Outline of the speech workshop "Visual possibilities of the Russian language". §4

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Lexical and stylistic possibilities of the language. Linguists distinguish a number of language layers in the vocabulary, but for fiction, it is enough to stylistically distinguish three sections: neutral, reduced and sublime vocabulary. The use of words from the last two groups gives the work a pathetic (for example, Pushkin's "Prophet") or mundane everyday sound (for example, Chekhov's story "Vanka"). However, with the use of lofty vocabulary, a pre-calculated comic effect can also be achieved when lofty words are used ironically or when they do not correspond to the situation and context. A special effect is produced by the use of elevated and reduced vocabulary in the event that in the language this or that word is included in a synonymic series: the word used in the text is, as it were, set off by a neutral synonym. So, in Pushkin's "Prophet", instead of the neutral "eye", "lips", "look", "listen", the corresponding sublime synonyms "eye", "mouth", "see", "listen" are used; and in Chekhov's story "Vanka", instead of the neutral "face", the reduced synonyms "muzzle", "mug" are used.

For literary analysis, it is essential to identify in the work of such lexical layers as archaisms, historicisms and neologisms.

historicisms- these are the words that have fallen out of common use, because the corresponding concepts have been lost: wagon, postmaster, caftan, etc. Historicisms in fiction are used to recreate the historical flavor of the era.

Archaisms- obsolete words, ousted from the living modern language by synonyms: “right hand” - right hand, “shuytsa” - left, “brow” - forehead, etc. Most archaisms belong to the sublime vocabulary and, therefore, perform all its functions, but are also used to recreate the historical flavor of the era.

Neologisms- words used for the first time or recently entered the national language. It is necessary to strictly distinguish between general language neologisms (for example, cash out, customs clearance, consensus, conversion, etc.) and copyright neologisms. The first arise because a new phenomenon has appeared in the life of society, requiring a designation. General language neologisms are indifferent to the style of a literary text and do not carry any aesthetic expressiveness. The author's neologism arises precisely because of the need to find a more expressive and apt name for a thing or phenomenon - no matter old or new (Turgenev's neologism "nihilist" (from the Latin "mihil" - nothing); Mayakovsky's neologism "lyubenochek" ("little" , just emerging love)).

Interesting use in fiction barbarism- words of foreign origin, not yet assimilated into the Russian language. In the simplest case, they denote phenomena and concepts that are absent in Russian cultural usage, for example, lunch, fiesta, impeachment, etc. Sometimes barbarism becomes the basis of the image.

Of the other linguistic means used in fiction, it should also be noted that words that are not commonly used are dialectisms, professional vocabulary, jargon, etc. These words are used mainly in the speech of the characters, complementing their speech characteristics. Dialect words are sometimes used in narrative speech to create "local color".

Syntactic expressiveness - it is one of the most specific literary and expressive artistic means. Unlike other types of written speech (scientific, business, etc.), literary speech is potentially sound speech. Therefore, a literary text cannot simply be skimmed over with the eyes, fixing the meaning; it must at least be heard mentally - without this, a lot is lost: some side of the meaning may be lost (most often in such cases the emotional tonality escapes), the idea of artistic originality is impoverished, and the pleasure of reading many works of art when reading only with eyes in greatly reduced, and even disappears altogether. That is why syntax is so important in a work of art: living things are embodied, objectified in it. intonation sounding word. No wonder many writers strove for the musicality of their phrase. The manner of constructing a phrase often becomes a stylistic feature by which it is easy to identify the writer even in a small passage of text.

In addition to individual syntactic techniques that are used by writers, there is a set of so-called syntactic figures- stable methods of syntactic construction of one or another part of the text. All of them have the function to increase the expressiveness of the text and enhance the emotional impact on the reader. The most important syntactic figures are:

Inversion- changing the usual order of words and phrases that make up the sentence; it is usually used to highlight one or another element of the sentence or to give the sentence a special meaning: “He flew past the porter with an arrow along the marble steps” (A. Pushkin).

gradation- consistent forcing or, conversely, weakening the power of homogeneous expressive means of artistic speech “I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ...” (S. Yesenin).

Anaphora- repetition of the initial parts (sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic constructions) of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases): “Crawl to me, be cunning, Threats from old books, Only memory you leave me Only memory at the last moment” (A. Akhmatova).

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora - the repetition of the final parts (sounds, words, grammatical forms) of adjacent segments of speech (lines, phrases).

Antithesis- comparison or opposition of contrasting concepts, positions, images: "I tsar, - I slave, I worm, - I the God!" (G.Derzhavin).

Asyndeton- construction of a sentence, in which homogeneous members or parts of a complex sentence are connected without the help of unions.

polyunion- such a construction of a sentence when all (or almost all) homogeneous members are interconnected by the same union.

Rhetorical figures(Greek "rhetor" - speaker) - stylistic turns, the purpose of which is to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Rhetorical figures include: rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal.

Rhetorical question- an interrogative sentence used not in its own meaning. It is affirmative in content and does not require an answer, and its interrogative structure and intonation are used to attract attention, increase the emotional impact of the statement on the reader: “Do I not know him, this lie that he is all saturated with?” (L.N. Tolstoy).

Rhetorical exclamation- an exclamatory sentence that conveys the author's emotions is used to enhance emotional perception: “What a summer, what a summer! Yes, this is just witchcraft ”(F. Tyutchev).

Rhetorical address- an appeal that is conditional in nature, giving poetic speech the necessary intonation: solemn, pathetic, ironic, etc.: “And you, arrogant descendants, Known meanness of illustrious fathers ...” (M. Lermontov).

The concept of the trail. Correlation of the subject and semantic in the path. Expressive possibilities of paths.

The most important role in artistic speech is played by tropes - words and expressions used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. Tropes create in the work the so-called allegorical figurativeness, when the image arises from the convergence of one object or phenomenon with another. This is the most common function of all tropes - to reflect in the structure of the image the ability of a person to think by analogy, to embody, according to the poet, "the convergence of things far away", thus emphasizing the unity and integrity of the world around us. At the same time, the artistic effect of the trail, as a rule, is the stronger, the farther the approaching phenomena are separated from each other: such is, for example, Tyutchev's likening of lightning to “deaf-mute demons”. On the example of this path, one can trace another function of allegorical figurativeness: to reveal the essence of this or that phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and non-obvious path, makes the reader take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected angle. Despite the complexity of the paths, it is very accurate: indeed, the reflections of lightning without thunder are naturally designated by the epithet “deaf and dumb”.

The trope is used in literature in order to make the verbal definition of the phenomenon figurative. He explains the phenomenon visually, acting on the imagination.

Correlation of the subject and semantic in the path.

A trope is a special type of meaning increment. The transfer is imaginary: the compared phenomena only in the verbal series come into contact at the will of the speaker or writer. They remain in effect independent of each other. But in the mind of a person, their properties, as it were, are separated from the phenomena themselves and temporarily change places as part of the path.

Compared phenomena, objects, persons, actions, events are compared, contrasted or partially identified by means of tropes in terms of individual features or functions.

Expressive possibilities of paths.

Paths help visualize some aspects of the phenomenon that has attracted attention.

Comparisons open up the possibility of a deeper knowledge of the phenomenon under study.

Paths are one of the means of artistic knowledge in literature.

The combination of words in the paths allows you to pay attention to the hidden, previously unnoticed properties and functions of the compared phenomena.

There is a large group of species and varieties of trails.

1) Comparison - the transfer or replacement of values occurs in the most distinct form and the conditionality of temporal comparison is always emphasized. The comparison is based on words: as, as if, as if; it is worth removing this conditional link - and the comparison will fall apart. (“Under the embankment, in the unmowed ditch, Lies and looks like a living thing ...” Blok)

2) Parallelism - a comparison of two series of phenomena (often from the world of nature and the world of human relations) leads to a tacitly implied and, as it were, self-evident transfer of meanings. (“It’s not the wind that bends the branch, It’s not the oak forest that makes noise - That my heart groans, Like an autumn leaf trembles.” S. Stromilov).

3) Personification - the transfer of signs or functions of living beings to inanimate objects or phenomena (the image of an inanimate object as animate). (“What are you howling about, night wind, What are you so madly complaining about?” Tyutchev)

4) Antonomasia - the transfer of meanings based on the renaming or replacement of one name with another, more well-known (mythological, historical or literary). (Our troikas are indefatigable, our automedons strikers - the name of Automedon (charioteer of Achilles) is taken instead of the driver).

5) An epithet is an artistic definition that gives the expression figurativeness and emotionality, emphasizing one of the signs of the object or one of the impressions about the object. (“Golden grove dissuaded Birch with a cheerful language.” S. Yesenin)

6) Metaphor - the convergence of words by similarity or, conversely, by contrast. (the east is burning with a new dawn, I don’t feel sorry for you, my spring years)

7) Metonymy - a figurative meaning of a word based on the replacement of the direct name of an object with another by adjacency. (my dear little head (dear person))

8) Synecdoche - a type of metonymy, replacing a generic name with a specific, plural singular, plural generalized name (“all flags will visit us” (flags are merchant ships from different countries))

9) Hyperbole - an exaggeration of the real properties of objects, phenomena, persons or events. (the sea is knee-deep, tears flow in a stream)

10) Litota - an underestimation of the real properties of objects, phenomena, persons or events. (talin is no thicker than a bottle neck)

11) Euphemism - replacement of rough definitions with softened expressions, however, such a replacement does not affect the essence of the phenomenon and even contributes to emphasizing, protruding the negative principle.

But you can print, for example,

12) Irony - the use of a word in a contrasting comparison, as a result of which it acquires the opposite meaning. (“Did you all sing? This is the case.” Krylov)

A kind of irony is sarcasm (evil, bitter mockery).

(“For everything, for everything, I thank you:

For the secret torment of passions,

For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss,

For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends. Lermontov)

Comparison and metaphor in the system of expressive means of poetic language. Expressive possibilities of trails

Comparison- the transfer or replacement of values occurs in the most distinct form and the conditionality of temporal comparison is always emphasized. The comparison is based on words: as, as if, as if; it is worth removing this conditional link - and the comparison will fall apart. (“Under the embankment, in the unmowed ditch, Lies and looks as if alive ...” Blok. “Show off, city of Petrov, and stand unshakably, like Russia!” Pushkin)

Comparison consists in explaining some feature of one phenomenon by pointing to its similarity with others, in which this feature is expressed with the greatest completeness and distinctness.

The writer turns to comparison in the case when the similarity of a given phenomenon with another seems to the writer to be especially significant and important for revealing the image.

By shape comparison can be simple(“There the greenery is brighter than the emerald” Nekrasov) and deployed. A detailed comparison explains this or that feature of the depicted in a more multifaceted way and is called epic.

Comparison can describe an object, emotions and feelings, phenomena and events.

“Like a snake, heavy, well-fed and dusty, Your train crawls from the chairs onto the carpet” Blok.

“He is all like God's thunderstorm” Pushkin (“Poltava” about Peter).

Comparison is often considered as a special syntactic form of metaphor expression,

when the latter is connected with the object it expresses through the grammatical connective “like”, “as if”, “as if”, “precisely”, etc., and in Russian these conjunctions can be omitted, and the subject to be compared is expressed in instrumental case. “The streams of my poems run” (Blok) - a metaphor, according to “my poems run like streams” or “my poems run in streams” - there would be comparisons. Such a purely grammatical definition does not exhaust the nature of comparison. First of all, not every comparison can be syntactically compressed into a metaphor. For example, “Nature amuses itself jokingly, like a carefree child” (Lermontov), or an antithetical comparison in “The Stone Guest”: “The Spanish grandee, like a thief, Waits for the night and is afraid of the moon.” In comparison, moreover, it is precisely the separateness of the compared objects that is essential, which is externally expressed by the particle as etc.; between the compared objects, the distance is felt, which is overcome in the metaphor. Metaphor, as it were, demonstrates identity, comparison-separation. Therefore, the image drawn for comparison easily unfolds into a completely independent picture, often associated in only one of some signs with the object that caused the comparison.

The separation of similar objects in comparison is especially clearly manifested in the special form of negative comparison characteristic of Russian and Serbian poetry. For example: "Not two clouds in the sky converged, two daring knights converged." Wed Pushkin: "Not a flock of ravens flocked On a pile of smoldering bones, - Over the Volga at night, by the fires of the Remote, a gang gathered."

Metaphor- convergence of words by similarity or, on the contrary, by contrast (the east burns with a new dawn, I don’t feel sorry for you, my year of spring), (a \u003d b).

In the metaphor, one phenomenon is presented as completely likened to another, something similar to it: “What a lamp of the mind has gone out!” Nekrasov. Metaphor as a comparison serves to accurately highlight the essential features of the phenomenon. Metaphor sometimes creates a whole complete picture.

The metaphor allows you to make the image the most expressive, sharply individualized, for example: “The mutterings of your pearls” (mouth, teeth = pearls), “And the silence strangely turns pink” Blok; "Thin strings of rain" Gorky

Like other tropes (metonymy, synecdoche), metaphor is not only a phenomenon of poetic style, but also a general linguistic one. Many words in a language are formed metaphorically or are used metaphorically, and the figurative meaning of the word sooner or later displaces the meaning, the word is understood only in its figurative meaning, which is thereby no longer recognized as figurative, since its original direct meaning has already faded or even been completely lost. This kind of metaphorical origin is revealed in separate, independent words (skates, window, affection, captivating, formidable, advise), but even more often in phrases (mill wings, mountain range, pink dreams, hanging by a thread). On the contrary, metaphor, as a phenomenon of style, should be spoken of in cases where a word or a combination of words is recognized or felt both direct and figurative meaning. Such poetic metaphors can be: firstly, the result of a new word usage, when a word used in ordinary speech in one meaning or another is given a new, figurative meaning for it (for example, “And it will sink into a dark muzzle year after year”; “ ..stand set in a magnet "- Tyutchev); secondly, the result of renewal, revival of the faded metaphors of the language (for example, “You drink the magical poison of desires”; “Serpents of the heart

remorse" - Pushkin). The ratio of two meanings in a poetic metaphor can be further different degrees. Either a direct or a figurative meaning can be brought to the fore, and the other, as it were, accompanies it, or both meanings can be in a certain balance with each other (Tyutchev’s example of the latter: “A storm that has swept over a cloud will confuse the azure sky”). In most cases, we find a poetic metaphor at the stage of obscuring the direct meaning with a figurative one, while the direct meaning gives only an emotional coloring to the metaphor, which is its poetic effectiveness (for example, “The fire of desire burns in the blood” - Pushkin). But it is impossible to deny or even consider as an exception those cases when the direct meaning of the metaphor not only does not lose its figurative tangibility, but comes to the fore, the image retains visibility, becomes a poetic reality, the metaphor is realized. (For example, "Life is a mouse running" - Pushkin; "Her soul twitched with transparent blue ice" - Blok). Poetic metaphor is rarely limited to a single word or phrase. Usually we meet a number of images, the totality of which gives the metaphor an emotional or visual tangibility.

expressiveness

Allegory and symbol in the system of tropes, their expressive possibilities

Allegory- an expression of the abstract, abstract content of a thought (concept, judgment) through a concrete (image), for example, the image of death in the form of a skeleton with a scythe, justice in the form of a woman blindfolded and with scales in one hand and a sword in the other. Thus, in an allegory, a specific image receives an abstract meaning, is generalized, a concept is contemplated through the image.

In allegory, abstract concepts are most often used (virtue, conscience, truth), typical phenomena, characters, mythological characters - carriers of a certain allegorical content assigned to them (Minerva is the goddess of wisdom), an allegory can also act as a number of images connected by a single plot . At the same time, it is characterized by an unambiguous allegory and direct appraisal, fixed by cultural tradition: its meaning can be interpreted quite straightforwardly in the ethical categories of "good" and "evil". Allegory is close to the symbol, and in certain cases coincides with it. However, the symbol is more meaningful, meaningful and organically connected with the structure of a most often simple image. Often, in the process of cultural and historical development, allegory lost its original meaning and needed a different interpretation, creating new semantic and artistic shades.

Symbol(from the Greek. symbolon - sign, omen) - one of the types of trails *. A symbol, like an allegory and a metaphor, forms its figurative meanings on the basis of what we feel - kinship, the connection between the object or phenomenon that is denoted by some word in the language, and another object or phenomenon to which we transfer the same verbal designation. For example, "morning" as the beginning of daily activity can be compared with the beginning of human life. This is how the metaphor “morning of life” and the symbolic picture of the morning as the beginning of the life path arise:

"In the morning mist with unsteady steps

I went to the mysterious and wonderful shores.

(Ow. S. Solovyov)

However, the symbol is fundamentally different from both allegory and metaphor. First of all, by the fact that it is endowed with a huge variety of meanings (in fact, innumerable), and all of them are potentially present in every symbolic image, as if “seeing through” each other. So, in the lines from the poem by A. A. Blok "You were bright to the point of strangeness ...":

"I am your love caress

Enlightened - and I see dreams.

But believe me, I think it's a fairy tale

Unprecedented sign of spring

"spring" is the time of the year, and the birth of the first love, and the beginning of youth, and the coming "new life" and much more. Unlike allegory, the symbol is deeply emotional; to comprehend it, it is necessary to "get used" to the mood of the text. Finally, in allegory and in metaphor, the objective meaning of a word can be “erased”: sometimes we simply don’t notice it (for example, when Mars or Venus are mentioned in the literature of the 18th century, we often hardly remember the vividly depicted characters of ancient myths, but we only know that It's about war and about love Mayakovsky's metaphor of "days bull peg" draws an image of the motley days of human life, and not the image of a spotted bull).

The main feature of symbols is that they, in their mass, appear not only in those texts (or even more so in parts of the text) where we find them. They have a history of tens of thousands of years, going back to ancient ideas about the world, to myths and rituals. Certain words (“morning”, “winter”, “grain”, “earth”, “blood”, etc., etc.) from time immemorial have been imprinted in the memory of mankind precisely as symbols. Such words are not only ambiguous: we intuitively feel their ability to be symbols. Later, these words are especially attracted by word artists, who include them in works, where they receive new meanings.

The image of feeling in speech requires special expressive colors. expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing a special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; I can say I don't like it, but stronger words can be found: I hate, I despise, I abhor. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress (cf.: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious). Vivid expression highlights the words solemn (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, announce), poetic (azure, invisible, sing, incessant). vaunted), familiar (good-natured, cute, mooing, whispering). Expressive shades delimit the words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), scornful (painting, pettiness), contemptuous (sneak, servility, sycophancy), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar (grabber, lucky), swear words (boor, fool ).

Expressive coloring in a word is superimposed on its emotional and evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary.

Combining words close in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the called concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words high, affectionate, partly playful; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc.

Metonymy, synecdoche, euphemism, paraphrase in the system of expressive means of poetic language. Expressive possibilities of trails

Metonymy- the figurative meaning of the word, based on the replacement of the direct name of the subject with another by adjacency. (my dear little head (dear person)) Metonymy not only highlights the characteristic, but also creates a certain mood.

Type of metonymy:

1) The name of not the entire phenomenon or object as a whole, but one of some attribute (the most important in this case): “And at the door - pea jackets, overcoats, sheepskin coats” Mayakovsky about the storming of the Winter Palace by revolutionaries.

2) Replacing the name of the object itself with an indication of the material from which it is made: “porcelain and bronze on the table”, “spirits in faceted crystal” Pushkin.

3) The name of the containing volume instead of what it contains: “foamy cups” Pushkin, “Well, eat another plate, my dear!” Krylov.

4) Designation of people (lil of the whole nation) by the name of the place where they are or where the action takes place: “Russia went to save Moscow” by Akhmatov.

5) The use of the name of the creator instead of the name of the work, subject: “I read Apuleius willingly, and did not read Cicero” Pushkin.

6) The name instead of the very action of his tool, means, goal or results: “His pen breathes love”, “Judge us with a sword” Pushkin.

Synecdoche- a kind of metonymy, replacement of a generic name by a specific, plural singular, plural by a generalized name: “And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced” Lermontov.

Euphemism- replacement of rough definitions with softened expressions, however, such a replacement does not affect the essence of the phenomenon and even contributes to emphasizing, protruding the negative principle.

(“Other abuse, of course, indecency.

It is impossible to say: such and such a de-old man,

A goat with glasses, a shabby slanderer,

And angry and vile: all this will be a person.

But you can print, for example,

That Mr. Parnassian Old Believer

In his articles of nonsense speaker,

Superbly sluggish, superbly boring,

Heavy and even stupid. Pushkin.)

EUPHEMISM(Greek ευφημισμός, mitigation of expression) is a linguistic and stylistic term denoting the replacement in speech of a direct expression, which for some reason seems sharp and undesirable, by means of an indirect, softened one. For example: "ordered to live long"; "in an interesting position"; "inexpressible" (knickers); “where the tsar goes on foot” (latrine, which in turn is a euphemism, if you like); "places not so remote" (reference); “blonde” (typhoid louse), etc. Many euphemisms in colloquial speech are associated with completely conventional and arbitrary designations of an object that arise in one or another close circle of people or in special social dialects that develop, for example, in closed educational institutions , in a military environment, in gangs of thieves, among prisoners, etc.

A special kind of euphemism consists in the rearrangement of the sounds of a word, for example, the name of a street in Moscow “Shvitaya Gorka” instead of the former “Little Hill”, or in the substitution of individual sounds and syllables, as, for example, in French, expressions of curses: „morbleu “ instead of “mort Dieu”, “parbleu” instead of “par Dieu”, etc.

PERIPHRASE(Greek Περίφρασις, description) - a stylistic term denoting a descriptive expression of an object according to some of its properties or features. For example: "King of beasts" instead of a lion; "pea coat" instead of detective; "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle for the place of birth. Paraphrase is especially often used when listing homogeneous objects in order to avoid monotony in naming. So, in Pushkin's "sonnet", along with five direct names of the poets of the sonnet - Dante, Petrarch, Camões, Wordsworth, Delvig - two descriptive ones are given: "the creator of Macbeth" vm. Shakespeare and the "singer of Lithuania" vm. Mitskevich. A special type of periphrase is euphemism (see). This makes it possible to highlight the main characteristic features of the subject, to express the attitude towards it.

stylistic figures. Artistic possibilities of poetic syntax.

Stylistic figures - special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement. Sometimes stylistic figures include tropes, as well as unusual phrases, turns of speech that go beyond the language norm.

1. infinitive sentence when the predicate is expressed in an indefinite form of the verb, for example: And the queen laugh and shrug her shoulders ... (A. Pushkin)

2. Ellipsis- incomplete sentences, where figurativeness is achieved by saving speech means in the absence of a sentence member, most often a predicate, for example: Lake in the middle of the river; on the right side behind the river there is a meadow and on the left side there is a meadow, and behind the meadow there is a hillock with old pines and a field. (G. Bocharov)

3. Parceling- a stylistic device when a sentence is divided into segments graphically as independent sentences, one of which is incomplete or requires a mandatory context, for example: I will complain. Governor. (M. Gorky). Parcellation must be distinguished from an error - speech failure, when the subject or predicate is broken (I will complain. I will.). Allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings.

4. Inversion- a change in the direct (usual) word order in the sentence to the reverse, in which the word occupies an unusual, and therefore a strong position, for example (the words on which the logical stress falls are highlighted): Aragva is bright, he happily / Reached the green shores. (M. Lermontov) Compare the same sentence with the direct word order, where, along with the inversion, the rhythm of the verse is eliminated: He happily reached the green shores of the bright Aragva. It is a means of giving speech a special expressiveness.

5. Doubling- repetition of words as a stylistic device: Dreams, dreams, where is your sweetness? (A. Pushkin)

6. Anaphora, or monotony, - the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of each sentence:

If you love, so without reason,

If you threaten, it's not a joke,

If you scold, so rashly,

Kohl cut, so spitting!

(A. K. Tolstoy)

7. Epiphora, or ending, - repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent sentences:

"We will not be!" And the world, at least that.

"The trace will disappear!" And the world, at least that.

We were not there, but he shone and will be.

We will disappear - and the world at least that!

(Omar Khayyam)

Creates a special rhythmic-intonation pattern, places semantic accents.

8. Syntax parallelism- repetition of not words, but a syntactic model: Lancers with colorful badges, dragoons with horse tails ... (M. Lermontov)

9. Default- an intentional break in the utterance, conveying discontinuity, excitement of speech. In the letter, the default is shown with an ellipsis:

Not; I wanted...maybe you...I thought

It's time for the baron to die.

(A. Pushkin) Awakens deep thoughts and feelings in the reader, requires co-creation from him.

10. Rhetorical question- an emotionally colored statement that has the meaning of affirmation or denial. A rhetorical question is often posed not in order to get an answer, but to draw the reader's attention to a particular phenomenon, for example: What about my Onegin? Half-asleep in bed, he rides from the ball. (A. Pushkin) Give speech expressiveness, sharpness.

11. Rhetorical address(often with an exclamation), when the author emphatically refers to someone or something, thereby expressing his attitude:

Flowers, love, trees, idleness,

Fields! I am devoted to you in soul.

(A. Pushkin) Give speech expressiveness, sharpness.

12. Asyndeton consists in the deliberate omission of unions with homogeneous members (hereinafter, the rows of homogeneous members themselves can be considered as a means of creating an image), which gives the speech swiftness and dynamism. For example, lines from "Eugene Onegin" by A. Pushkin, where we, together with the Larin family, observe a kaleidoscopic change of pictures outside the carriage window:

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, gardens, orchards,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

13. polyunion when repeated unions serve as a logical and intonational underline of homogeneous members, for example:

Before my eyes the ocean was moving, and swaying, and thundering, and sparkling, and fading away, and going somewhere to infinity. (V. Korolenko)

14. gradation- such an arrangement of homogeneous members, in which each subsequent one contains a reinforcing meaning, which also enhances the overall impression made by the entire group of words.

A person in the process of reading, ignoring stylistic figures and focusing only on punctuation marks, deprives himself of all the subtleties of poetry and, therefore, does not understand the depth of the work.

Stylistic figures are special syntactic constructions that serve to enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech.

Poetic syntax is a system of special means of constructing speech that enhances its figurative expressiveness.

Opportunities:

This is a means of giving speech a special expressiveness.

This makes it possible to highlight the main characteristic features of the subject, to express the attitude towards it.

Give speech expressiveness, sharpness.

It conveys complex semantic nuances, a strong emotional impact on the reader.

Creates a special rhythmic-intonation pattern, places semantic accents.

It creates the impression of a movement of thought, deepening: it helps to establish associative links, psychologically connect dissimilar concepts, and emotional impact on the reader.

Awakens deep thoughts and feelings in the reader, requires him to co-create.

Allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings.

Poetic and prose speech. Rhythm and meter. rhythm factors. The concept of verse. Systems of versification

There are two different-quality systems of the artistic structure of speech: prosaic and poetic.

Poetic works are characterized by division in their speech into such comparable rhythmic units as poetic lines, the boundaries of which may coincide with syntactic units (phrases, syntags), but in prose these boundaries coincide, its rhythm is based on a special organization and internal ordering of syntactic units. .

The basis of the organization of poetic speech is rhythm.

In the era of antiquity, verbal art made its way from mythological and divinely inspired poetry (whether epics or tragedies) to prose, which, however, was still not really artistic, but oratorical and business (Demosthenes), philosophical (Plato and Aristotle), historical (Plutarch , Tacitus). Artistic prose, on the other hand, existed more as part of folklore (parables, fables, fairy tales) and was not promoted to the forefront of verbal art. She won the rights very slowly. Only in modern times did poetry and prose in the art of the word begin to coexist "on an equal footing", with the latter sometimes coming to the fore (such, in particular, was Russian literature of the 19th century, starting from the 30s).

There is an external, formal difference between poetry and prose, and there is an internal, essential difference between them. The first is that poetry is opposed to prose; the last is that prose, as thinking and rational presentation, is opposed to poetry, as thinking and figurative presentation, designed not so much for the mind and logic, but for feeling and imagination. Hence it is clear that not every verse is poetry and not every prose form of speech is internal prose. Once upon a time, even grammatical rules (for example, Latin exceptions) or arithmetic operations were stated in the verses. On the other hand, we know "poems in prose" and, in general, such works written in prose that are the purest poetry: it is enough to name the names of Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Chekhov. If we keep in mind the just mentioned external difference, then it will be interesting to point out that the word prose comes from the Latin prorsa, which in turn is an abbreviated proversa: oratio (speech) proversa meant among the Romans continuous speech, filling the entire page and freely rushing forward , while the verse occupies only a part of each line on the pages and, in addition, in the circulation of its rhythm, it constantly returns back, back (in Latin - versus). It should, however, be noted that one can speak of the freedom of prose speech only conditionally: in fact, prose also has its own laws and requirements. Let, unlike poetry (in the sense of poetry), artistic prose does not know rhyme and rhythmic regularity of feet, nevertheless it must be musical, and it must cater to what Nietzsche called "the conscience of the ear." No wonder the same Nietzsche advised to work on two lines of prose like on a statue; he likened a writer to a sculptor.

Turning to a more important - the internal difference between prose and poetry, let's pay attention to the fact that prose serves science and practice, while poetry satisfies our aesthetic need. Here is a school example that explains this difference: the description of the Dnieper in a geography textbook and the description of the Dnieper by Gogol (“Wonderful Dnieper” ...). Prose needs abstractions, schemes, formulas, and it moves along the channel of logic; on the contrary, poetry requires picturesqueness, and it transforms the content of the world into living colors, and words for it are carriers not of concepts, but of images. Prose talks, poetry draws. Prose is dry, poetry is agitated and excites. Prose analyzes, poetry synthesizes, i.e. the first divides the phenomenon into its constituent elements, while the second takes the phenomenon in its integrity and unity. In this regard, poetry personifies, inspires, gives life; prose, sober prose, is akin to a mechanistic worldview.

Highly characteristic of poetry is such a perception of the world as some kind of living being, and the corresponding way of depicting the latter. In general, it is very important to learn that poetry is more than a style: it is a worldview; the same must be said of prose. If poetry is divided - approximately and generally - into epic, lyrics and drama, then in prose modern textbooks on the theory of literature distinguish between such genera and types: narrative (chronicle, history, memoirs, geography, characterization, obituary), description (travel, for example), reasoning (literary criticism, for example), oratory; It goes without saying that this classification cannot be strictly maintained, does not exhaust the subject, and the enumerated genera and species are intertwined in various ways. In the same work there may be elements of both poetry and prose; and if the penetration into the prose of poetry, inner poetry, is always desirable, then the opposite case has a cooling effect on us and causes aesthetic resentment and annoyance in the reader; we then convict the author of prosaism.

Artistic prose is a system of figurative and expressive speech that preserves the disproportionate order of deployment of ordinary colloquial speech.

Poems are a figurative-expressive system of speech based on the artistic use of the possibilities of rhythm in it.

Rhythm is a continuously uniform and clearly tangible following in poetic speech of proportionate segments, giving it a special expressiveness.

The tempo and rhythm of the piece.

The greatest measure of rhythm differs, of course, in poetic speech. For a very long time, people have noticed that words folded into harmonious poetic lines are easier to remember, easier to perceive, and most importantly, become beautiful and acquire a special effect on the listener. The last two functions have remained leading for poetic speech in modern times: to give an artistic text aesthetic perfection and to enhance the emotional impact on the reader. Rhythm in poetry is achieved through a uniform alternation of speech elements - poetic lines, pauses, stressed and unstressed syllables, etc.

So, verse is rhythmically ordered, rhythmically organized speech. However, prose also has its own rhythm, sometimes more, sometimes less tangible, although there it is not subject to a strict rhythmic canon - meter. Rhythm is achieved in prose primarily due to the approximate proportion of columns, which is associated with the intonational-syntactic structure of the text, as well as various kinds of rhythmic repetitions.

No less than rhythmic, the tempo organization of a literary text is also important; however, in practice, these two sides of artistic syntax are so inseparable from each other that sometimes one speaks of tempo-rhythm works. The tempo-rhythm has as its function, first of all, the creation of a certain emotional atmosphere in the work. The fact is that different types of tempo and rhythmic organization directly and directly embody certain emotional states and have the ability to evoke precisely these emotions in the mind of the reader, listener, viewer; in such arts as music or dance, this regularity is seen very clearly.

Russian syntax, like Russian vocabulary, has great expressive possibilities. Most often, the expressiveness of sentences and the text as a whole can be achieved through the use of a variety of syntactic constructions. One-part or incomplete sentences with homogeneous members, as well as complex, complex and non-union complex sentences can give the text special expressiveness.

Non-union or multi-union, as a rule, is used with homogeneous members of the sentence, which, being an effective figurative tool, help to clarify the details of the overall picture, giving it a certain dynamics. In some cases, they may indicate static: “ Arkady Ivanovich was an unbearable person: he always had fun, always winked, never spoke directly, but in such a way that his heart skipped a beat.”(A.N. Tol hundredth).

In other cases, on the contrary, for activity:

The wagon rushes through the potholes.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

(A.S. Pushkin)

If in a sentence homogeneous members, connected to each other by the intonation of enumeration, give the character of a calm narrative, then the use of a repeating union and makes the enumeration more expressive: “I also knew the lanes where the houses were blind, like old people sitting right there on the benches, and the elegant Kuznetsky Bridge, and the wide Tverskaya - the houses there were large, spacious, almost all of them were two stories high.”(Yu.N. Tynyanov).

As a means of expressiveness of Russian syntax, such stylistic devices as inversion(violation of word order in a sentence) and parceling(violation of supply boundaries), i.e. singling out a member from a sentence - most often a secondary one - and arranging it after a dot in the form of an independent incomplete sentence.

Inversion example:

The forest drops its crimson dress,

Frost silvers the withered iole,

The day will pass, as if involuntarily,

And hide behind the edge of the surrounding mountains.

(A.S. Pushkin)

paraceleration divides the sentence into meaningful segments, which resembles telegraph style, these segments are located after the main phrase in the semantic sense. This method makes the text jerky, logical stress plays a big role in each of its segments. The parcellization technique reproduces the intonations of live speech, creating the effect of ease: “How courteous] Dobra] Mila Prosta!" (A.S. Griboyedov);

I want to get to the bottom of everything.

At work. Looking for a way. In heartbreak.

(B.L. Pasternak)

With segmentation, a significant segment, on the contrary, is in front of the main text: World fame - why do I need it now]

The use of one-component sentences as a means of expression is reminiscent of naracellation and often aims to create a static image, a specific background against which some action unfolds: "House. The street. Lamp. Pharmacy..."(A.A. Blok). Incomplete sentences, in which only key words that are important for conveying the meaning of the statement are preserved, are used to convey colloquial speech or deep emotional experiences (excitement, indignation, etc.): Woman with a hat Yes, you, come here. No, to me.

A complex sentence can also have expressive possibilities by including an enumeration in it using the same allied means: “Here is the one that scares and catches the tit, which often steals wheat, whichstored in a dark closet, in the house,whichbuilt by Jack(from English, a classic poem translated by S.Ya. Marshak).

Syntactic expressiveness is characteristic of journalism, pathetic speech. This means of expression is a rhetorical question. Its function is to draw attention to some moment of speech, to make listeners think.

The juxtaposition of sentences is the union of several sentences with the same type of meaning into a syntactic whole; the connection of sentences is usually parallel. Used most often in descriptions of the state of the environment: "It was night. Frost crackled throughout the forest. The tops of the age-old firs, ghostly lit by the stars, shone and smoked, as if they had been rubbed with phosphorus.(V.P. Kataev).

Using syntactic constructions in speech, you make the speech richer, more interesting, attract the attention of the interlocutor. Possession of the expressive possibilities of Russian syntax emphasizes literacy and education.

test questions

1. By what means is the expressiveness of sentences and the text as a whole achieved?
2. When are non-union and multi-union used in sentences?
3. Where is the juxtaposition of sentences most often used?

Workshop

Task 1. Read the text. Find the lexical and stylistic means of imagery used in it.

The night was dark, dark layers of shaggy clouds were moving across the sky, the sea was calm, black, and thick as butter. It breathed a moist, salty aroma and sounded kindly, splashing on the sides of the ships, on the shore, slightly rocking Chelkash's boat. The dark skeletons of ships rose from the sea to a distant space from the coast, piercing into the sky sharp masts with multi-colored lanterns on top. The sea reflected the lights of the lanterns and was dotted with a mass of yellow spots. They fluttered beautifully on his velvet, soft, matte black. The sea slept with a healthy, sound sleep of a worker who was very tired during the day ...

With a strong blow of the rudder, Chelkash pushed the boat into the strip of water between the barges, it quickly swam across the slippery water, and the water, under the blows of the oars, lit up with a bluish phosphorescent glow, its long ribbon, softly sparkling, twisted behind the stern ...

The boat sped off again, moving silently and lightly among the ships.

Team: Grishchenko Victoria, Kucheruk Anastasia, Meshkanova Anna, Nichemerzhina Elizaveta, Hoteshov Kirill.

The work was presented at the school scientific and practical conference.

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MUNICIPAL BUDGET GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THE CITY OF MURMANSK

"SEVERAGE SCHOOL № 42"

Expressive possibilities

direction: philology

The work was done by students of grade 7 A:

Grishchenko Victoria

Kucheruk Anastasia

Meshkanova Anna

Nichemerzhina Elizabeth

Hoteshov Kirill

Head: Evseeva S.P.

Murmansk 2017

Introduction………………………………………….………………….2
Main part……………………………………..………………..3
Conclusion ………………………………………….………………6
Conclusions………………………………………………..……………...7
Literature……………………………………………..…………….7

If they talk about advertising, it's badadvertising .

If they talk about a product, it's good advertising.

David Ogilvy

Introduction

The language of advertising is of interest, because. has its own characteristics at all levels studied in the sections of linguistics. The genre of advertising requires that information be presented concisely, often it can be just a sign, a picture, or other non-verbal images. We are interested in the word and the verbal image. Because the purpose of the advertising slogan is to attract attention, to interest the buyer, by the way, there are special requirements in advertising. An advertising slogan is no longer just a carrier of information, but a sales agent that takes into account the age and character of the client, his social status, his interests and hobbies. The advertising slogan must be verified from the point of view of the psychology of the buyer.

Study the audience your activity will be aimed at. Who are these people you are addressing?

Young or old? Rich, poor or middle class? Single or family? Their interests, lifestyle...

David Ogilvy

Therefore, the creation of advertising is the concern of many specialists: psychologists, linguists, artists, marketers, etc. It would be interesting to imagine the buyer through the eyes of the compilers of advertising: how they see the consumer of their products. We selected 85 advertising texts for our study.

The purpose of our work– the study of the linguistic features of advertising texts and the analysis of the linguistic phenomena presented in them.

Tasks :

2. Classify the material by sections of linguistics;

3. Determine the effectiveness of such word usage;

4. Form an image of the client-buyer, the addressee of the advertisement.

Main part

Among the variety of literature on advertising, we want to highlight the works of David Ogilvy "Secrets of the advertising yard" and "Revelations of an advertising agent."David Ogilvy - founder of advertising agencies "Ogilvy & Mather", "Ógilvy PR", a successful copywriter. David Ogilvie is considered by many to be the father of advertising. In 1962, the American magazine "Time" described him as "the most famous magician in the modern advertising industry." He is a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 1977, he was inducted into the US Advertising Hall of Fame. Ogilvy named eight components of successful advertising. In second place, after the super-idea, is the text.

According to researchmarketers , commercial texts built on the basis of the model work best."Attention", "Interest", "Desire", "Action". This is how any advertising text should be built in order to be as effective as possible.

First of all, you need to attract the attention of the consumer.
After the attention of the consumer is won, it is necessary to provide him with information that will arouse his interest.
At the end of the text, to consolidate the emotional mood of the consumer and better remember information, there should be an echo phrase.

Let me turn to our material and see (or disprove) the effectiveness of some advertising slogans.

Vocabulary.

The frequently used formula "Prices jumped", "Prices fell" is built on the reception personification.

Formula "impossible is possible" - oxymoron combines two opposite phenomena.

"Lada at the price of the factory" - metonymy , the plant is understood as people producing management, management.

In the name of the lingerie store "Trusishka" - pun , played on ambiguity.

A common advertising technique is the use of phraseological units . For example, “seize the moment”, “look at the stress from above”, “they won’t hang on behind us”, “everyone rides on us”, “relieve a headache”, “from hand to hand”, “Moscow is not rubber”, “life – an amazing thing”, “I guarantee decency”.

Some slogans use appropriately and inappropriatelyforeign vocabulary. For example, "Boutique de France is holding a tasting of French perfumes", with the words "Everything will be bon parfum!" written at the bottom. Or on a beer stall such a name is “Buchen House”, completely in Russian.

The same example illustrates the ability of copywriters to invent neologisms . As in advertising about cheburaktsia or about Japanese sushi. Neologisms with national flavor.

Morphology.

When analyzing the advertising text in terms of morphology, we observed the frequency of the use of parts of speech and their forms. The most common was the verb in the imperative mood - 20%. These are verbs: get, get out, take, think, look, catch, wait, be, use, believe, don't give, become, do, buy, bury, give in. The adjective in the degree of comparison is used much less frequently. For example, "Children's fashion is brighter than adult" and "Yogurt is more alive than Pinocchio." Some slogans are constructed as nominative sentences, i.e. use nominative nouns, but about them in the syntax section.

Syntax.

Syntax is closely related to morphology, they make up the grammar of the language. What features of syntactic constructions have we noted. The most numerous are incentive sentences, the basis of which is the imperative mood verb (we talked about them in the previous section). Then there are exclamatory sentences in frequency. The purpose of such offers in advertising is not to leave the buyer indifferent, to help him make a “discovery” in choosing a product, to remind him what joy and what relief this purchase will bring him. For example, “A girl’s best friend is a fish!”, “Everyone rides us. And we are glad! Often the slogan is built as a dialogue using interrogative and exclamatory sentences. For example, “Why wait? It's time to buy! or “Stolen? It was necessary to put CLIFFORD! Despite the fact that the texts of advertisements should be short, they often use complex sentences. For example, “4G is waiting for those who do not wait”, “Use a hair dryer that does not dry”, “Believe me, you are stronger than you seem”, “You are a good person if you took a picture of a cheburek!”. Among simple sentences, we note sentences with a complicating component. For example, "It melts in your mouth, not in the heat", "I'm waiting for a smart, gentle, well-aimed" - homogeneous members. “My dear, I have abracadabra in my coffee!” - appeal. And as mentioned above, some sentences are built using only nouns in the nominative case, the so-called nominative sentences. But there are not many of them. The use of punctuation marks is sometimes ignored altogether, apparently, the advertising slogan is presented in the form of a headline. But of the ones we found, the most common ones are the exclamation mark, the question mark, and the comma. We also saw the dash “Children's fashion is brighter than adult fashion” and the ellipsis “We are driven ... And we are glad!”.

Word formation.

The main words of advertising, which carry the idea itself, are often formed using the prefix super. It means the highest quality, increased, enhanced action. For example, “Take a super photo!”, “Super prices for supermen!”, “Super ultra mega duper cool prices!”.

Graphic arts.

In some cases, to achieve greater effect in advertising texts, an unusual graphic style of the word is used. For example, the first part of the phrase "Returning visual acuity" is blurry, as if it is read by a person with poor eyesight. In the slogan "Think fresh!" the last word is written the other way around, apparently, this is a “fresh”, non-standard approach in presenting information. The sentence "Always a Great Choice of Clothes" is nothing more than an acrostic, which apparently suggests the name of the store owner. There are five O's in the word "Then" in a row. The length of the sound indicates long-term lending services in favor of the client. In the phrase “Tune in for success”, the word STROY is highlighted in capital letters and in a different font, which indicates the company providing services, StroyCity.

Unusual move.

The authors of advertising texts are constantly in search of a non-standard presentation of information, a new scheme for constructing a phrase. We found interesting options, some of them could be attributed to an erroneous, from the point of view of logic, construction or regarded as a provocation regarding moral norms. For example, “Bury your mother-in-law in the sand” is offered by a travel agency, hinting at a beach holiday. “I will make friends with your borscht,” says sour cream, asserting the need for his presence. “Want a bad site? Then don't call us!" Some copywriters build advertising phrases in verse. Such texts are closest to everyday life, tk. their goal is not to impress with a high style, but rather to entertain. You can easily imagine the addressee of such advertising. For example, “The best pizza. It’s impossible not to fall in love! ”,“ Here they will feed deliciously, Here is a forest and peace. Even your mother-in-law and his wife will not find you here”, “Small wholesaler Vasily buys effortlessly”, “Become handsome and gentle with a fresh sock”, “I can’t sell my new Opel without tears and snot”. The last text is more like an ad, but a promotional move was used to attract a buyer.

Mistakes.

The next group that we have identified, perhaps, can be considered anti-advertising. Because for a cultured and educated person, information about a product is comparable to the quality of the product. If we see text with errors, it makes us distrustful.

Conclusion

Our observations have shown that when creating an advertising slogan, the possibilities of all levels of the language are widely used: lexical, morphological, derivational, graphic, syntactic, and even the creation of a poetic text. But we must remember about moderation and appropriateness, we must maintain a sense of taste and style. We must remember the main purpose of advertising:Target its not to entertain the viewer, but to sell him a product 2 . David Ogilvie made high demands on advertisers:A good surgeon differs from a mediocre one in that he knows a lot more ... It's the same with advertising managers. Good managers know much more than others.Especially in spelling and punctuation.

How do copywriters see their client? The advertising presented in our work is street, simple, designed for the average city dweller, for his average income, who purchases the necessary goods and services at economy prices. He can be carried away with accompanying gifts. For example, you bought a laptop - get headphones in your ear. Communication with him is built simply, his problems arouse sympathy: is it hard with your mother-in-law? Here's a cheap ticket for her. Tired of family problems? Here is a quiet motel where you can eat, relax and hide from your wife. And there are elite goods for wealthy customers, and hence elite advertising.

findings

The expressive possibilities of the language of advertising include:

Personification, metonymy, pun, use of phraseological units, neologisms and borrowed words;
The use of imperative verbs;
The use of incentive, exclamatory and interrogative sentences;
The use of complex sentences;
The use of simple sentences with a complicating component;
The use of foreign prefixes is super, mega;
Use of non-standard, unusual approaches in the transmission of advertising information;
Using graphic style as a technique;
There are cases of erroneous writing of texts in terms of spelling and punctuation.

Literature

The Russian language is one of the richest, most beautiful and complex. Last but not least, the presence of a large number of means of verbal expression makes it so.

In this article, we will analyze what a language tool is and what types it comes in. Consider examples of use from fiction and everyday speech.

Language means in Russian - what is it?

The description of the most ordinary object can be made beautiful and unusual by using language

Words and expressions that give expressiveness to the text are conditionally divided into three groups: phonetic, lexical (they are also tropes) and stylistic figures.

To answer the question of what a language tool is, let's get to know them better.

Lexical means of expression

Tropes are linguistic means in the Russian language, which are used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Widely used in works of art.

Paths serve to create visual, auditory, olfactory images. They help to create a certain atmosphere, to produce the desired effect on the reader.

Lexical means of expression are based on implicit or explicit comparison. It may be based on external resemblance, personal associations of the author, or the desire to describe the object in a certain way.

Basic language tools: trails

We are confronted with trails from the school bench. Let's take a look at the most common ones:

The epithet is the most famous and common trope. Often found in poetry. An epithet is a colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison. Emphasizes the features of the described object, its most expressive features. Examples: "ruddy dawn", "light character", "golden hands", "silver voice".
Comparison is a word or expression based on the comparison of one object with another. Most often it is drawn up in the form of a comparative turnover. You can find out by using the unions characteristic of this technique: as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, what. Consider examples: “transparent as dew”, “white as snow”, “straight as a reed”.
Metaphor is a means of expression based on hidden comparison. But, unlike it, it is not formalized by unions. A metaphor is built relying on the similarity of two objects of speech. For example: "onions of churches", "whisper of grass", "tears of heaven".
Synonyms are words that are close in meaning but differ in spelling. In addition to classical synonyms, there are contextual ones. They take on a specific meaning within a particular text. Let's get acquainted with examples: "jump - jump", "look - see".
Antonyms are words that have exactly the opposite meaning to each other. Like synonyms, they are contextual. Example: “white - black”, “shout - whisper”, “calm - excitement”.
Personification is the transfer of signs, characteristics of an animate object to an inanimate object. For example: “the willow shook its branches”, “the sun smiled brightly”, “the rain pounded on the roofs”, “the radio chirped in the kitchen”.

Are there other paths?

There are a lot of means of lexical expressiveness in the Russian language. In addition to the group familiar to everyone, there are those that are unknown to many, but also widely used:

Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another that has a similar or the same meaning. Let's get acquainted with examples: "hey, blue jacket (appeal to a person in a blue jacket)", "the whole class opposed (meaning all the students in the class)".
Synecdoche is the transfer of comparison from part to whole, and vice versa. Example: “it was heard how the Frenchman rejoiced (the author speaks of the French army)”, “the insect flew in”, “there were a hundred heads in the herd”.
Allegory is an expressive comparison of ideas or concepts using an artistic image. Most often found in fairy tales, fables and parables. For example, the fox symbolizes cunning, the hare - cowardice, the wolf - anger.
Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. Serves to give the text more expressiveness. Emphasizes a certain quality of an object, person or phenomenon. Let's get acquainted with examples: "words destroy hope", "his deed is the highest evil", "he became more beautiful forty times."
Litota is a special understatement of real facts. For example: “it was thinner than a reed”, “it was no higher than a thimble”.
Paraphrase is the replacement of a word or expression with a synonymous combination. Used to avoid lexical repetitions in one or adjacent sentences. Example: "the fox is a cunning cheat", "the text is the brainchild of the author."

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures are linguistic means in the Russian language that give speech a certain imagery and expressiveness. Change the emotional coloring of its meanings.

Widely used in poetry and prose since the time of ancient poets. However, modern and obsolete interpretations of the term differ.

In ancient Greece, it was believed that stylistic figures are linguistic means of language, which in their form differ significantly from everyday speech. Now it is believed that figures of speech are an integral part of the spoken language.

What are stylistic figures?

Stylistics offers a lot of its own means:

Lexical repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, compositional junction) are expressive language means that include the repetition of any part of a sentence at the beginning, end, or at the junction with the next. For example: “That was a great sound. It was the best voice I've heard in years."
Antithesis - one or more sentences built on the basis of opposition. For example, consider the phrase: "I drag myself in the dust - and soar in the sky."
Gradation is the use of synonyms in a sentence, arranged according to the degree of increase or decrease of a feature. Example: "The sparkles on the Christmas tree shone, burned, shone."
Oxymoron - the inclusion in the phrase of words that contradict each other in meaning, cannot be used in one composition. The most striking and famous example of this stylistic figure is Dead Souls.
Inversion is a change in the classical order of words in a sentence. For example, not "he ran", but "he ran".
Parceling is the division of a single sentence into several parts. For example: “Nicholas is opposite. Looks without blinking.
Polyunion - the use of unions to connect homogeneous members of the proposal. It is used for greater speech expressiveness. Example: "It was a strange and wonderful and beautiful and mysterious day."
Unionlessness - the connection of homogeneous members in the proposal is carried out without unions. For example: "He rushed about, shouted, cried, moaned."

Phonetic means of expression

Phonetic expressive means are the smallest group. They include the repetition of certain sounds in order to create picturesque artistic images.

Most often this technique is used in poetry. The authors use the repetition of sounds when they want to convey the sound of thunder, the rustle of leaves or other natural phenomena.

Also, phonetic means help to give poetry a certain character. By using some combinations of sounds, the text can be made more rigid, or vice versa - softer.

What are the phonetic means?

Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants in the text, creating the image necessary for the author. For example: "I dreamed of catching the departing shadows, the departing shadows of the fading day."
Assonance is the repetition of certain vowel sounds in order to create a vivid artistic image. For example: "Do I wander along the noisy streets, do I enter a crowded temple."
Onomatopoeia is the use of phonetic combinations that convey a certain clatter of hooves, the sound of waves, the rustle of leaves.

The use of speech means of expression

Linguistic means in the Russian language were widely used and continue to be used in literary works, whether it be prose or poetry.

Excellent mastery of stylistic figures is demonstrated by the writers of the golden age. Due to the masterful use of expressive means, their works are colorful, figurative, and pleasing to the ear. No wonder they are considered a national treasure of Russia.

We encounter linguistic means not only in fiction, but also in everyday life. Almost every person uses comparisons, metaphors, epithets in his speech. Without realizing it, we make our language beautiful and rich.

One and the same thought can be expressed using independent simple sentences and complex ones. However, depending on the sum of which sentences the thought is expressed, the stylistic character of the utterance completely changes.

The purpose of simple sentences is to emphasize the independent, independent nature of the parts of the statement, highlighting individual details. In addition, the statement, expressed in simple sentences, has the character of concise, often casual colloquial speech. Such is the prose of A.S. Pushkin, A.P. Chekhov.

Thoughts expressed with the help of complex sentences are carefully linked with each other into a single complex whole and act as its organic elements. Compound sentences provide the richest and most diverse possibilities for expressing semantic relationships and syntactic links between parts of an utterance.

Analyzing the figurative and expressive means of syntax, it is necessary to find out what role various elements of poetic syntax, stylistic figures, play.

Using Reception inversions(permutation of words) leads to a logical or emotional selection of those elements of the statement that are most significant for the author in a given context and on which he wants to draw the attention of readers, for example, in I.S. Turgenev: What was waiting for this warm, this sleepy night? She waited for the sound; this sensitive silence waited for a living voice - but everything was silent.

Asyndeton gives speech speed, swiftness, energy: Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts. Drum beat, clicks, rattle ... (P.), a polyunion slows down speech, makes it the main one: Both boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand in a moment of spiritual hardship ... (L.).

One of the brightest syntactic means - paired connection of homogeneous members of the sentence. This technique is used in texts of artistic and journalistic styles as one of the expressive language means. Very often, antonyms act as homogeneous members: Nothing is given by itself, without effort and will, without sacrifice and labor. (A. Herzen).

Parceling- dismemberment of a single syntactic structure of a sentence for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception of it: The child must be taught to feel. beauty. Of people. All living things around.

Anaphora (lexical repetition)	Repeat parts in early lines (unity)	This morning, this joy, This power and day and light, This blue vault, This cry and strings, These flies, these birds ...
Epiphora (lexical repetition)	Repetition of parts, the same syntactic construction end proposals	I have been going to you all my life. I have believed in you all my life. I have loved you all my life.
Compositional joint (lexical repetition)	The repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of a word or words from the previous sentence, usually ending it	The Motherland did everything for me. Motherland taught me, raised me, gave me a start in life. A life I'm proud of.
Antithesis	opposition	The hair is long - the mind is short; Yesterday I was suffocating with happiness, and today I am screaming in pain.
gradation	The location of synonyms according to the degree of increase or weakening of the sign	Huge blue eyes shone on his face, burned, shone. But you must understand this loneliness, accept it, make friends with it and overcome it spiritually...
Oxymoron	A combination of words that contradict each other, logically exclude each other	Look, it's fun for her to be sad so elegantly naked. Dead souls, living corpse, hot snow
Inversion	Changing the usual word order. Usually: definition + subject + circumstance + verb-predicate + object (e.g. Autumn rain was loudly pounding on the roof)	He came - he came; It was annoying, they were waiting for the battle; He shot past the doorman like an arrow up the stone steps. - (cf. "he flew past the porter like an arrow")
Parallelism	Comparison in juxtaposition form	Parallelism happens straight: Grass overgrown graves- overgrows with age pain and negative, in which the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena is emphasized: It’s not the wind that bends the branch, It’s not the oak forest that makes noise - That my heart is groaning, Like an autumn leaf is trembling.
Ellipsis	The omission of some member of the sentence, which is easily recovered from the context	Men - for axes! (Missed the word "taken")
Parceling	Dividing a single utterance into independent sentences	And again Gulliver. Costs. slouching.
Polyunion (polysyndeton)	Homogeneous members or sentences connected by repeating unions	What a strange, enticing, carrying, and wonderful in the word road! And how wonderful she herself is, this road.
Asyndeton	Homogeneous members of the proposal are connected without the help of unions	Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts ...
Rhetorical exclamation	An exclamation that reinforces the expression of feelings in the text	Who has not scolded the stationmasters!
Rhetorical question	A question that is asked not to give or receive an answer to it, but with the aim of emotionally influencing the reader	What Russian doesn't like to drive fast? = "all Russians love"
Rhetorical address	Appeal directed not to a real interlocutor, but to the subject of an artistic image	Farewell, unwashed Russia!
Default	Deliberate interruption of speech, based on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish the phrase	But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, / I was born near the Caucasus.

Check yourself!

Exercise 1.

Find cases of parallelism, multi-union and non-union. Define their functions in texts.

1) Black raven in the snowy twilight
Black velvet on swarthy shoulders.(A. A. Blok)

2) The hour hand approaches midnight.
Candles flared up like a wave of light.
Thoughts were stirred up in a dark wave.
Happy New Year, heart!(A. A. Blok)

3) No, I will positively say that there was no poet with such universal responsiveness as Pushkin, and the point is not only in responsiveness, but in its amazing depth, but in the reincarnation of one’s spirit into the spirit of foreign peoples, the reincarnation is almost perfect.(F. M. Dostoevsky)

4) If such masters as Akhmatova or Zamyatin are walled up alive for life, condemned to the grave to create in silence, not hearing an echo of what they have written, this is not only their personal misfortune, but the grief of the whole nation, but a danger to the whole nation.(A. I. Solzhenitsyn)

5) Each of them (who died during the Great Patriotic War) was a whole world. And this world went out forever. Together with him, unfulfilled dreams, unplayed weddings, unborn children, unsung songs, unbuilt houses, unwritten books lay in the graves.(V. V. Bykov)

Topic 7. Text. Speech styles