which the word is borrowed. Word scanty, for example, comes from the French word miser And pronounced with an emphasis on E - scanty.

Y Errors related to the absence of a letter in printed text Yo. Letter Yo Always takes the stress. elimination of two points above Yo In the printed text led to the fact that many words began to be pronounced with the letter E, and the stress moved to a random place: they began to say, for example, Bile, biliary Instead of Bile, biliary; Spellbound Instead of Spellbound; Newborn Instead of Newborn Etc.

Y Errors that are the result of spelling errors due to poor knowledge of spelling. For example, Booking - gross mistake! This word is spelled I At the end - Armor, and the accent in it has a semantic difference: Armor - preemptive right to receive something ( Reservation for tickets), as opposed to the word Armor - protective coating (tank armor). Toast - gross mistake! Word Toast - masculine, in the plural has an accent on the final syllable - croutons.

There are difficulties with stress in the simplest words due to the fact that many do not know exactly their belonging to one or another part of speech. The stress in words can also be consulted in spelling, explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, in various reference dictionaries, in textbooks on the culture of speech.

Borrowed words make up 10-20% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Many of them are organically included in its composition and are foreign only in their origin: meter, culture, newspaper. Most of them do not differ in pronunciation from the words of native Russians, but some have features that violate the basic orthoepic norms of the Russian language.

In native Russian words in position before [ uh ] only soft paired consonants are presented: Vera [v'era]. For this reason, the pronunciation of hard consonants before [ uh ] in borrowed words is a new feature in Russian phonetics, but associated with systemic factors. The very combination hard consonant + [uh ] is not alien to the Russian language. This is a potential feature, the possibility of which is inherent in the system. We pronounce a hard consonant before [ uh ] in such Russian words as tin [jes't'], goal [cel'] and others. More L.V. Shcherba said that “no Russian is hindered by the pronunciation of the syllables te, de, ne, se at the junction of words - from this, over this, at the junction of the prefix and the root - razedaki”. There are few such words, but the very fact of their existence speaks of the possibility of pronouncing a solid consonant before [ uh ].

Dictionaries pay much attention to foreign words with the sound [ uh ] in different positions - percussion ( rector) and unstressed ( dean). Russification of such words consists in replacing the solid consonant before [ uh ] to softened, orthographically this is indicated e, pronunciations like rector, pioneer considered illiterate; in the case of an unstressed position ( dean – d'e and kan) sound pronunciation [ uh ] after a softened consonant, it also qualitatively changes the sound - “uh” close to "and" – [e and ]. There are a lot of foreign words with the indicated sound in modern Russian, grammatically they have long been mastered by the Russian language - many of them are inclined, but the pronunciation is often preserved native, this is especially true for terminological vocabulary: phoneme [ne], defile [de], awning [te], artery [te] etc. Along with this, other special words were Russified: detonator, hyphen, pace, term, thermometer, theory; wherein [ uh ] can store everyday words like neckline [de, te], scarf [ne], diet [ie].

It is interesting to trace the gradual change in the attitude of lexicologists towards the formation of a new pronunciation of borrowings from [ uh ]. In the mid-twentieth century, more indications were required on this account, even in such words as text, timbre, tenor, awning. The reference dictionary of 1959 contains notes: text[not te], subject[not te], textologist[not te], tenor[not te]. Persistently keep [ uh ] the words timbre [te], trend [te and de], awning [te], but the word pace has undergone a phonetic change: the dictionary of 1959 - pace [te], dictionary 1998 - pace [t'e]. The same thing happened with other words: a 1959 dictionary - dismantling [de], demoralization [de], depression [de, not re]; the 1998 dictionary in all these words gives [ d'e].

The process is uneven, unification did not happen even at the end of the twentieth century. Moreover, soft and hard variants coexist in the same type of word groups. For example, in words with the component press: press [r'e], compress [r'e], press conference [r'e] - a soft pronunciation was fixed, and in words repression, express allowed along with the soft option hard. In mass use, the solid version is preferred, contrary to the instructions of dictionaries. The predominance of the solid variant is also supported by the practice of using other words with re: progress [re], stress [re], congress [re], where the norm provides for a soft option. As a definitely non-normative option, you can even meet the pronunciation beret [re], correction [re].

It is the language system that determines the patterns of pronunciation of a hard or soft consonant before [ uh ] in loanwords. Can be distinguished a number of factors affecting the pronunciation of a consonant as hard or soft . According to L.A. Verbitskaya, they are divided into three groups.

The first group - phonetic factors : primarily the quality of the consonant, as well as the position in relation to the stress. It was noticed that they are most often pronounced as solid front-lingual consonants, less often - labial, extremely rarely back-lingual. At the same time, the percentage of solids decreases with distance from the stress.

The second group - morphological factors : namely, the morphological assimilation of the word, that is, whether the word in the Russian language acquired the paradigm of inflection. The morphological lack of mastery of the word contributes to the preservation of the hardness of the consonant before [ uh ]. For example, indeclinable nouns: Cafe, meringue.

The third group - lexical factors : borrowing time and lexical mastery of the word. There is an opinion that the earlier the word came, the more Russified it was. At the same time, the word panel was already recorded in the "Lexicon" of 1726, but so far its pronunciation has not been established. The second lexical factor is the lexical mastery of a word or the degree of familiarity of native speakers with a given word. Can be distinguished 3 degrees of development:

1 - words well known and used;

2 - words familiar, but little or unused;

3 - unknown words.

It has been experimentally proven that most often a hard consonant is found in unfamiliar and unfamiliar words, and, on the contrary, the probability of soft consonants appearing in well-known words is 2-3 times greater than in little-known and unknown ones.

Special studies have shown that a certain dependence of the hardness-softness of the consonant before [ uh ] from which language the word came from, apparently not.

Finally, the pronunciation of the consonant before [ uh ] in borrowed words may depend on the individual characteristics of a native speaker: education, age, place of residence. But the language system will play a decisive role , which was repeatedly written by L.V. Shcherba: “Everything that is truly individual, that does not follow from the language system, is not inherent in it potentially ... perishes irrevocably” [Shmelev; S. 19].

The main difficulty in developing rules for the pronunciation of borrowed words is due to the fact that wide variability is allowed here. .

You should pay attention to words in the roots of which only hard consonants are pronounced [ with ], [R ], [n ], [m ], [f ]; these are the words pince-nez, cabaret, muffler, panel, burime, Cafe. Almost all of these words are indeclinable, that is, morphologically undeveloped. These examples show the importance of the morphological factor in the pronunciation of a hard or soft consonant.

It is interesting to note that sometimes factors such as consonant quality and lexical mastery of a word act in opposite directions. More often than not, the phonetic factor is stronger; for example, we pronounce a hard consonant in such well-known and frequently used words as tennis, index, thermos.

So, the pronunciation of a soft or hard consonant in the words under consideration primarily depends on the quality of the consonant: back-lingual and labial in most cases are soft: scheme [ckh'ema], skittles [k'agle'i] and only in some cases - solid: camping [camp'ink], canape [canape]; anterior lingual - mostly hard: pace [tempo], phoneme [fanema], antenna [antenna].

Borrowed words in some cases differ from Russian in features in pronunciation. The most significant of them is the preservation in the pronunciation of the sound [ about ] in unstressed syllables and hard consonants before a front vowel [ uh ]. In an unstressed position, the sound [ about ] is preserved, for example, in words such as m[about]del, b[about]a and in foreign proper names: fl[about]ber, AT[about]alter. The same pronunciation is observed in stressed syllables: cocoa[about], for the sake of[about]. At the same time, the majority of borrowed vocabulary, which are words firmly mastered by the Russian literary language, obeys the general rules of pronunciation [ about ] and [ a ] in unstressed syllables: b[ă ]feces, to[ă ]stume.

In accordance with the law of Russian pronunciation before the vowel [ uh ] is pronounced soft consonant. This rule also applies to borrowed words that have firmly entered the Russian language, for example, aqua[r'e]eh, [d'e]to[r'e]t and many others. At the same time, in speech practice we encounter facts that contradict this rule. Even foreign words that have long been mastered by the Russian language, which have entered into wide speech use, are pronounced by some with a firm consonant. You can often hear: te]rmin instead of [ t'e]rmin, to[fe] instead of to[f'e]. Many words that were previously only pronounced hard now allow soft pronunciation, for example: artery [te] and add. [ t'e], vaudeville [de] and add. [ d'e] .

In most words, the soft pronunciation of the consonant becomes the main option, and the option with the hard consonant is optional, for example: aggression [r'e] and add. [ re], congress [r'e] and add. [ re]. At the same time, for individual words - artery, inert, trend, pace, according to the dictionaries of recent years, there is a strengthening of a solid pronunciation: ar[te]ria, and[ne]oral, [te]trend, [te]mp.

No ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ effect on the pronunciation of unstressed [ about ] rendered the letter. In foreign words like poet, poetry, bolero pronunciation of unstressed [ about ] arose, of course, under the influence of spelling and, apparently, was supported by the desire to emphasize the origin of these words, so in Russian words the unstressed o always alternated [ a] of the corresponding degree of reduction. It should be noted that cases of the influence of spelling on pronunciation are noted when the new pronunciation does not conflict with the system, when system relations are not affected.

Hence it follows that the general process of Russification (mastering) of foreign words gradually leads them to “subordination” to the pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language. At the same time, the adaptation of “foreign” combinations of sounds to the phonetic nature of the borrowing language is very uneven and creates considerable difficulties in pronouncing words of foreign origin. .

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, you can do the following findings.

The leading trends in the development of modern literary pronunciation are primarily the following.

First - ϶ᴛᴏ simplification of a number of complex orthoepic rules .

Second - ϶ᴛᴏ screening out narrow pronunciation features under the influence of the media: radio, television, schools, cinema, theater .

Third - ϶ᴛᴏ convergence of normative pronunciation with writing, which is explained by the fact that the literary language is acquired by students through written speech, through books, newspapers, magazines .

Fourth - ϶ᴛᴏ phonetic adaptation of foreign words .

Fifth - ϶ᴛᴏ social leveling of pronunciation .

Speaking about the dependence of the norm on the system, it should be said that in the phonological system of the Russian language a number of patterns have been outlined, certain internal rearrangements, which can lead to some changes in the norm. In contrasting hard consonants with soft ones, not all the potential possibilities of this category have been exhausted. An analysis of our study shows that there may still be an increase in the number of pairs of consonants contrasted by hardness-softness, the number of positions in which this opposition is realized may increase or decrease. The process of increasing the number of positions in which hard and soft are differentiated occurs in the modern language due to the expansion of the opposition of hard to soft before the front vowel. uh . There is a further restriction in the use of vowels in an unstressed position. If until now this restriction concerned only two phonemes< uh > and< about >, vowels of the middle rise, then at present there is a tendency to weaken the functional load< at >.

The lack of a ubiquitous pronunciation standard can be explained, on the one hand, by the influx of the rural population carrying dialect speech into the cities, and on the other hand, by the spread of mass media (radio, television, cinema). In this regard, the study of the pronunciation norms of the Russian language, the identification of a set of orthoepic rules is of particular importance. Knowledge of these issues is extremely important for teachers of the Russian language. Teaching pronunciation is extremely important, just like learning correct spelling and grammar rules; however, until now, orthoepy is not an independent subject in teaching the Russian language in schools and universities.

Pronunciation of foreign words - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Pronunciation of foreign words" 2017, 2018.

There are many words in Russian borrowed from other languages. Getting into the Russian language, a new word obeys its orthoepic norms. So, in accordance with the laws of Russian pronunciation, before e a soft consonant is pronounced: [d "] el, but [d] ol. However, this rule does not apply to all words of foreign origin, which leads to fluctuations in the norm and the appearance of errors in speech: you can hear, for example, [te] rmin instead [term, shi[ne]l instead shi [n "] spruce.

The reason for the fluctuation of this orthoepic norm is the influence of the source language, in which the word was pronounced with a solid consonant. It often takes a lot of time to fully "learn" a new word. For example, the word dean(derived from the Latin decim - ten; originally dean - senior over ten monks) came into the Russian language long ago, but the variant hard and soft pronunciation before e: [de]kan and [d "] ekan.

Remember some words in which the consonant before e is pronounced firmly: anes t esia, d ekol t e, gro t esk, d e-gradation, d ecadance, d Christmas tree t eu, d e t active, computer t ep, m e n ed-zher, mik with ep, with service, st R ess, t esis, anti t eza, non with ens, pro t ek-tion, sw t ep, t hermos, boo t erbrod, t temp, t ennis, t ent, sha t en, extra with ence, beefsh t ex, biz n es, and n erty, and t spruce, and d antique, la h er, in t check, pass t spruce, R egby, t ember, t en d ence, fo n ethics, in d ex, in t errier, be h e, R barely with sexy.

Words from soft consonant before e: aka d emic, b bullshit, boor t series, d fuck and n emia, bru n uh, clar n uh, computer t ence, con t text, to R eat, mu h her, pa t ent, pash t no, p R essa, prog R ess, t er-min, fla n spruce, shi n spruce, es with sion, jurisprudence d sion, yachts m en.

In many cases, a variant pronunciation is allowed;

[d "] ekan and [de] kan, [d "] ekanat and [de] rope, [s"] session and [se] ssia, but [ve] lla and but [in "] ella, ag [r" ]session and additional ag[re]ssia, [d "]ep[r"]session and additional [de]p[re]ssia, ba[ss"]ein and ba[sse]ine, stra[t" ] egiya and additional strategy [te] gia, lo [te] rey and additional lo [t "] here.

Pronunciation [ch], [shn] in place of spelling ch

Competition of pronunciation options in place of spelling and graphic combination ch has a long history, the echoes of which we feel when we have to choose one or another usage: boring[ch]o or boring[shn]o, skvore[ch]ik or skvore[shn]ik?

There is a gradual displacement of the old Moscow pronunciation [shn] and a convergence of the pronunciation with the spelling, so the variants of kori[shn]evy, bulo[shn]ay, gorni[shn]ay are obsolete. At the same time, it should be remembered that some words retain as a mandatory pronunciation [shn] in place of spelling n: boring, boring, on purpose, of course, scrambled eggs, birdhouse, trifling, eyeglass case(case for glasses), laundry, mustard plaster, loser, candlestick. The pronunciation [shn] is also normative in female patronymics: Kuzminichna, Fominichna, Ilyinichna.

Pronunciation [e] and [o] under stress after soft consonants and hissing

In modern speech, one often hears af yo ra, op yo- ka instead of the norm af e ra, op e ka. Why do such fluctuations occur? Long transition process [e] in [about], in writing denoted by the letter yo , in a stressed position after soft consonants before hard ones, is reflected in the state of the modern norm. In most cases, under stress in a position between a soft and hard consonant and after hissing, the sound [o] is pronounced (graphically yo). Wed, for example, resh e then - resh yo fabric, sound e building -star yo zdny, tear - tearful.

Remember the words with this pronunciation:

raznosh yo rstny, w yo forehead, no yo many, see yo weaving, from yo kshiy, w yo heart, mark yo p, start yo p, forget yo, grav yo r, shof yo r, ks yo ndz, start yo r, double yo nstvo, ist yo k-shey (blood).

However, in many words, most often borrowed, there is no transition [e] to [o] in the indicated position: op e ka(not op yo ka!) af e ra(not af yo ra!) deb e ly, grenade e r, double e German, ist e kshiy (day), w e rd, w e evil, spineless e tny, carbine e r, oc e duration, wa-l e zhnik, at the same time e changeable.

The possibility of variant pronunciation of some words testifies to the fluctuation of this orthoepic norm. It should be borne in mind that the main, most preferred options are yo: white yo syy, bl yo cool, w yo lie, w yo personal, man yo vr, man yo vrenny, pobl yo whip. Options with e ri-words are fixed as permissible, that is, less desirable in use: whitish, faded, bile, bilious, maneuver, maneuverable, fade.

In the Russian literary language, as in any literary language with a long history, there is a considerable number of words of foreign origin, often inaccurately called "foreign words". The borrowed word was rarely assimilated by the Russian language in the form in which it existed in the source language. Differences in pronunciation between Russian and foreign languages led to the fact that the foreign word changed, adapted to Russian phonetic norms, sounds unusual for the Russian language disappeared in it. Now a significant part of such words in their pronunciation is no different from the words of native Russians. But some of them - words from different fields of technology, science, culture, politics, and especially foreign proper names - stand out among other words of the Russian literary language with their pronunciation, breaking the rules. The following describes some features of the pronunciation of words of foreign origin.

Combinations [j], [dz]

In words of foreign origin, the combination [j] is often presented, corresponding to the phoneme [ž] of other languages, which is an affricate [z], but pronounced with a voice. In Russian, the combination j is pronounced in the same way as the same combination in native Russian words, namely as [žzh]: [žzh] eat, [žzh] emmper, [žzh] igit, [žzh] entelmen.

In isolated cases, there is a combination [dz], corresponding to the sound [z]. This sound is a voiced [c]. Like j, the combination dz in Russian is pronounced in the same way as the corresponding combination in native Russian words, namely: muein.

In some words of foreign origin, in place of the letter g, an aspirated sound [h] is pronounced, for example, [h] abitus or a bra, in which it is possible to pronounce [h] along with [g]. Some of the foreign proper names can be pronounced with this sound, for example, Heine:.

Sound [o] in unstressed syllables

Only in a few borrowed words in the 1st pre-stressed syllable is [o], and then somewhat weakened: b[o]a, d[o]sie, b[o]rdo. [o] is also preserved in some compound words, for example, in the word communist party.

In the 2nd prestressed syllable, in the absence of vowel reduction, it is possible to pronounce [o] in such words as k[o]ns[o]me, m[o]derat[o], b[o]lero.

There are few words in which the vowel [o] is pronounced instead of the letter o in stressed syllables after consonants and vowels: vet[o], avid[o], cred[o], sake[o], kaka[o], ha[ o]s.

The unstressed vowel is often preserved in foreign proper names: B[o]dler, Z[o]la, V[o]lter, D[o]lores, R[o]den.

The pronunciation of the unstressed [o] has a stylistic meaning. When announcing the performance of a composer's work, it is more appropriate to pronounce Sh[o]pen, and in everyday speech Shpen can also be used.

consonants before e.

In non-Russian non-Russian words, consonants before e are not softened, as in native Russians. This applies primarily to dental consonants (except l) - t, d, s, s, n, p.

Solid [t] is pronounced in words such as atheism, atelier, stand, aesthetics. The solid [t] is also preserved in the foreign prefix inter-: in [te] ryu; as well as in a number of geographical names and other proper names: Ams[te]rdam, Dan[te].

The sound [d] is not softened in the words codex, model, modern, etc., as well as in such geographical names as Delhi, Rhodesia and the surnames Descartes, Mendelssohn.

The sounds [h] and [s] are pronounced firmly only in a few words: [sentence, mor[ze]. Also, solid [h] and [s] are found in given names and surnames, such as Joseph, Seneca.

The sound [n] also remains solid in given names and surnames (Re[ne], [ne] lson). Most words are pronounced with a hard [n], but there are cases when [n] softens before e: Neolithic, neologism.

But in most words of foreign origin, consonants before e are softened in accordance with the norms of Russian literary pronunciation, therefore such pronunciation as pro [fe] quarrels, ag [re] quarrels, [bere] t, etc. is completely unacceptable. Again the line spacing is different, no italics for tokens. Check.

Emphasis features

Russian accent- the most difficult area of the Russian language to master. It is distinguished by the presence of a large number of pronunciation options: loop and loop, cottage cheese and cottage cheese, rings and rings, beginnings and beginnings, means and means. Russian stress is characterized by diversity and mobility. Diversity is the ability of stress to fall on any syllable of Russian words: on the first - iconography, on the second - expert, on the third - blinds, on the fourth - apartments. In many languages of the world, stress is attached to a specific syllable. Mobility is the property of stress to move from one syllable to another when changing (declension or conjugation) of the same word: water - water, walk - walk. Most of the words of the Russian language (about 96%) have a mobile stress.

Diversity and mobility, historical variability of pronunciation norms lead to the appearance of accent variants in one word. Sometimes one of the options is sanctioned by dictionaries as corresponding to the norm, and the other as incorrect. Wed: mage a zin, - wrong; shop and n is correct. In other cases, the options are given in dictionaries as equals: sparks and and and crunchy.

Reasons for the appearance of accent options:

· The law of analogy - a large group of words with a certain type of stress affects a smaller one, similar in structure. In the word thinking, the stress shifted from the root thinking to the suffix -eni- by analogy with the words beating, driving, etc.

False analogy. The words gas pipeline, garbage chute are mispronounced by a false analogy with the word wire with an emphasis on the penultimate syllable: gas pipeline, garbage chute.

· Tendency of grammaticalization of stress. Development of the ability of stress to differentiate the forms of words.

For example, with the help of stress, the forms of the indicative and imperative mood are distinguished: attachment at thread, prin at baby, come at beat and string and those forced and those sips and those.

Mixing patterns of stress. This reason operates more often in borrowed words, but it can also appear in Russian.

For example, nouns with -iya have two patterns of stress: dramaturgy (Greek) and astronomy (Latin). In accordance with these models, one should pronounce: asymmetry, industry, metallurgy, therapy and veterinary medicine, gastronomy, cooking, speech therapy, drug addiction. However, in live speech there is a mixture of models, as a result of which options appear: cooking and cooking, speech therapy and speech therapy, drug addiction and drug addiction.

· Action of a tendency to rhythmic balance.

This tendency is manifested only in four-five-syllable words. If the inter-stress interval (the distance between stresses in adjacent words) is greater than the critical interval (the critical interval is equal to four unstressed syllables in a row), but the stress moves to the previous syllable. So, it is inconvenient to pronounce 'binary equations', since there are five unstressed syllables between stressed syllables. It is more convenient to pronounce 'binary equations'.

· Accent interaction of word-formation types.

Options in cases of spare - spare, transfer - transfer, platoon - platoon, pressure - pressure, tidal - tidal,
branch - branch are explained by the accent interaction of denominative and verbal formations: translated - from translation, translated - from translate, etc.

Professional pronunciation: spark (for electricians), mining (for miners), compass, cruisers (for sailors), boyish (for sellers), agony, bite, alcohol, syringes (for doctors), armhole, leaflets (for tailors), characteristic (for actors), etc. It is not clear here what the difference in pronunciation is compared to normal. It is necessary to indicate the stress or features of the pronunciation of sounds.

· Trends in the development of stress.

Two-syllable and three-syllable masculine nouns tend to shift the stress from the last syllable to the previous one (regressive stress). For some nouns, this process has ended. Once they said: turner, competition, runny nose, ghost, despot, symbol, air, pearls, epigraph. In other words, the process of stress transition continues to this day and manifests itself in the presence of options: quarter (wrong quarter), cottage cheese and additional. cottage cheese, contract, etc. agreement, dispensary (incorrect dispensary), catalog (catalogue not recommended), obituary not recommended (obituary) (estimates of the 'Orthoepic Dictionary', edited by R. I. Avanesov). In feminine nouns, also two- and three-syllable, there is a shift in stress from the first word to the next (progressive stress): kirza - kirza, keta - keta, foil - foil, cutter - cutter.

The source of the appearance of variants can be stresses in words of different meanings: linguistic - linguistic, developed - developed, chaos - chaos,
flap - flap.

Insufficient mastery of exotic vocabulary: pima or pima (shoes), high fur boots or high fur boots (shoes), shanga or shanga (in Siberia, this is what cheesecake is called).

Thus, the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation are a complex phenomenon. For the convenience of the user, the main orthoepic rules of the Russian language can be divided into those that determine the pronunciation of vowel sounds (in different positions in a word, as well as when determining the place of stress) and the pronunciation of consonant sounds (also in different positions in a word, in consonant combinations, in combinations with some vowels, in different grammatical forms).

Conclusion

The literary language we use is the most precious heritage we have received from previous generations. It must be remembered that the culture of literary pronunciation must be consciously instilled and developed. She herself is not given to anyone without special efforts.

Based on the above material, we come to the conclusion that the knowledge of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form is a prerequisite for successful professional activity. Knowledge of orthoepic and spelling norms allows you to avoid ambiguities, absurdities, makes it possible to express yourself accurately, express your thoughts clearly. The ability to speak Russian correctly is necessary for everyone, and especially for future business people. And the periodic adjustment of the norms is natural and quite natural, as it meets the needs of the developing language and the practice of its coverage.

Bibliography

1. Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1984.

2. Boyanus S. K., Setting the English pronunciation. English phonetics for Russians, M., 1932;

3. Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language: A textbook for universities. M.: Logos, 2001.

4. Golub I.B., Rozental D.E. Secrets of good speech. – M.: Intern. Relations, 1993.

5. Goltsova N. G., Shamshin I. V. Russian language. Grades 10-11: a textbook for secondary schools. - M .: OOO Teed Russkoe Slovo, 2005.

6. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. M., 1981. S.11-131.

7. Gorbachevich K.S. Dictionary of difficulties in pronunciation and stress in modern Russian. St. Petersburg, 2002.

8. Kasatkin L.L., Klobukov E.V., Lekant P.A. . Brief reference book on the modern Russian language. M., 1991.

9. Kasatkin L.L., Krysin L.P. and others. Russian language. Part 1. M., 1989. S.237-246.

10. Kolesov VV The development of verbal stress in modern Russian pronunciation. - In the book: The development of the Russian language after the Great October Socialist Revolution. L., 1997.

11. Round table: the language norm and the problems of its codification / "The World of the Russian Word", 2002.

12. Obnorsky S. P. Selected works on the Russian language. - M., 1990.

13. Ozhegov S. I. Lexicology. Lexicography. A culture of speech. - M., 1974.

14. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. / S.N. Borunova, V.L. Vorontsova, N.A. Yeskova. Ed. R.I. Avanesova. 5th rev. and additional ed. M.: Russian language, 1989.

15. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. M., 1985.

16. Panov M.V. Russian phonetics. M., 1967. S.294 - 350.

17. Popov R.N., Valkova D.P. etc. Modern Russian language. M., 1978.

18. Modern Russian: Textbook: Phonetics. Lexicology. Word formation. Morphology. Syntax. - / Ed. L.A. Novikova. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house "Lan", 2001.

19. Superanskaya A. V. Emphasis in borrowed words in modern Russian.-M., 1968.

20. Ushakov D. N., Russian orthoepy and its tasks, Sat. Russkaya Speech, III, L., 1928. About O. of the most important European languages;

21. Chernyshev V., On Russian Orthoepy: Laws and Rules of Russian Pronunciation, St. Petersburg, 1915.

تٌَََي ث.ث. Brief reference book on the modern Russian language. M., 1991, p. 57 Katya! Links are not in the form of footnotes, but in the text itself in square brackets, look at the sample and correct it throughout the file. If you give a quotation, then indicate the page, if you are just setting out someone's concept, then only the author and year of publication, then add the source to the list of references. Otherwise, why would it be needed?

Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language: A textbook for universities. M.: Logos, 2001, - p. 7 And quotes must be in quotation marks!

Modern Russian: Textbook: Phonetics. Lexicology. Word formation. Morphology. Syntax. - / Ed. L.A. Novikova. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house "Lan", 2001. - p. 148

Golub I.B., Rosenthal D.E. Secrets of good speech. – M.: Intern. Relations, 1993. - p. 177

Golub I.B., Rosenthal D.E. Secrets of good speech. – M.: Intern. Relations, 1993. - p. 178

Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. / S.N. Borunova, V.L. Vorontsova, N.A. Yeskova. Ed. R.I. Avanesova. 5th rev. and additional ed. M.: Russian language, 1989.