Why do all planets rotate. What planet rotates in the opposite direction? From Kepler to Newton

Even in ancient times, pundits began to understand that it is not the Sun that revolves around our planet, but everything happens exactly the opposite. Nicolaus Copernicus put an end to this controversial fact for mankind. The Polish astronomer created his own heliocentric system, in which he convincingly proved that the Earth is not the center of the Universe, and all the planets, in his firm opinion, revolve in orbits around the Sun. The work of the Polish scientist "On the rotation of the celestial spheres" was published in Nuremberg, Germany in 1543.

The ideas about how the planets are located in the sky were the first to express the ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy in his treatise “The Great Mathematical Construction on Astronomy”. He was the first to suggest that they make their movements in a circle. But Ptolemy mistakenly believed that all the planets, as well as the Moon and the Sun, move around the Earth. Prior to Copernicus's work, his treatise was considered generally accepted in both the Arab and Western worlds.

From Brahe to Kepler

After the death of Copernicus, his work was continued by the Dane Tycho Brahe. The astronomer, who is a very wealthy man, equipped his island with impressive bronze circles, on which he applied the results of observations of celestial bodies. The results obtained by Brahe helped the mathematician Johannes Kepler in his research. It was the German who systematized and deduced his three famous laws about the movement of the planets of the solar system.

From Kepler to Newton

Kepler proved for the first time that all 6 planets known by that time move around the Sun not in a circle, but in ellipses. The Englishman Isaac Newton, having discovered the law of universal gravitation, significantly advanced mankind's ideas about the elliptical orbits of celestial bodies. His explanations that the tides on the Earth occur under the influence of the Moon proved to be convincing for the scientific world.

around the sun

Comparative sizes of the largest satellites of the solar system and the planets of the Earth group.

The period for which the planets make a complete revolution around the Sun is naturally different. Mercury, the closest star to the star, has 88 Earth days. Our Earth goes through a cycle in 365 days and 6 hours. Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, completes its rotation in 11.9 Earth years. Well, for Pluto, the planet most distant from the Sun, the revolution is 247.7 years at all.

It should also be taken into account that all the planets in our solar system move, not around the star, but around the so-called center of mass. Each at the same time, rotating around its axis, sway slightly (like a top). In addition, the axis itself can move slightly.

Why do the planets revolve around the sun?

Have you ever spin a ball tied to a string?

Then you know that while the ball is spinning, it is pulling on the string. The ball will pull on the string as long as its rotational movement continues.

The planets move in exactly the same way as your ball. Only they have much more mass. And besides, the planets revolve around the sun.

But where is the rope that holds them?

In fact, no string exists. There is an invisible force that makes the planets revolve around the sun. It is called the force of gravity.

The Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to discover that the orbits of the planets form circles around the Sun.

Galileo Galilei agreed with this hypothesis and proved it with the help of observations.

In 1609, Johannes Kepler calculated that the orbits of the planets are not round, but elliptical, with the Sun at one of the foci of the ellipse. He also established the laws by which this rotation takes place. Later they were called "Kepler's Laws".

Then the English physicist Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation and, on the basis of this law, explained how the solar system keeps its shape constant. Each particle of the substance of which the planets are composed attracts others. This phenomenon is called gravity.

Thanks to gravity, every planet in the solar system revolves in its orbit around the sun and cannot fly away into outer space.

The orbits are elliptical, so the planets either approach the Sun or move away from it.

Planets cannot emit light. The sun gives them light, heat and life.

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The theory of the world as a geocentric system was repeatedly criticized and questioned in the old days. It is known that Galileo Galilei worked on the proof of this theory. It is to him that the phrase that went down in history belongs: “And yet it spins!”. But still, it was not he who managed to prove this, as many people think, but Nicolaus Copernicus, who in 1543 wrote a treatise on the movement of celestial bodies around the Sun. Surprisingly, despite all this evidence, about the circular motion of the Earth around a huge star, in theory there are still open questions about the reasons that prompt it to this movement.

Reasons for the move

The Middle Ages are over, when people considered our planet to be motionless, and no one disputes its movements. But the reasons why the Earth is heading on a path around the Sun are not known for certain. Three theories have been put forward:

inert rotation;
magnetic fields;
exposure to solar radiation.

There are others, but they do not stand up to scrutiny. It is also interesting that the question: “In which direction does the Earth rotate around a huge celestial body?” Is also not correct enough. The answer to it has been received, but it is accurate only with respect to the generally accepted guideline.

The sun is a huge star around which life is concentrated in our planetary system. All these planets move around the Sun in their orbits. The earth moves in the third orbit. Studying the question: “In which direction does the Earth rotate in its orbit?”, Scientists have made many discoveries. They realized that the orbit itself is not ideal, so our green planet is located from the Sun at different points at different distances from each other. Therefore, an average value was calculated: 149,600,000 km.

The Earth is closest to the Sun on January 3rd and farther away on July 4th. The following concepts are associated with these phenomena: the smallest and largest temporary day in the year, in relation to the night. Studying the same question: “In which direction does the Earth rotate in its solar orbit?”, Scientists made one more conclusion: the process of circular motion occurs both in orbit and around its own invisible rod (axis). Having made the discoveries of these two rotations, scientists asked questions not only about the causes of such phenomena, but also about the shape of the orbit, as well as the speed of rotation.

How did scientists determine in which direction the Earth rotates around the Sun in the planetary system?

The orbital picture of the planet Earth was described by a German astronomer and mathematician In his fundamental work New Astronomy, he calls the orbit elliptical.

All objects on the Earth's surface rotate with it, using conventional descriptions of the planetary picture of the solar system. It can be said that, observing from the north from space, to the question: “In which direction does the Earth rotate around the central luminary?”, The answer will be: “From west to east.”

Comparing with the movements of the hands in the clock - this is against its course. This point of view was accepted with regard to the North Star. The same will be seen by a person who is on the surface of the Earth from the side of the Northern Hemisphere. Having imagined himself on a ball moving around a fixed star, he will see his rotation from right to left. This is equivalent to going against the clock or from west to east.

earth axis

All this also applies to the answer to the question: “In which direction does the Earth rotate around its axis?” - in the opposite direction of the clock. But if you imagine yourself as an observer in the Southern Hemisphere, the picture will look different - on the contrary. But, realizing that in space there are no concepts of west and east, scientists pushed off from the earth's axis and the North Star, to which the axis is directed. This determined the generally accepted answer to the question: "In which direction does the Earth rotate around its axis and around the center of the solar system?". Accordingly, the Sun is shown in the morning from the horizon from the east, and is hidden from our eyes in the west. It is interesting that many people compare the earth's revolutions around its own invisible axial rod with the rotation of a top. But at the same time, the earth's axis is not visible and is somewhat tilted, and not vertical. All this is reflected in the shape of the globe and the elliptical orbit.

Sidereal and solar days

In addition to answering the question: “In which direction does the Earth rotate clockwise or counterclockwise?” Scientists calculated the time of revolution around its invisible axis. It is 24 hours. Interestingly, this is only an approximate number. In fact, a complete revolution is 4 minutes less (23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds). This is the so-called star day. We consider a day on a solar day: 24 hours, since the Earth needs an additional 4 minutes every day in its planetary orbit to return to its place.

Our planet is in constant motion, it revolves around the Sun and its own axis. The earth's axis is an imaginary line drawn from the North to the South Pole (they remain motionless during rotation) at an angle of 66 0 33 ꞌ with respect to the plane of the Earth. People cannot notice the moment of rotation, because all objects are moving in parallel, their speed is the same. It would look exactly the same as if we were sailing on a ship and did not notice the movement of objects and objects on it.

A full rotation around the axis is completed within one sidereal day, consisting of 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds. During this interval, then one or the other side of the planet turns towards the Sun, receiving from it a different amount of heat and light. In addition, the rotation of the Earth around its axis affects its shape (flattened poles are the result of the planet's rotation around its axis) and the deviation when bodies move in a horizontal plane (rivers, currents and winds of the Southern Hemisphere deviate to the left, Northern - to the right).

Linear and angular speed of rotation

(Earth rotation)

The linear speed of the Earth's rotation around its axis is 465 m/s or 1674 km/h in the equatorial zone, as we move away from it, the speed gradually slows down, at the North and South Poles it is equal to zero. For example, for citizens of the equatorial city of Quito (the capital of Ecuador in South America), the rotation speed is just 465 m / s, and for Muscovites living on the 55th parallel north of the equator - 260 m / s (almost half as much) .

Every year, the speed of rotation around the axis decreases by 4 milliseconds, which is associated with the influence of the Moon on the strength of sea and ocean ebb and flow. The pull of the Moon "pulls" the water in the opposite direction to the Earth's axial rotation, creating a slight frictional force that slows the rotation rate by 4 milliseconds. The rate of angular rotation remains the same everywhere, its value is 15 degrees per hour.

Why does day turn into night

(The change of night and day)

The time of a complete rotation of the Earth around its axis is one sidereal day (23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds), during this time period the side illuminated by the Sun is first “in the power” of the day, the shadow side is at the mercy of the night, and then vice versa.

If the Earth rotated differently and one side of it was constantly turned towards the Sun, then there would be a high temperature (up to 100 degrees Celsius) and all the water would evaporate, on the other side, frost would rage and the water would be under a thick layer of ice. Both the first and second conditions would be unacceptable for the development of life and the existence of the human species.

Why do the seasons change

(Change of seasons on earth)

Due to the fact that the axis is inclined with respect to the earth's surface at a certain angle, its sections receive different amounts of heat and light at different times, which causes the change of seasons. According to the astronomical parameters necessary to determine the time of year, some points in time are taken as reference points: for summer and winter, these are the days of the solstice (June 21 and December 22), for spring and autumn - the Equinoxes (March 20 and September 23). From September to March, the Northern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun for less time and, accordingly, receives less heat and light, hello winter-winter, the Southern Hemisphere at this time receives a lot of heat and light, long live summer! 6 months pass and the Earth moves to the opposite point of its orbit and the Northern Hemisphere already receives more heat and light, the days become longer, the Sun rises higher - summer is coming.

If the Earth were located in relation to the Sun exclusively in a vertical position, then the seasons would not exist at all, because all points on the half illuminated by the Sun would receive the same and uniform amount of heat and light.

It is hardly worth explaining the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. The essence of Faraday's law is known to any schoolchild: when a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an ammeter registers a current (Fig. A).

But in nature there is another phenomenon of induction of electric currents. To fix it, let's do a simple experiment shown in Figure B. If you mix the conductor not in a magnetic, but in an inhomogeneous electric field, a current is also excited in the conductor. The induction emf in this case is due to the rate of change in the flow of the electric field strength. If we change the shape of the conductor - let's take, say, a sphere and rotate it in a non-uniform electric field - then an electric current will be found in it.

next experience. Let three conductive spheres of different diameters be placed in isolation into each other like nesting dolls (Fig. 4a). If we begin to rotate this multilayer ball in an inhomogeneous electric field, we will find a current not only in the outer, but also in the inner layers! But, according to established ideas, there should not be an electric field inside a conductive sphere! However, the devices that register the effect are impartial! Moreover, with an external field strength of 40-50 V/cm, the current voltage in the spheres is quite high - 10-15 kV.

Fig.B-F. B - the phenomenon of electrical induction. (Unlike the previous one, it is hardly known to a wide range of readers. The effect was studied by A. Komarov in 1977. Five years later, an application was submitted to VNIIGPE and priority was given to the discovery). E - non-uniform electric field. The following designations are used in the formula: ε is the emf of electric induction, c is the speed of light, N is the flux of the electric field strength, t is time.

We also note the following result of the experiments: when the ball rotates in the east direction (that is, in the same way, how our planet rotates) it has magnetic poles that coincide in location with the magnetic poles of the Earth (Fig. 3a).

The essence of the next experiment is shown in Figure 2a. The conductive rings and the sphere are arranged so that their rotation axes are centered. When both bodies rotate in the same direction, an electric current is induced in them. It also exists between the ring and the ball, which are a dischargeless spherical capacitor. Moreover, for the appearance of currents, no additional external electric field is required. It is also impossible to attribute this effect to an external magnetic field, since due to it the direction of the current in the sphere would turn out to be perpendicular to that which is detected.

And the last experience. Let us place a conductive ball between two electrodes (Fig. 1a). When a voltage sufficient for air ionization (5-10 kV) is applied to them, the ball begins to rotate and an electric current is excited in it. The torque in this case is due to the ring current of air ions around the ball and the transfer current - the movement of individual point charges that have settled on the surface of the ball.

All of the above experiments can be carried out in a school physics room on a laboratory table.

Now imagine that you are a giant, commensurate with the solar system, and you are observing an experience that has been going on for billions of years. Around the yellow luminary, our blue star flies in its orbit. planet. The upper layers of its atmosphere (ionosphere), starting from a height of 50-80 km, are saturated with ions and free electrons. They arise under the influence of solar radiation and cosmic radiation. But the concentration of charges on the day and night sides is not the same. It is much larger from the side of the Sun. The different charge density between the day and night hemispheres is nothing but the difference in electric potentials.

Here we come to the solution: Why does the earth rotate? Usually the most common answer was: “It's her property. In nature, everything rotates - electrons, planets, galaxies ... ". But compare figures 1a and 1b, and you will get a more specific answer. The potential difference between the illuminated and unilluminated parts of the atmosphere generates currents: ring ionospheric and portable over the Earth's surface. They spin our planet.

In addition, it is known that the atmosphere and the Earth rotate almost synchronously. But their axes of rotation do not coincide, because on the dayside the ionosphere is pressed against the planet by the solar wind. As a result, the Earth rotates in the non-uniform electric field of the ionosphere. Now let's compare Figures 2a and 2b: in the inner layers of the earth's firmament, a current should flow in the opposite direction to the ionospheric one - the mechanical energy of the Earth's rotation is converted into electrical energy. It turns out a planetary electric generator, which is driven by solar energy.

Figures 3a and 3b suggest that the ring current in the Earth's interior is the main cause of its magnetic field. By the way, now it is clear why it weakens during magnetic storms. The latter are a consequence of solar activity, which increases the ionization of the atmosphere. The ring current of the ionosphere increases, its magnetic field grows and compensates for the earth's.

Our model allows us to answer one more question. Why does the western drift of world magnetic anomalies occur? It is approximately 0.2° per year. We have already mentioned the synchronous rotation of the Earth and the ionosphere. In fact, this is not entirely true: there is some slippage between them. Our calculations show that if the ionosphere in 2000 years makes one revolution less than planet, the global magnetic anomalies will have an existing drift to the west. If there is more than one revolution, the polarity of the geomagnetic poles will change, and magnetic anomalies will begin to drift to the east. The direction of the current in the earth is determined by the positive or negative slip between the ionosphere and the planet.

In general, when analyzing the electrical mechanism of the Earth's rotation, we find a strange circumstance: the braking forces of space are negligible, the planet has no "bearings", and according to our calculations, power of the order of 10 16 W is spent on its rotation! Without load, such a dynamo must go haywire! But it doesn't happen. Why? There is only one answer - because of the resistance of the rocks of the earth, through which the electric current flows.

In what geospheres does it mainly occur and in what way, besides the geomagnetic field, does it manifest itself?

The charges of the ionosphere interact primarily with the ions of the World Ocean, and, as is known, there are indeed corresponding currents in it. Another result of this interaction is the global dynamics of the hydrosphere. Let's take an example to explain its mechanism. In industry, electromagnetic devices are used for pumping or mixing liquid melts. This is done by traveling electromagnetic fields. The waters of the ocean mix in a similar way, but not a magnetic, but an electric field works here. However, in his works, Academician V.V. Shuleikin proved that the currents of the World Ocean cannot create a geomagnetic field.

So, its cause must be looked for deeper.

The ocean floor, called the lithospheric layer, is composed mainly of rocks with high electrical resistance. Here the main current cannot be induced either.

But in the next layer, in the mantle, which starts from a very characteristic Moho boundary and has good electrical conductivity, significant currents can be induced (Fig. 4b). But then they must be accompanied by thermoelectric processes. What is observed in reality?

The outer layers of the Earth up to half of its radius are in a solid state. However, it is from them, and not from the liquid core of the Earth, that the molten rock of volcanic eruptions comes. There are reasons to believe that the liquid areas of the upper mantle are heated by electrical energy.

Before the eruption in volcanic areas, a whole series of tremors occurs. The electromagnetic anomalies noted at the same time confirm that the shocks are of an electrical nature. The eruption is accompanied by a cascade of lightning. But most importantly, the graph of volcanic activity coincides with the graph of solar activity and correlates with the speed of the Earth's rotation, a change in which automatically leads to an increase in induced currents.

And this is what academician of the Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences Sh. Mehdiyev established: mud volcanoes in various regions of the world come to life and cease their action almost simultaneously. And here the activity of the sun coincides with volcanic activity.

Volcanologists are also familiar with this fact: if you change the polarity on the electrodes of a device that measures the resistance of flowing lava, then its readings change. This can be explained by the fact that the crater of the volcano has a potential other than zero - again electricity appears.

And now let's touch on another cataclysm, which, as we will see, also has a connection with the proposed hypothesis of a planetary dynamo.

It is known that the electrical potential of the atmosphere changes immediately before and during earthquakes, but the mechanism of these anomalies has not yet been studied. Often before shocks, a phosphor glows, wires spark, and electrical structures fail. For example, during the Tashkent earthquake, the insulation of the cable that ran to the electrode at a depth of 500 m burned out. It is assumed that the electric potential of the soil along the cable, which caused its breakdown, was from 5 to 10 kV. By the way, geochemists testify that the underground rumble, the glow of the sky, the change in the polarity of the electric field of the surface atmosphere are accompanied by the continuous release of ozone from the depths. And this is essentially an ionized gas that occurs during electrical discharges. Such facts make us talk about the existence of underground lightning. And again, the seismic activity coincides with the schedule of solar activity...

The existence of electrical energy in the bowels of the earth was known in the last century, not attaching much importance to it in the geological life of the planet. But a few years ago, the Japanese researcher Sasaki came to the conclusion that the main cause of earthquakes is not in the movements of tectonic plates, but in the amount of electromagnetic energy that the earth's crust accumulates from the sun. Aftershocks, according to Sasaki, occur when the stored energy exceeds a critical level.

What, in our opinion, is underground lightning? If the current flows through the conductive layer, the charge density over its cross section is approximately the same. When the discharge breaks through the dielectric, the current rushes through a very narrow channel and does not obey Ohm's law, but has a so-called S-shaped characteristic. The voltage in the channel remains constant, and the current reaches colossal values. At the moment of breakdown, all the substance covered by the channel passes into a gaseous state - superhigh pressure develops and an explosion occurs, leading to oscillations and destruction of rocks.

The force of a lightning explosion can be observed when it hits a tree - the trunk shatters into chips. Experts use it to create an electro-hydraulic shock (Yutkin effect) in various devices. They crush hard rocks, deform metals. In principle, the mechanism of an earthquake and an electro-hydraulic shock are similar. The difference is in the power of the discharge and in the conditions of release of thermal energy. Rock masses, having a folded structure, become gigantic ultra-high-voltage capacitors that can be recharged several times, which leads to repeated shocks. Sometimes the charges, breaking through to the surface, ionize the atmosphere - and the sky glows, burn the soil - and fires occur.

Now that the generator of the Earth has been determined in principle, I would like to touch upon its possibilities that are useful to people.

If the volcano runs on electric current, then you can find its electrical circuit and switch the current to your needs. In terms of power, one volcano will replace about a hundred large power plants.

If an earthquake is caused by the accumulation of electric charges, then they can be used as an inexhaustible environmentally friendly source of electricity. And as a result of its “re-profiling” from charging underground lightning to peaceful work, the strength and number of earthquakes will decrease.

The time has come for a comprehensive, purposeful study of the electrical structure of the Earth. The energies hidden in it are colossal, and they can both make humanity happy and, in case of ignorance, lead to disaster. Indeed, in the search for minerals, ultra-deep drilling is already actively used. In some places, drill rods can pierce electrified layers, short circuits will occur, and the natural balance of electric fields will be disturbed. Who knows what the consequences will be? This is also possible: a huge current will go through the metal rod, which will turn the well into an artificial volcano. There was something like...

Without going into details for now, we note that typhoons and hurricanes, droughts and floods, in our opinion, are also associated with electric fields, in the alignment of forces of which man is increasingly interfering. How will such an intervention end?