Features of traditional education briefly. Characteristics of the traditional education system

The traditional system of education, through which the vast majority of people all over the world still pass, has evolved over centuries and millennia. In ancient Egypt, as in Sumer, it was customary to beat a student to make him obey; endlessly repeat the same exercises so that they are better remembered and brought to automatism; memorize ancient texts, consecrated by authority, and endlessly copy them. Coercion, cane discipline, the immutability of the content defined by tradition - all this was and partly remains characteristic of the education system of many and many states of ancient, medieval and modern Europe. A different plan of tradition existed in India and China, but it was the European system that spread widely throughout the world, along with other achievements of civilization. This system was inherited by the Modern Times from the Middle Ages, reformed by Jan Amos Comenius three hundred years ago, but the goals, values ​​and style of educational interaction betray its origin from the ancient school described on the Sumerian tablets.

The traditional education system that we are talking about now is an ordinary subject-class-lesson system, which almost everyone knows from their own experience. Education is organized by subject, study time is divided into lessons, and there are five to eight lessons a day and they are all different; students are grouped into classes according to age and without any choice of teacher or classmates; success in learning is assessed using points; there are always excellent, good and bad students; attending classes is obligatory, as well as participating in various kinds of control activities - all this, probably, could not be reminded.

In their book The School Revolutionaries, Michael Liebarlet and Thomas Seligson, characterizing the atmosphere of the modern school, write: “We are forced to compete with each other when it comes to

marks, accolades, honors, college or sports teams, and social recognition. In the course of this competition, it is not our decency, understanding of life and intellectual abilities that are improved, but rather the ability to wear a mask, insincerity, opportunism and the desire to follow the safe and well-trodden path, the willingness to betray our comrades for our own benefit. But all this is assimilated by students involuntarily. They are simply adjusting to the school environment, learning the normal way to "succeed" in the bleak, impersonal world of high school. This competition comes with many humiliations for everyone, even for those who are successful. The main goal of the school is to educate opportunists who are subject to the authority of the school system. The memoirs of many prominent people about their path in education paint the school in general and the figure of the teacher in particular in rather gloomy colors. “School as a means of education was just an empty place for me ... it seems that all my teachers and my father considered me a very ordinary boy, intellectually, perhaps, even below the average level” (Charles Darwin).

“If only one of the teachers could show the “commodity face” by making an enticing preface to his subject, could stir up my imagination and kindle fantasy, instead of hammering facts into my head, would reveal to me the mystery of numbers and the romance of geographical cards, would help me feel the idea in history and music in poetry - who knows, maybe I would become a scientist ”(Charles Spencer Chaplin).

Contact with the traditional education system often causes quite difficult experiences for the child and his parents. The eminent psychologist and educator Frederick Burres Skinner, having visited a lesson at the school where his daughter studied, wrote in his diary: “Suddenly the situation seemed completely absurd to me. Feeling no guilt, the teacher destroyed almost everything we knew about the learning process. And Marie Curie, in a letter to her sister, expressed herself much more harshly: "I think it is better to drown children than to imprison them in modern schools."

Here is what American educators say about a normal, standard American school in the second half of the 20th century: “Schools destroy the minds and hearts of our children” (Jonathan Kozol); “Schools do not promote the development of the student as a person” (Charles Patterson).

“I want to quote the words of a high school teacher: “In our world,” he said, “there are only two institutions where the main factor is the term, and not the work done, this is school and prison. In other places, work is important, not that how long it took" (William Glasser).

Comparing a school to a prison or a barracks has long become commonplace. Remembering the school, even the greatest humorist of the 20th century completely loses his sense of humor. “Of all that is meant for innocent people on earth, the most terrible is the school. To begin with, school is a prison. However, in some respects it is even more brutal than prison. In prison, for example, you are not forced to read books written by jailers and their superiors ... even in those hours when you ran away from this stall, from under the supervision of the jailer, you did not stop tormenting yourself, bending over the hated school textbooks, instead of to dare to live” (George Bernard Shaw).

There is some amazing paradox in that society is always dissatisfied with its education system, always subjecting it to sharp criticism, but by and large everything remains the same. After all, a traditional school really looks like a prison, if only in that the students are required to be in it under the supervision of a teacher, one of whose functions is to supervise. Indeed, the management of teaching in such a school is aimed at familiarizing the individual with the established universally binding norms, and not at the realization of his special abilities and inclinations.

The creation of socio-political uniformity in society has always been a practical matter of the education system, and sometimes a conscious goal. At the beginning of the 20th century, even the term “social efficiency” appeared to denote this goal. An important function of compulsory universal education is, as sociologists say, social control: it is called upon to prepare obedient members of society who accept its basic values. This, of course, is a completely respectable function, the education system should not train terrorists, but the trouble is that along with obedience, a lack of initiative, a fear of creativity and a desire for routine performance of clearly defined duties usually come.

“After all, we do not study for school, but for life, we want to act as leaders in it. If the characteristic and essential properties of life are diversity and variability, then uniformity and

extraordinary tightness on reforms in the educational sphere do not agree with the tone of life. The routine school system, constantly looking back and not forward, will prepare poorly for life, for the assimilation and correct assessment of its new acquisitions, and the school, thus, can easily find itself, as it were, out of life, in some standing backwater with musty, and not fresh water” (P.F. Kapterev).

To date, the conflict between the utilitarian technocratic view of education (with an emphasis on measurable learning outcomes and the requirement to prepare students for the labor market), on the one hand, and the need of a democratic society to provide opportunities for individual development, on the other hand, has sharply intensified; between the recognized by many need for personal growth in the education system and the ubiquitous attitude towards the transmission of knowledge; between the demand for freedom of study and the rigid formal framework of the traditional system.

The history of pedagogy can be scrolled back and forth with the same invariable result: at all times, essentially the same pedagogical ideas are expressed as new - the need to support the activity of the child, his independent development, the need to take into account his special abilities and inclinations. But at the same time, “upbringing and education often represent a fierce struggle against the natural creative self-development of a person and strive to squeeze him into pre-prepared frameworks, lead according to a template, along the beaten track, and despite the general violence of staging education, we are still talking about amateur performance” (P.F. . Kapterev).

The foundations of traditional education were laid in the middle of the 17th century. at the first stage of development of educational psychology and are described by Ya.A. Comenius in the famous work "The Great Didactics". The concept of "traditional education" refers to the class-lesson organization of education, built on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Comenius.

Signs of a class-lesson teaching system:

approximately the same age and level of training group of students (class), stable in its main composition during the entire period of study at school;

• - teaching children in the classroom according to a single annual plan and curriculum according to the schedule, when all students must come to school at the same time and at the hours of joint classroom classes specified by the schedule;
• - the lesson is the main unit of the lesson;
• - in the lesson one subject is studied, a certain topic, in accordance with which all students of the class study the same educational material;

the educational activities of students in the lesson are led by a teacher who evaluates the results of educational activities and the level of learning of each student in the subject he teaches, and at the end of the year makes a decision to transfer students to the next class;

Textbooks are used by students in the classroom, but to a greater extent - in independent homework.

The features of the class-lesson system also include the concepts of "academic year", "school day", "schedule of lessons", "study holidays", "breaks between lessons (changes)".

Characterizing the class-lesson system, the following procedural features can be distinguished:

• - the ability to convey a large amount of information to students in a short period of time;
• - providing students with information in finished form without considering scientific approaches to proving their truth;
• - the assimilation of educational knowledge in a certain context of educational activity and the possibility of their application in similar situations;
• - focus on memory and reproduction of knowledge, skills and abilities, and not on thinking and creative transformation of knowledge, skills and abilities formed in educational activities;
• - the educational and cognitive process is more of a reproductive nature, forming a reproductive level of cognitive activity in students;
• - educational tasks for recall, reproduction, solution according to the model do not contribute to the development of creative abilities, independence, activity of the student's personality;
• - the volume of reported educational information exceeds the possibilities of its assimilation by students, which sharpens the contradiction between the content and procedural components of the learning process;
• - the pace of learning is designed for the average student, does not make it possible to fully take into account the individual psychological characteristics of students, which reveals a contradiction between frontal learning and the individual nature of students' assimilation of knowledge.

The main contradictions of traditional education were identified at the end of the 20th century. A.A. Verbitsky.

• 1. The contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity and, as a result, the student himself to the past, to the sign systems of the “foundations of sciences”, and the orientation of the subject of learning towards the content of his future professional and practical activities and the socio-culture of the living environment. The reported true scientific knowledge does not provide an opportunity to enter into a problem situation, the presence and solution of which would contribute to the activation of thinking processes. The distant future, in which the acquired scientific knowledge will be useful, does not yet have a meaningful life intention for the student and does not motivate him to conscious educational activity.
• 2. The duality of educational information, which simultaneously acts both as a part of culture and as a means of its development and development of the student's personality. The resolution of this contradiction is possible by reducing the importance of the “abstract method of the school” and modeling in educational activities conditions close to reality for students to appropriate sociocultural experience that is relevant to them, through which they themselves are enriched intellectually, spiritually and activityally and themselves create new elements of culture (as in We are currently seeing this in the rapid development of computer technology).
• 3. The contradiction between the integrity of culture and the subject's mastery of its content through a large number of subject areas within the framework of academic disciplines. It is associated with the traditional differentiation of school teachers into subject teachers and the departmental structure of universities. The concept of a particular cultural phenomenon is considered from the point of view of different sciences and does not give the student a holistic view of the phenomenon being studied. This contradiction is present both in school and university education and can be resolved by using the reserves of active learning by immersion, i.e. long, from several days to several weeks, the study of a particular phenomenon in various scientific aspects.
• 4. The contradiction between the mode of existence of culture as a process and its presence in learning in the form of static sign systems. The study of cultural phenomena is taken out of the context of modern life, and the child's motivation for their knowledge is not formed.
• 5. The contradiction between the social form of the existence of culture and the individual form of its appropriation by students. The student does not create a product in the form of knowledge jointly with other subjects of education. The need for cooperation with other students in mastering educational knowledge and providing them with assistance is suppressed by pointing out the inadmissibility of prompts and the need to individually master one or another topic) "of a subject. However, the development of a creative individuality is impossible alone, you need a" fantasy bean "(J. Rodari ), knowledge through "another person" (I.E. Unt) in the process of dialogic communication and interaction, manifested in actions. Being a socially conditioned and morally normalized action, an action can be performed only in human society, and mutual consideration of interests, values positions softens the gap between teaching and educating students, introducing them through an act into culturally compatible forms of interpersonal relationships and joint activities.

More successfully identified contradictions are resolved in the context of problem-based learning.

• Distinctive features of the traditional classroom technology are as follows:
  • students of approximately the same age and level of training make up a class that retains a basically constant composition for the entire period of schooling;
  • the class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a result, children must come to school at the same time of the year and at predetermined hours of the day;
  • the basic unit of lessons is the lesson;
  • the lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one subject, topic, due to which the students of the class work on the same material;
  • the work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he evaluates the results of study in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year decides to transfer students to the next class;
  • educational books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework. Academic year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - attributes. a certain period of time to the schedule, and the main form of classes is a lesson. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> classroom system(see Media Library).
  • The development of ways to enhance the mental activity of students led in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. to the introduction of individual teaching methods into teaching:
    • heuristic (G. Armstrong);
    • experimental heuristic (A.Ya. Gerd);
    • laboratory-heuristic (F.A. Winterhalter);
    • method of laboratory lessons (K.P. Yagodovsky);
    • natural science education (A.P. Pinkevich), etc.

  All of the above methods B.E. Raikov, due to the general nature of their essence, replaced them with the term "research method". The research method of teaching, which activated the practical activity of students, has become a kind of antipode of the traditional method. Its use created an atmosphere of enthusiasm for learning in the school, giving students the joy of independent learning. search and discovery and, most importantly, ensured the development of cognitive independence of children, their creative activity. The use of the research method of teaching as a universal one in the early 30s. 20th century was considered erroneous. It was proposed to build training to form a system of knowledge that does not violate Logic (Greek logike) - the science of methods of proof and refutation; a set of scientific theories, each of which considers certain methods of evidence and refutation. Aristotle is considered the founder of logic. Distinguish between inductive and deductive logic, and in the latter - classical, intuitionistic, constructive, modal, etc. All these theories are united by the desire to catalog such methods of reasoning that lead from true judgments-premisses to true judgments-consequences; cataloging is carried out, as a rule, within the framework of logical calculations. Applications of logic in computational mathematics, automata theory, linguistics, computer science, etc. play a special role in accelerating scientific and technological progress. See also Mathematical logic.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Item logic. However, the massive use of illustrative teaching, dogmatic memorization did not contribute to the development of school education. The search for ways to intensify the educational process began. A certain influence on the development of theory Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method organized by the teacher for active interaction of the subject with the problematic content of education, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem learning during this period, psychologists (S.L. Rubinshtein), who substantiated the dependence of human mental activity on problem solving, and the concept of problem-based learning that developed in pedagogy on the basis of a pragmatic understanding of thinking, provided research.
  in American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. There are two main concepts of problem-based learning. J. Dewey proposed to replace all types and forms of education with independent learning of schoolchildren by solving problems, while the emphasis was on their educational and practical form (Dewey J., 1999; abstract). The essence of the second concept is the mechanical transfer of the findings of psychology to the learning process. V. Burton () believed that learning is "acquiring new reactions or changing old ones" and reduced the learning process to simple and complex reactions, not taking into account the influence on the development of the student's thinking environment and upbringing conditions.

  John Dewey

  Starting his experiments in one of the Chicago schools in 1895, J. Dewey focused on the development of students' own activity. He soon became convinced that education, built taking into account the interests of schoolchildren and related to their vital needs, gives much better results than verbal (verbal, book) education based on memorizing knowledge. The main contribution of J. Dewey to the theory of learning is the concept of the "complete act of thinking" developed by him. According to the philosophical and psychological views of the author, a person begins to think when he encounters difficulties, the overcoming of which is of great importance for him.
  Properly constructed training, according to J. Dewey, should be problematic. At the same time, the problems themselves posed to students differ fundamentally from the proposed traditional educational tasks - "imaginary problems" that have low educational and educational value and most often far lag behind what students are interested in.
  Compared with the traditional system, J. Dewey proposed bold innovations, unexpected solutions. The place of "book study" was taken by the principle of active learning, the basis of which is the student's own cognitive activity. The place of an active teacher was taken by an assistant teacher, who does not impose on students either the content or methods of work, but only helps to overcome difficulties when the students themselves turn to him for help. Instead of a stable curriculum common to all, orientation programs were introduced, the content of which was determined by the teacher only in the most general terms. The place of oral and written word was occupied by theoretical and practical classes, where independent research work of students was carried out.
  To the school system based on the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge, he opposed learning "by doing", i.e. one in which all knowledge was extracted from the practical initiative and personal experience of the child. In schools that worked according to the J. Dewey system, there was no permanent program with a consistent system of subjects studied, but only the knowledge necessary for the life experience of students was selected. According to the scientist, the student should be engaged in those activities that allowed civilization to reach the modern level. Therefore, attention should be focused on constructive activities: teaching children to cook, sew, introduce them to needlework, etc. Information of a more general nature is concentrated around these utilitarian knowledge and skills.
  J. Dewey adhered to the so-called pedocentric theory and teaching methods. According to it, the role of the teacher in the processes of education and upbringing is reduced mainly to guiding the amateur activities of students and awakening their curiosity. In the methodology of J. Dewey, along with labor processes, games, improvisations, excursions, amateur art activities, and home economics occupied a large place. He contrasted the development of students' individuality with the education of students' discipline.
  In a labor school, work, according to Dewey, is the focus of all educational work. Performing various types of labor and acquiring the knowledge necessary for labor activity, children thereby prepare for the coming life.
  Pedocentrism (from Greek pais, paidos - child and Latin centrum - center) is the principle of a number of pedagogical systems (J.J. Rousseau, free education, etc.), requiring the organization of education and upbringing without relying on curricula and programs, and only on the basis of the immediate impulses of the child.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> Pedocentric concept J. Dewey had a great influence on the general nature of the educational work of schools in the United States and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 1920s, which found its expression in the so-called integrated programs and in the project method.

  The greatest influence on the development of the modern concept of problem-based learning is 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method organized by the teacher for active interaction of the subject with the problematic content of education, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem learning rendered the work of an American psychologist (Bruner J., 1977; abstract). It is based on the ideas of structuring the educational material and the dominant role of intuitive thinking in the process of mastering new knowledge as the basis Heuristic - " onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> heuristic thinking. Bruner paid the main attention to the structure of knowledge, which should include all the necessary elements of the knowledge system and determine the direction of the student's development.

  • Modern American theories of "learning by solving problems" (W. Alexander, P. Halverson, etc.), in contrast to the theory of J. Dewey, have their own characteristics:
    • they do not overemphasize the importance of "self-expression" of the student and belittle the role of the teacher;
    • the principle of collective problem solving is affirmed, in contrast to the extreme individualization observed earlier;
    • the method of solving problems in learning is given a supporting role.

  In the 70-80s. 20th century the concept of problem-based learning by the English psychologist E. de Bono, who focuses on six levels of thinking, has become widespread.
  In the development of the theory of problem-based learning, teachers from Poland, Bulgaria, Germany and other countries have achieved certain results. Thus, the Polish teacher (Okon V., 1968, 1990) studied the conditions for the emergence of problem situations on the material of various educational subjects and, together with Ch. Kupisevich, proved the advantage of learning by solving problems for the development of students' mental abilities. Problem-based learning was understood by Polish teachers only as one of the teaching methods. Bulgarian teachers (I. Petkov, M. Markov) considered mainly applied issues, focusing on the organization of problem-based learning in elementary school.

  • domestic experience. Theory Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method organized by the teacher for active interaction of the subject with the problematic content of education, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. 20th century in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, develop the independence of the student, however, she ran into certain difficulties:
    • in traditional didactics, the task of "teaching to think" was not considered as an independent task; the focus of teachers' attention was on the accumulation of knowledge and the development of memory;
    • the traditional system of teaching methods could not "overcome spontaneity in the formation of theoretical thinking in children" (VV Davydov);
    • psychologists were mainly engaged in the study of the problem of the development of thinking, the pedagogical theory of the development of thinking and abilities was not developed.

  As a result, the domestic mass school has not accumulated the practice of using methods specifically aimed at developing thinking - the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection that establishes connections and relationships between cognizable objects. Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. Allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of knowledge. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow - by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling some mental functions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">think . Of great importance for the formation of the theory of problem-based learning were the works of psychologists who concluded that mental development is characterized not only by the volume and quality of acquired knowledge, but also by the structure of thought processes, a system of logical operations and Mental actions are various actions of a person performed in the inner plane of consciousness.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> mental actions owned by the student (S.L. Rubinshtein, N.A. Menchinskaya, T.V. Kudryavtsev), and revealed the role of the problem situation in thinking and learning (Matyushkin A.M., 1972; abstract).
  The experience of using individual elements of problem-based learning at school was studied by M.I. Makhmutov, I.Ya. Lerner, N.G. Dairy, D.V. Vilkeev (see Chrest. 8.2). The starting points for the development of the theory of problem-based learning were the provisions of the theory of activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, V.V. Davydov). Problematic learning was considered as one of the patterns of mental activity of students. Methods have been developed to create a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by an objective insufficiency of the knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity previously acquired by students to solve the emerging cognitive task. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem situations in various academic subjects and found criteria for assessing the complexity of problematic cognitive tasks. Gradually spreading, problem-based learning from the general education school penetrated into the secondary and higher vocational schools. Methods of problem-based learning are being improved, in which one of the important components is Improvisation (from Latin improvisus - unexpected, sudden) - composing poetry, music, etc. at the time of execution; performance with something not prepared in advance; work thus created.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> improvisation, especially when solving problems of a communicative nature (). A system of teaching methods emerged, in which the creation of a problem situation by the teacher and the solution of problems by students became the main condition for the development of their thinking. This system distinguishes between general methods (monologic, demonstrative, dialogical, heuristic, research, programmed, algorithmic) and binary methods - the rules of interaction between the teacher and students. On the basis of this system of methods, some new pedagogical technologies were also developed (V.F. Shatalov, P.M. Erdniev, G.A. Rudik, etc.).

  8.2.2. The essence of problem-based learning

  Today, the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions, is problem-based learning.
  What is the essence of problem-based learning? It is interpreted both as a principle of teaching, and as a new type of educational process, and as a teaching method, and as a new didactic system.
  Under problem learning usually understood as such an organization of training sessions, which involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them(see fig. 5) .
  Problem-based learning consists in creating problem situations, in understanding, accepting and resolving these situations in the course of the joint activities of students and the teacher, with optimal independence of the former and under the general guiding guidance of the latter, as well as in mastering by students in the process of such activities generalized knowledge and general principles for solving problem tasks. The principle of problematicity brings together the learning process with the processes of cognition, research, creative thinking (Makhmutov M.I., 1975; abstract).
  Problem-based learning (like any other learning) can contribute to the realization of two goals:
  First target- to form in students the necessary system of knowledge, skills and abilities.
  Second goal- to achieve a high level of development of schoolchildren, the development of the ability to self-learning, self-education.
  Both of these tasks can be implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem-based learning, since the assimilation of educational material occurs in the course of active search activity of students, in the process of solving a system of problem-cognitive tasks.
  It is important to note another of the important goals of problem-based learning - to form a special style. Thinking is the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection that establishes connections and relationships between cognizable objects. Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. Allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of knowledge. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow - by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling some mental functions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> mental activity, research activity and independence of students ().
  The peculiarity of problem-based learning lies in the fact that it seeks to make the most of the data of psychology on the close relationship between the processes of learning (learning), cognition, research and thinking. From this point of view, the learning process should model the process of productive thinking, the central link of which is the possibility of discovery, the possibility of creativity (Ponomarev Ya.A., 1999; abstract).
  Essence Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical-cognitive in nature; 2) a method organized by the teacher for active interaction of the subject with the problematic content of education, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to resolve them, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem learning boils down to the fact that in the process of learning the nature and structure of the student's cognitive activity changes radically, leading to the development of the creative potential of the student's personality. The main and characteristic feature of problem-based learning is a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by an objective insufficiency of the knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity previously acquired by students to solve the emerging cognitive task. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem situation .

  • Its creation is based on the following provisions of modern psychology:
    • the process of thinking has its source in a problem situation;
    • problematic thinking is carried out, first of all, as a process of solving a problem;
    • the conditions for the development of thinking is the acquisition of new knowledge by solving a problem;
    • the laws of thinking and the laws of assimilation of new knowledge largely coincide.

  In problem-based learning, the teacher creates a problem situation, directs students to solve it, and organizes the search for a solution. Thus, the student is placed in the position of the subject of his learning and as a result he develops new knowledge, he has new ways of acting. The difficulty of managing problem-based learning is that the emergence of a problem situation is an individual act, so the teacher is required to use a differentiated and individual approach. If in traditional teaching the teacher sets out the theoretical provisions in a ready-made form, then in problem-based learning he brings schoolchildren to a contradiction and invites them to find a way to solve it themselves, confronts the contradictions of practical activity, sets out different points of view on the same issue (Razvitie..., 1991 ; annotation). Typical tasks of problem-based learning: consider the phenomenon from different positions, compare, generalize, formulate conclusions from the situation, compare facts, formulate specific questions yourself (for generalization, justification, concretization, logic of reasoning) (Fig. 6).
  Consider an example. 6th grade students are not familiar with the concept of verb types. All other grammatical features of the verb (number, tense, transitivity, etc.) are known to them. The teacher draws the attention of students to the blackboard, where verbs are written in two columns with multi-colored crayons:

  At the first acquaintance with these verbs, students see inconsistencies between aspect pairs.
  Question. By what grammatical feature do the verbs of the first and second columns differ?
  Wording The problem is the realization of the possibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">problems clarifies the nature of the students' difficulty that arose when faced with a problem. Students' attempts to explain the difference between verbs on the basis of updating previously acquired knowledge do not reach the goal. Further, the connection between the data elements and the goal is achieved by analyzing and explaining the data, i.e. the actual linguistic (grammatical) material contained in the examples is analyzed. The goal (the concept of the types of the verb) is gradually revealed in the course of solving the problem.
  As a number of studies have shown, there is a close relationship between the search activity of a person and his health (physical, mental).
  People with a poorly developed need for search live a less stressful life, their search activity is expressed only by specific external situations when it is not possible, on the basis of well-developed forms of behavior, to satisfy other needs, both biological, for example, the need for security and daily bread, and social - for example, the need for prestige. If all the basic desires are satisfied, it is possible, as it were, to live relaxed and calm, not striving for anything in particular and, therefore, not being exposed to the risk of defeat and infringement. Refusal of the search, if the search is not an internal urgent need, is given painlessly and calmly. However, this well-being is imaginary and conditional. It is possible only in ideal conditions of complete comfort. Our dynamic world does not provide such conditions to anyone - and this is quite natural, because the accumulation in society of persons with low search activity would inevitably lead to social regression. And in a world where there is a constant need to search at least to satisfy primary needs, the absence of a desire for search as such makes existence painful, because you constantly have to make an effort on yourself. Search, without bringing the experience of naturalness and satisfaction, becomes an unpleasant necessity for people with a low need for search and, of course, they succeed much worse than people with a high need for it. In addition, a person with low activity is less prepared to face life's difficulties and quickly refuses to find a way out of difficult situations. And although this refusal is subjectively experienced by him not so hard, but objectively the body's resistance is still reduced. In one of the countries, for a number of years, the fate of people whose character and behavior was dominated by a feeling of apathy, indifference to life, people with low activity, was traced. It turned out that they, on average, die at an earlier age than people who are initially active. And they die from causes that are not fatal to others. Let us recall Ilya Oblomov, a man with an extremely low need for search (from childhood this need did not develop in him, because everything was given ready-made). He was quite satisfied with life, or rather, with his complete isolation from life, and died at a fairly young age for an incomprehensible reason.
  The constant absence of search activity leads to the fact that the individual is helpless in any encounter with difficulties or even situations that are not perceived as difficulties in other conditions. So a low need for search not only makes life insipid and useless, but also does not guarantee health and longevity.

  8.2.3. Problem situations as the basis of problem-based learning

  
  • Types of problem situations (see Fig. 7) that most often arise in the educational process:
    1. A problematic situation is created when a discrepancy is found between the existing knowledge systems of students and new requirements (between old knowledge and new facts, between knowledge of a lower and higher level, between everyday and scientific knowledge).
    2. Problem situations arise when it is necessary to make a diverse choice from the systems of available knowledge of the only necessary system, the use of which alone can ensure the correct solution of the proposed problem task.
    3. Problem situations arise before students when they are faced with new practical conditions for the use of existing knowledge, when there is a search for ways to apply knowledge in practice.
    4. A problematic situation arises if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability or inexpediency of the chosen method, as well as between the practically achieved result of the task and the lack of theoretical justification.
    5. Problem situations in solving technical problems arise when there is no direct correspondence between the schematic representation and the design of the technical device.
    6. Problem situations are also created by the fact that there is an objectively inherent contradiction between the static nature of the images themselves and the need to read dynamic processes in them ().
  • Rules for creating problem situations. To create a problem situation, you need the following:
    1. The student should be given such a practical or theoretical task, during which he must discover new knowledge or actions to be mastered. In this case, the following conditions must be observed:
       • the task is based on the knowledge and skills that the student owns;
       • the unknown to be discovered constitutes a general pattern to be assimilated, a general mode of action, or some general conditions for the performance of an action;
       • The performance of a problematic task should cause the student to need acquired knowledge.
    2. The problem task offered to the student should correspond to his intellectual capabilities.
    3. The problematic task should precede the explanation of the educational material to be mastered.
    4. The following can serve as problem tasks: a) educational tasks; b) questions; c) practical tasks, etc.
       However, one should not confuse a problem task and a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by an objective insufficiency of the knowledge previously acquired by students and methods of mental and practical activity for solving the cognitive task that has arisen. onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> problem situation. A problem task in itself is not a problem situation; it can cause a problem situation only under certain conditions.
    5. The same problem situation can be caused by different types of tasks.
    6. The teacher should formulate the problem situation that has arisen by pointing out to the student the reasons for not fulfilling the set practical training task or the inability to explain to them certain demonstrated facts () (Christ. 8.3).

  8.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning

  
  

  In programmed learning, learning is carried out as a well-controlled process, as the material being studied is broken down into small, easily digestible doses. They are sequentially presented to the student for assimilation. After studying each dose, an assimilation check should be made. Dose learned - move on to the next. This is the "step" of learning: presentation, assimilation, verification.
  Usually, when compiling training programs, from cybernetic requirements only the need for systematic feedback was taken into account, from psychological requirements - individualization of the learning process. There was no sequence of implementation of a certain model of the assimilation process. The most famous is the concept of B. Skinner, based on the Behavioral theory - a trend in American psychology of the twentieth century, which denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> behavioral theory doctrine that there is no essential difference between human learning and animal learning. In accordance with behavioral theory, training programs should solve the problem of obtaining and reinforcing the correct response. To develop the correct reaction, the principle of breaking down the process into small steps and the principle of a hint system are used. When the process is broken down, the programmed complex behavior is divided into the simplest elements (steps), each of which the student could perform without error. When a system of hints is included in the training program, the required reaction is first given in finished form (the maximum degree of prompt), then with the omission of individual elements (fading prompts), at the end of the training, a completely independent reaction is required (removal of the prompt). An example is the memorization of a poem: at first, the quatrain is given in full, then with the omission of one word, two words and a whole line. At the end of memorization, the student, having received four lines of dots instead of a quatrain, must reproduce the poem on his own.
  To consolidate the reaction, the principle of immediate reinforcement (using verbal encouragement, giving a sample to make sure the answer is correct, etc.) is used for each correct step, as well as the principle of repeated repetition of reactions.
  (http://www.modelschool.ru/index.html Model; see the website of the School of Tomorrow),
  (http://www.kindgarden.ru/what.htm ; see material "What is the School of Tomorrow?").

  8.3.2. Types of training programs

  Educational programs built on a behavioral basis are divided into: a) linear, developed by Skinner, and b) branched programs by N. Crowder.
  1. Linear Programmed Learning System, originally developed by the American psychologist B. Skinner in the early 60s. 20th century based on the behavioral trend in psychology.

  • He put forward the following requirements for the organization of training:
    • In teaching, the student must go through a sequence of carefully chosen and placed "steps".
    • Training should be structured in such a way that the student is "businesslike and busy" all the time, so that he not only perceives the educational material, but also operates with it.
    • Before proceeding to the study of subsequent material, the student must master the previous one well.
    • The student needs to be helped by dividing the material into small portions ("steps" of the program), by prompting, prompting, etc.
    • Each correct answer of the student must be reinforced, using feedback for this, not only to form a certain behavior, but also to maintain interest in learning.

  According to this system, students go through all the steps of the training program sequentially, in the order in which they are given in the program. The tasks in each step are to fill in a gap in the informational text with one or more words. After that, the student must check his solution with the correct one, which had previously been closed in some way. If the student's answer was correct, then he should proceed to the next step; if his answer does not match the correct one, then he must complete the task again. Thus, the linear system of programmed learning is based on the principle of learning, which implies error-free execution of tasks. Therefore, the steps of the program and tasks are designed for the weakest student. According to B. Skinner, the trainee learns mainly by completing tasks, and confirmation of the correctness of the assignment serves as a reinforcement to stimulate the trainee's further activity (see animation) .
  Linear programs are designed for the error-free steps of all students, i.e. should correspond to the capabilities of the weakest of them. Because of this, the program correction is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must do the same steps, i.e. move along the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear).
  2. An extensive programmed learning program. Its founder is the American teacher N. Crowder. In these programs, which have become widespread, in addition to the main program, designed for strong students, additional programs (auxiliary branches) are provided, to one of which the student is sent in case of difficulties. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training not only in terms of the pace of progress, but also in terms of the level of difficulty. In addition, these programs open up greater opportunities for the formation of rational types of cognitive activity than linear programs that limit cognitive activity mainly to perception and memory.
  Control tasks in the steps of this system consist of a problem or a question and a set of several answers, among which usually one is correct, and the rest are incorrect, containing typical errors. The student must choose one answer from this set. If he chose the correct answer, he receives reinforcement in the form of confirmation of the correctness of the answer and an indication of the transition to the next step of the program. If he chose an erroneous answer, he is explained the nature of the error, and he is instructed to return to some of the previous steps of the program or go to some subroutine.
  In addition to these two main systems of programmed learning, many others have been developed that, to one degree or another, use a linear or branched principle, or both of these principles to build a sequence of steps in a training program.
  The general lack of programs built on Behaviorism (from the English behavior, biheviour - behavior) is a trend in American psychology of the twentieth century that denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of body reactions to environmental stimuli. A trend in psychology that was initiated by the article by the American psychologist J. Watson "s="" r="" xx="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> behavioral basis, lies in the impossibility of controlling the internal, mental activity of students, control over which is limited to registering the final result (response). From a cybernetic point of view, these programs exercise control according to the "black box" principle, which is unproductive in relation to human learning, since the main goal in learning is to form rational methods of cognitive activity. This means that not only the answers must be controlled, but also the paths leading to them. Practice Programmed learning - learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or the learning machine that replaces him).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> programmed learning showed the unsuitability of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements to the training programs within the framework of the behavioral learning model did not lead to a significant improvement in the results.

  8.3.3. Development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice

  In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed learning were actively studied, and achievements were introduced into practice in the 70s. 20th century One of the leading experts is Professor of Moscow University Nina Fedorovna Talyzina ( Talyzina N.F. Management of the learning process. - M.: MGU, 1983. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> Talyzina N.F., 1969; 1975). In the domestic version, this type of training is based on the so-called Theory of the phased formation of mental actions - the doctrine of complex multifaceted changes associated with the formation of new actions, images and concepts in a person, put forward by P.Ya. Galperin.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> theories of gradual formation of mental actions and concepts P.Ya. Galperin (Galperin P.Ya., 1998; abstract) and theories Cybernetics (from the Greek kybernetike - the art of management) is the science of management, communication and information processing. ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">cybernetics. The implementation of programmed learning involves the allocation of specific and logical methods of thinking for each subject being studied, the indication of rational ways of cognitive activity in general. Only after this is it possible to draw up training programs that are aimed at the formation of these types of cognitive activity, and through them the knowledge that constitutes the content of this academic subject.

  8.3.4. Advantages and disadvantages of programmed learning

  Programming training has a number of advantages: small doses are easily absorbed, the pace of assimilation is chosen by the student, a high result is provided, rational methods of mental actions are developed, and the ability to think logically is brought up. However, it also has a number of disadvantages, for example:
  • does not fully contribute to the development of independence in learning;
  • requires a lot of time;
  • applicable only for algorithmically solvable cognitive problems;
  • ensures the acquisition of knowledge inherent in the algorithm and does not contribute to the acquisition of new ones. At the same time, excessive algorithmization of learning hinders the formation of productive cognitive activity.
  • During the years of greatest enthusiasm for programmed learning - 60-70s. 20th century - A number of programming systems and many different teaching machines and devices have been developed. But at the same time, critics of programmed learning also emerged. E. Laban summed up all the objections to programmed learning in this way:
    • programmed learning does not use the positive aspects of group learning;
    • it does not contribute to the development of student initiative, since the program, as it were, leads him by the hand all the time;
    • with the help of programmed learning, it is possible to teach only simple material at the level of cramming;
    • reinforcement learning theory is worse than that based on mental gymnastics;
    • contrary to the assertions of some American researchers, programmed learning is not revolutionary, but conservative, since it is bookish and verbal;
    • programmed learning ignores the achievements of psychology, which has been studying the structure of brain activity and the dynamics of assimilation for more than 20 years;
    • programmed learning does not make it possible to get a holistic picture of the subject being studied and is "learning by crumbs" ().

  Although not all of these objections are entirely justified, they certainly have certain grounds. Therefore, interest in programmed learning in the 70-80s. 20th century began to fall and its revival has occurred in recent years based on the use of new generations of computer technology.
  As already noted, the most widespread various systems Programmed learning - learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or the learning machine that replaces him).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> programmed learning received in the 50s and 60s. In the 20th century, later only separate elements of programmed learning began to be used, mainly for knowledge control, consultations and skills training. In recent years, the ideas of programmed learning have begun to revive on a new technical basis (computers, television systems, microcomputers, etc.) in the form of computer or electronic learning. The new technical base makes it possible to almost completely automate the learning process, to build it as a fairly free dialogue between the student and the training system. The role of the teacher in this case is mainly to develop, adjust, correct and improve the training program, as well as to conduct individual elements of machine-free learning. Many years of experience have confirmed that programmed learning, and especially computer learning, provides a fairly high level of not only learning, but also the development of students, and arouses their unflagging interest.

  *******

  In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of learning: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of them, as already mentioned, has both positive and negative sides. Traditional education does not ensure the effective development of the mental abilities of students because it is based on the patterns of reproductive thinking, and not creative activity.
  Today, the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions, is problem-based learning.

  Summary

  • In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of learning: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative sides.
  • Today, the traditional type of education is the most common. The foundations of this type of education were laid almost four centuries ago by Ya.A. Comenius ("The Great Didactics").
    • The term "traditional education" means, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that developed in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, and still prevailing in the schools of the world.
    • Traditional education has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the main ones is the contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and, consequently, of the student himself) to the past, objectified in the sign systems of the "foundations of sciences", and the orientation of the subject of learning to the future content of professional and practical activities and the whole culture.
  • Today, the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions, is problem-based learning.
    • Problem-based learning is usually understood as such an organization of training sessions that involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them.
    • in American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. There are two basic concepts of problem-based learning (J. Dewey, V. Burton).
    • The pedocentric concept of J. Dewey had a great influence on the general nature of the educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 1920s, which found its expression in the so-called integrated programs and in the project method.
    • The theory of problem-based learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. 20th century in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, develop the independence of the student.
    • The basis of problem-based learning is a problem situation. It characterizes a certain mental state of the student that occurs in the process of completing a task, for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the acquisition of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions for its implementation.
  • Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-designed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or the learning machine that replaces him).
    • The idea of ​​programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. 20th century American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the efficiency of managing the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology.
    • Educational programs built on a behavioral basis are divided into: a) linear, developed by B. Skinner, and b) the so-called branched programs of N. Crowder.
    • In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed learning were actively studied, and the achievements of learning were introduced into practice in the 70s. 20th century One of the leading experts in this field is Professor of Moscow University N.F. Talyzin.

  Glossary of terms

  1. Cybernetics
  2. Class-lesson system of education
  3. Motivation for success
  4. Tutorial
  5. Problem
  6. Problem situation
  7. Problem learning
  8. Programmed learning
  9. Contradiction
  10. Traditional learning

  Questions for self-examination

  1. What is the essence of traditional education?
  2. What are the distinguishing features of the traditional classroom teaching technology.
  3. List the advantages and disadvantages of traditional education.
  4. What are the main contradictions of traditional education?
  5. Specify the main historical aspects of problem-based learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.
  6. What are the features of the problematic nature of J. Dewey's education?
  7. What is typical for the development of problem-based learning in domestic science and practice?
  8. What is the essence of problem-based learning?
  9. Name the types of problem situations that most often arise in the educational process.
  10. In what situations do problems arise?
  11. What are the basic rules for creating problem situations in the educational process.
  12. List the main advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning.
  13. What is the essence of programmed learning?
  14. Who is the author of programmed learning?
  15. Describe the types of training programs.
  16. What are the features of branched programmed learning programs?
  17. What is characteristic of the behavioral approach to programmed learning?
  18. What is typical for the development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice?
  19. Why has programmed learning not received due development?

  Bibliography

  1. Atkinson R. Human memory and learning process: Per. from English. M., 1980.
  2. Burton V. Principles of teaching and its organization. M., 1934.
  3. Bruner J. Psychology of knowledge. M., 1977.
  4. Verbitsky A.A. Active learning in higher education: a contextual approach. M., 1991.
  5. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.
  6. Galperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development of the child. M., 1985.
  7. Gurova L.L. Psychological analysis of problem solving. Voronezh, 1976.
  8. Davydov V.V. The theory of developmental learning. M., 1996.
  9. Dewey J. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking (How we think): Per. from English. M., 1999.
  10. Comenius Ya.A. Selected pedagogical works. M., 1955.
  11. Kudryavtsev T.V. Psychology of creative thinking. M., 1975.
  12. Kulyutkin Yu.N. Heuristic methods in the decision structure. M., 1970.
  13. Lerner I.Ya. Problem learning. M., 1974.
  14. Lipkina A.I. Self-assessment of the student and his memory // Vopr. psychology. 1981. No. 3.
  15. Markova A.K., Matis T.A., Orlov A.B. Formation of learning motivation. M., 1990.
  16. Matyushkin A.M. Problem situations in thinking and learning. M., 1972.
  17. Makhmutov M.I. Problem learning. M., 1975.
  18. Okon V. Introduction to general didactics: Per. from Polish. M., 1990.
  19. Okon V. Fundamentals of problem-based learning. M., 1968.
  20. Ponomarev Ya.A. The psychology of creation. M.; Voronezh, 1999.
  21. Development of creative activity of schoolchildren / Ed. A.M. Matyushkin. M., 1991.
  22. Selevko G.K. Modern educational technologies: Proc. allowance. M., 1998.
  23. Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. M., 1969.
  24. Talyzina N.F. Management of the learning process. M., 1975.
  25. Unt I.E. Individualization and differentiation of training. M., 1990.
  26. Hekhauzen H. Motivation and activity: In 2 vols. M., 1986. Vol. 1, 2.

  Topics of term papers and essays

  1. Essence of traditional education.
  2. The main contradictions of traditional education.
  3. Historical aspects of problem-based learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.

By "traditional education" is meant the class-lesson system of education that developed in the 17th century on the principles of didactics of Ya.A.Komensky.

Distinctive features of TO:

Students of approximately the same age and level of training make up a class that remains for the entire period of study;

The class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule; children come to school at the same time;

The basic unit of lessons is the lesson;

The lesson is dedicated to one academic subject, topic, so. students work on the same material;

The work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: evaluates the results of learning, the level of learning; transfers to the next class;

Textbooks are mainly used for homework.

The school year, school day, lesson schedule, breaks, holidays - these are the attributes of the traditional class-lesson system of education.

Learning objectives.

In Soviet pedagogy, the GOALS of learning included:

Formation of a knowledge system, mastering the basics of science;

Formation of the foundations of the scientific worldview;

Comprehensive and harmonious development of each student;

The upbringing of ideologically convinced fighters for communism is the bright future of all mankind;

Education of conscious and highly educated people capable of both physical and mental labor.

Thus, the goals of TO were focused primarily on the assimilation of ZUN, and assumed the upbringing of children with desired properties.

In the modern mass Russian school, GOALS have changed somewhat: ideologization has been eliminated, the slogan of comprehensive harmonious development has been removed, the concepts of moral education have changed ... BUT: the paradigm of presenting the goal in the form of a set of planned qualities (training standards) has remained the same.

conceptual framework TO are the principles of learning formulated by Ya.A. Komensky:

Scientific (there is no false knowledge, there are incomplete ones),

Natural conformity (learning is determined by development, not forced

Sequence and systematic (linear logic of the learning process, from particular to general),

Accessibility (from known to unknown, from easy to difficult, assimilation of ready-made ZUNs),

Strength (repetition is the mother of learning),

Consciousness and activity (know the task set by the teacher and be active in executing commands),

Visualization (attracting different senses to perception),

Connections of theory with practice (learning to apply knowledge in practice),

Accounting for age and individual characteristics.

Learning is understood as a holistic process of transferring ZUNs, social experience from older generations to younger generations, which includes goals, content, methods, and means.

The traditional system remains uniform, non-variable, despite the declaration of freedom of choice and variability. Content planning is centralized. Basic curricula are based on uniform standards for the country. Academic disciplines (foundations of sciences) are isolated from each other. Education takes precedence over education. Educational and educational forms of work are not interconnected, club forms account for only 3%. The educational process is dominated by the pedagogy of events, which causes a negative perception of all educational influences.

Methodology learning is authoritarian pedagogy of demands. Teaching is weakly connected with the inner life of the student, with his diverse requests and needs; there are no conditions for the manifestation of individual abilities, creative manifestations of the personality.

Regulation of activities, coercion of educational procedures (they say: “school rapes a person”),

Centralization of control,

Orientation to the average student (“school kills talents”).

Student Position: student - a subordinate object of learning influences; student - "should"; the student is not yet a full-fledged person, etc.

Position of the teacher: teacher-commander, judge, senior (“always right”), “with the subject - to the children”, style - “striking arrows”.

Knowledge acquisition methods are based on:

Communication of ready-made knowledge,

learning by example;

Inductive logic from particular to general;

mechanical memory;

Verbal (speech) presentation;

Reproductive reproduction.

Weak motivation lack of independence in the educational activities of the student:

The learning objectives are set by the teacher;

Planning of educational activities is carried out by the teacher, sometimes it is imposed contrary to the wishes of the student,

Evaluation of activities is also carried out by the teacher.

Under such conditions, teaching turns into work "under pressure" with all its negative consequences (alienation of the child from study, education of laziness, deceit, conformism - "school disfigures the personality").

Estimation problem. The TO has developed criteria for a quantitative five-point assessment of ZUNs in academic subjects; assessment requirements (individual nature, differentiated approach, systematic monitoring and evaluation, comprehensiveness, variety of forms, unity of requirements, objectivity, motivation, publicity).

However, in practice, the negative aspects of the traditional grading system are manifested:

The mark often becomes a means of coercion, an instrument of the teacher's power over the student, a means of pressure on the student;

The mark is often identified with the personality of the student as a whole, sorting children into "bad" and "good",

The labels "C", "D" cause a feeling of inferiority, humiliation, or lead to indifference (indifference to learning), to an underestimation of the "I-concept",

- "deuce" is non-transferable, leads to repetition with all its problems, or to the abandonment of school and teaching in general. The current deuce causes negative emotions, leads to conflicts, etc.

Traditional learning technology is an:

-by level of application: general pedagogical;

- on a philosophical basis: the pedagogy of coercion;

- according to the main factor of development: sociogenic (with the assumptions of a biogenic factor);

- by assimilation: associative-reflex based on suggestion (sample, example);

- by orientation to personal structures: informational, ZUN.

- according to the nature of the content: secular, technocratic, educational, didactocentric;

- by type of management: traditional classic + TCO;

- by organizational form: class-lesson, academic;

- according to the prevailing method: explanatory and illustrative;

The traditional technologies also include the lecture-seminar-test system (form) of education: first, the material is presented in lectures, then it is worked out (assimilated, applied) at seminars, practical and laboratory classes; and then the results of assimilation are checked in the form of tests.

Traditional form of education: "+" and "-":

Positive sides

Negative sides:

Systematic the nature of learning. Orderly, logically correct presentation of educational material. Organizational clarity. The constant emotional impact of the teacher's personality. Optimal costs resources for mass learning.

template building, monotony. Irrational distribution of lesson time. The lesson provides only an initial orientation in the material, and the achievement of high levels is shifted to homework. Students are isolated from communication with each other. Lack of independence. Passivity or appearance of activity of students. Weak speech activity (average speaking time for a student is 2 minutes per day). Weak feedback. Average approach. Lack of individual training.

Concentrated Learning

Concentrated learning is a special technology for organizing the educational process, in which the attention of teachers and students is focused on a deeper study of each subject by combining classes, reducing the number of subjects studied in parallel during the school day, week and larger organizational units of learning. The purpose of concentrated learning is to improve the quality of education and upbringing of students (achieving a systematic knowledge and skills, their mobility, etc.) by creating an optimal organizational structure of the educational process. Its essential features are:

overcoming the multi-subject nature of the school day, week, semester;

one-time duration of the study of the subject or section of the academic discipline;

the continuity of the process of cognition and its integrity (starting with primary perception and ending with the formation of skills);

consolidation of the content and organizational forms of the learning process; dispersal in time of tests and exams;

intensification of the educational process in each subject;

cooperation of participants in the learning process.

There are three models for the implementation of concentrated learning, depending on the unit of enlargement (a subject, school day, school week) and the degree of concentration.

First model(mono-subject, with a high degree of concentration) involves the study of one main subject for a certain time. The duration of a concentrated study of a subject is determined by the peculiarities of the content and logic of its assimilation by students, the total number of hours allocated for its study, the availability of a material and technical base, and other factors.

Second model concentrated learning (low-subject, with a low degree of concentration) involves the enlargement of one organizational unit - the school day, the number of subjects studied in which is reduced to two or three. Within the framework of the academic week and other organizational units, the number of disciplines is maintained in accordance with the curriculum and the schedule for its completion. The school day consists, as a rule, of two training blocks with an interval between them, during which students have lunch and rest.

Third model concentrated learning (modular, with an average degree of concentration) involves the simultaneous and parallel study of no more than two or three disciplines that form the module. The organization of the educational process in this case is as follows. The whole semester is divided into several modules (depending on the number of subjects studied according to the curriculum, there may be three or four of them in a semester), during which two or three disciplines are studied in a concentrated way, instead of 9 or more subjects stretched throughout the semester. The duration of the module, depending on the amount of hours allocated for the study of subjects, can be 4-5 weeks. The module ends with a test or exam. If necessary, students in the process of studying the module perform course or diploma projects.

The implementation of concentrated learning allows.

1. With such an organization of training, the perception, in-depth and lasting assimilation by students of integral completed blocks of the studied material is ensured.

2. The beneficial effect of concentrated learning on the motivation of learning: for many hours of studying one subject, the attention of students does not fade away, but, on the contrary, increases.

3. Concentrated learning also contributes to the creation of a favorable psychological climate, which is quite understandable, since all participants in the educational process from the very beginning are psychologically tuned in to long-term communication and interaction with each other.

4. With a concentrated form of organization of education, students get to know each other and teachers faster and better, and teachers get to know students, their individual interests and abilities.

However, concentrated learning has its limits of application. It requires great tension from students and teachers, which in some cases can lead to fatigue. This approach cannot be equally applied to all subjects. Concentrated learning cannot be implemented if the teacher does not perfectly master his subject, the methodology for enlarging the content of education, the forms, methods and means of activating the educational process. In addition, the organization of concentrated training requires appropriate educational, methodological and logistical support.

Modular learning as a pedagogical technology Modular learning as a pedagogical technology has a long history. In 1869, an educational program was introduced at Harvard University, which allowed students to choose their own academic disciplines. Already by the beginning of the twentieth century. in all higher education institutions in the United States, an elective scheme operated, according to which students, at their own discretion, chose courses in order to reach a certain academic level. A new approach to the organization of the educational process was based on the philosophy of "learning, in the center of which is the one who learns." In this regard, educational activity was considered as a holistic process that lasts a lifetime, not limited to the university. Therefore, the purpose of the university was to develop the creative and intellectual potential of the student, and not to transfer the total amount of knowledge that would allow him to carry out certain activities. So, a student is able to determine for himself what knowledge and skills will be useful for his future life. In 1896, the first school-laboratory was established at the University of Chicago, founded by the outstanding American philosopher and educator J. Dewey. He criticized the traditional approach to learning, which was based on memorization, and put forward the idea of ​​"learning by doing". The essence of such education was the "construction" of the educational process through the mutual "discovery of knowledge" both on the part of the teacher and the student. The concept of individualized learning was implemented in 1898 in the USA and went down in history as the "batavia plan". The student's time allotted for learning was divided into two periods: collective lessons with the teacher in the first half of the day and individual lessons with the teacher's assistant in the afternoon. This has led to an increase in the quality of education. In 1916, H. Parkhurst, on the basis of one of the comprehensive schools in Dalton, tested a new educational model, which was called the "Dalton Plan". The essence of this model was to provide the student with the opportunity, at his own discretion, to choose the purpose and mode of attending classes for each academic subject. In specially equipped classrooms-laboratories, schoolchildren received individual tasks at a favorable time for each of them. In the process of performing these tasks, the children used the necessary textbooks and equipment, received advice from teachers, who were assigned the role of organizers of the students' independent cognitive activity. A rating system was used to evaluate the educational achievements of students. Under the influence of the ideas of K. Ushinsky, P. Kapterev and other Russian and foreign teachers in the 20s. XX Art. active learning methods are beginning to be introduced in education. Combining elements of the "dalton plan" and the project method, Soviet innovative teachers developed a new teaching model, which was called the "brigade-laboratory method". This model provided for the unification of students into groups-brigades and the general independent solution of specific tasks by them. Having completed the task, the team reported and received a collective assessment. In the 30s. J. Dewey's individualized learning begins to be criticized. The students' knowledge acquired by the heuristic method turned out to be superficial and fragmentary. There was a need to combine traditional and innovative teaching methods. An alternative to heuristic learning, which exceeded the role of the problem-search method and downplayed the role of the reproductive pedagogical approach, was programmed learning, the founder of which was B. Skinner. In 1958 he proposed the concept of "programmed learning". Its essence consisted in the gradual mastering of simple operations, which the student repeated until he performed them without error. This testified to the level of the child's learning, and the programmed prompts helped him in this process, which fed the correct reaction to the appropriate stimulus. Thus, the pace of learning, convenient for the student, was maintained, but its content, developed by the teacher, was fixed. The disadvantage of this learning model is that the role of the student was limited to the choice of a specific training program. In the 60s. F. Keller proposed an integrated educational model that combined the concept of programmed learning according to the pedagogical systems of the 20s. It was called "Keller's plan" and became the basis for the formation of modular pedagogical technology. The course of the academic discipline according to the “Keller plan” was divided into several thematic sections, which the students studied independently. The lecture material was mostly of an overview nature, and therefore attendance at the lectures was not obligatory. A special package was prepared for each section, which contained methodological instructions for studying topics and materials for self-examination and control. Thus, students had the freedom to choose the pace and types of learning. To move on to the study of the next section, perhaps, was only subject to the assimilation of the previous topics. Modular education in its modern form was proposed by American teachers S. Russell and S. Postlethwaite. This pedagogical technology was based on the principle of autonomous content units, called "microcourses". The peculiarity of "microcourses" was the ability to freely combine with each other within one or more curricula. The definition of the content of these portions of educational material depended on the specific didactic tasks that the teacher set himself. For the first time, the mentioned technique was implemented at D. Purdue University, and over time it became widespread in other educational institutions in the United States. On its basis, new modifications appeared (“educational package”, “unified package”, “conceptual package”, “package of cognitive activity”, “package of individualized learning”), which, having generalized the pedagogical experience of their implementation, formulated a single concept - “module” , which gave the name of modular learning technology. Since the 90s modular learning technology has become widespread in Ukraine. A. Aleksyuk, O. Gumenyuk, V. Demchenko, V. Zots, V. Kozakov, L. Lysenko, V. Melnik, O. Popovich, I. Prokopenko, V. Ryabova, I. Sikorsky, L. Starovoit, A. Furman, N. Shiyan and others. Ukrainian pedagogical science and practice have significantly enriched the concept of modular education, revealing its new possibilities.

Differentiated learning- This:

a form of organization of the educational process, in which the teacher works with a group of students, compiled taking into account the presence of any significant general qualities for the educational process (homogeneous group);

part of the general didactic system, which provides specialization of the educational process for different groups of students.

A differentiated approach to learning is:

creation of a variety of learning conditions for various schools, classes, groups in order to take into account the characteristics of their contingent;

a set of methodological, psychological, pedagogical, organizational and managerial measures that provide training in homogeneous groups.

The technology of differentiated learning is a set of organizational decisions, means and methods of differentiated learning, covering a certain part of the educational process.

The target orientations of this technology are:

training everyone at the level of his abilities and abilities;

adaptation (adaptation) of learning to the characteristics of different groups of students.

Any learning theory implies the use of learning differentiation technologies. Differentiation in translation from Latin means division, stratification of the whole into various parts, forms, steps.

The principle of differentiation of education is the position according to which the pedagogical process is built as a differentiated one. One of the main types of differentiation is individual learning. The technology of differentiated learning is a complex of organizational solutions, means and methods of differentiated learning, covering a certain part of the educational process.

The study and analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature shows that the modern concept of secondary education resolutely rejects the traditional leveling, recognizing the variety of forms of education and secondary education, depending on the inclinations and interests of students. However, the generally correct principles are still, unfortunately, only being declared.

As can be seen from the analysis of practice, for example, students who are inclined towards natural subjects do not receive a basis for full-fledged spiritual development, and students who are not interested in subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle cannot develop humanitarian inclinations. But it is especially difficult to study for those who, according to their abilities, are oriented towards practical activity. A mass school today is not able to teach all schoolchildren equally well. Marriage in the work of the school appears already in the primary grades, when it is almost impossible to eliminate gaps in the knowledge of younger students in the middle school. This is one of the reasons why students lose interest in learning, feel extremely uncomfortable at school. Our observations convince us that only a differentiated approach to teaching and upbringing will allow breaking this vicious circle.

Traditional technology is, first of all, an authoritarian pedagogy of requirements, learning is very weakly connected with the inner life of the student, with his diverse requests and needs, there are no conditions for the manifestation of individual abilities, creative manifestations of the personality.

The authoritarianism of the learning process is manifested in: the regulation of activities, the coercion of learning procedures (“the school rapes the individual”), the centralization of control, and the orientation towards the average student (“the school kills talents”).

The student's position: the student is a subordinate object of teaching influences, the student "should", the student is not yet a full-fledged personality, an unspiritual "cog".

The position of the teacher: the teacher is the commander, the only initiative person, the judge (“always right”), the elder (parent) teaches.

Methods of mastering knowledge are based on: the communication of ready-made knowledge, learning by example, inductive logic from the particular to the general, mechanical memory, verbal presentation, reproductive reproduction.

As part of the child's learning activities:

- there is no independent goal-setting, the teacher sets the learning goals;

- planning of activities is carried out from the outside, imposed on the student against his will;

- the final analysis and evaluation of the child's activities are not carried out by him, but by the teacher, another adult.

Under these conditions, the stage of implementation of educational goals turns into work "under pressure" with all its negative consequences (alienation of the child from school, education of laziness, deceit, conformism - "school disfigures the personality").

Evaluation of students' activities. Traditional pedagogy has developed criteria for a quantitative five-point assessment of students' knowledge, skills and abilities in academic subjects.

Assessment requirements: individual character, differentiated approach, systematic monitoring and evaluation, comprehensiveness, variety of forms, unity of requirements, objectivity, motivation, publicity.

However, in the school practice of traditional education, the negative aspects of the traditional grading system are found:

1. Quantitative assessment - a mark - often becomes a means of coercion, an instrument of the teacher's power over the student, psychological and social pressure on the student.

2. Mark, as a result of cognitive activity, is often identified with the personality as a whole, sorts students into "good" and "bad".

3. The names "C", "D" cause a feeling of inferiority, humiliation, or lead to indifference, indifference to learning. The student, according to his mediocre or satisfactory grades, first draws a conclusion from the inferiority of his knowledge, abilities, and then his personality (I-concept).

The traditional form of education is class-lesson. It is distinguished by:

positive aspects: the systematic nature of education, orderly, logically correct presentation of educational material, organizational clarity, constant emotional impact of the teacher's personality, optimal resource costs in mass education;

negative aspects: template construction, monotony, irrational distribution of lesson time, the lesson provides only an initial orientation in the material, and the achievement of high levels is shifted to homework, students are isolated from communicating with each other, lack of independence, passivity or visibility of student activity, weak speech activity (average speaking time of a student 2 minutes per day), weak feedback, average approach, lack of individual training.

Traditional technologies also include the lecture-seminar-test system (form) of education: first, the educational material is presented to the class by the lecture method, and then it is worked out (assimilated, applied) at seminars, practical and laboratory classes, and the results of assimilation are checked in the form of tests.

Psychological and pedagogical analysis of the lesson

Psychological and pedagogical analysis of the lesson involves an assessment of its type and structure, as well as their psychological expediency.

Further, what determines the activity of the teacher and the student is the content of the lesson, that is, the nature of the information that students must learn. (the teacher can offer material different in its degree of concreteness, generalization and abstractness).

It is very important to understand the psychological features of the educational material, since it largely determines the nature of the student's cognitive activity. When assessing the quality of educational information, it is necessary to determine its compliance with the age and individual characteristics of schoolchildren. Lesson analysis begins with finding out how the teacher formed the concept at one level or another. In the learning process, not only individual concepts are formed, but also their system, so you need to determine what connections between concepts the teacher has established (intra-subject, inter-subject)

Plan of psychological and pedagogical analysis of the lesson.

The psychological purpose of the lesson.

1. The place and significance of this lesson in the long-term plan for the development of students. Goal formulation.

2. Taking into account the final task of the long-term plan, the psychological tasks of studying the section, the nature of the material being studied, the results achieved in previous work.

3. To what extent methodological techniques, the style of the lesson meet the goal.

Lesson style.

1. To what extent the content and structure of the lesson meet the principles of developmental learning.

The ratio of the load on the memory and thinking of students.

The ratio of the reproductive and creative activities of students.

The ratio of assimilation of knowledge in finished form and independent search.

Pedagogical tact of the teacher.

Psychological climate in the classroom.

2. Features of the teacher's self-organization.

Prepare for the lesson.

Working well-being at the beginning of the lesson and in the process of its implementation.

Organization of cognitive activity of students.

1. Providing conditions for the productive work of thinking and imagination of students.

Achieving meaningfulness, integrity of students' perception of the material being studied.

What settings were used and in what form. (suggestion, persuasion).

How to achieve concentration and stability of attention of students.

2. Organization of the activity of thinking and imagination of students in the process of forming new knowledge and skills.

What methods stimulated the activity, independence of thinking of students.

What psychological patterns were taken into account in the formation of ideas, concepts, generalizing images.

What types of creative work were used in the lesson and how the teacher led the creative imagination of students.

3. Consolidation of the results of the work.

Formation of skills through exercises.

Training to transfer previously acquired skills to new working conditions.

Student organization.

1. Analysis of the level of mental development, attitude to learning and features of self-organization of individual students.

2. How does the teacher combine frontal work in the classroom with individual forms of learning.

Accounting for the age characteristics of students.