Preparing for the exam in biology online - Materials. USE

Orthoptera-gnawing-incomplete transformation (grasshopper, locust, bear, crickets)
Homoptera-piercing-sucking-incomplete transformation (aphids, cicadas, humpbacks)
Hemiptera-piercing-sucking-incomplete (bugs)
Coleoptera-gnawing-complete (May beetle, ground beetles, weevil, ladybug)
Lepidoptera-sucking-full (butterflies)
Diptera-piercing-sucking-licking-full (flies, mosquitoes, horseflies)
Hymenoptera - gnawing, licking - full (ovi-eaters, riders, bees, wasps, bumblebees, ants)

Protozoa:
Rhizopodia class - there is no constant body shape, the cytoplasm has all the organelles, there are pseudopodia (pseudopodia). The mode of nutrition is phagocytosis, pinocytosis, excretion through the contractile vacuole. Respiration through the membrane, reproduction-division (amoeba, plasmodium).
Class flagella - a constant body shape, move - flagella, at the front end of the body - a light-sensitive eye. There is a chromatophore. The mode of nutrition is photosynthesis (light), pinocytosis (darkness). There is no digestive vacuole. Reproduction is asexual, sexual. (euglena green, giardia, trypanosomes, volvox).

Invertebrates. Coelenterates. Hydra.
Two-layer, radial symmetry. Ectoderm, endoderm, between layers - mesoglea. At the front end of the body there is a mouth with tentacles with stinging cells. The rear end of the body is a sole for attaching to the substrate. Digestion is cavitary and intracellular. Breathing - the whole body cavity. The circulatory system is absent. Excretion is through the surface of the body. Nervous system of diffuse type. The sense organs are not developed. Reproduction is asexual and sexual. As a result of fertilization, a floating face - planula appears. Movable - jellyfish, motionless - polyps, sea anemones, hydra.

Type flatworms. White planaria.
Three layer animals. Bilateral symmetry of the body. Moves with the help of a skin-muscular sac. There is no body cavity. There is no anal opening. Circulatory and respiratory s. absent. excretory organs - protonephridia. The nervous system consists of a paired brain node and two nerve trunks. Hermaphrodites. There are often larval stages. Reproduction with change of hosts. Ciliary (white planaria); flukes (fluke, schistosome); tape (chains).

Type annelids. Earthworm. Leech, nereid, serpula.
The body is elongated, round, segmented. Symmetry is bilateral. There is a secondary cavity. Digestive system: mouth - pharynx - esophagus - goiter - stomach - midgut - hindgut - anus. The circulatory system is closed, consisting of vessels. Blood contains hemoglobin. Breathing - the entire surface of the body. Excretory system - each segment contains a pair of nephridia. There are sense organs: eyes, olfactory pits, organs of touch. Dioecious or secondary hermaphrodites. The development is direct. Some marine annelids have metamorphosis. Polychaete (sandworm, nereid); small bristles (earthworm); leeches.

Shellfish type. Weasel, toothless.
Bilateral symmetry. The body is made up of three sections: head, trunk, leg. On the inside of the shell, the entire body is covered by a mantle - a skin fold. Digestive system: mouth-pharynx-stomach-mid-gut-anus. The circulatory system is not closed. The heart is two-chambered (pond) or three-chambered (toothless). Respiratory system - gills (toothless) and lung sacs (pond). The excretory organs are the kidneys. Gastropods are hermaphrodites. Bivalves and cephalopods are dioecious. Gastropods (pea, sharovka, pond snail, slug, grape snail). Bivalves (mussels, oysters, scallops, pearl oyster, shipworm, toothless). Cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopus).

Arthropod type.
The body is segmented, the limbs are jointed. Movement is provided by muscles. The body is covered with chitin. The growth of arthropods is accompanied by molting. Body parts: head, thorax, abdomen. Digestive system: mouth apparatus - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - anterior, middle, posterior intestine - anus - glands. The circulatory system is not closed. There is a pulsating vessel - the "heart" through which the hemolymph circulates. Respiratory system: in aquatic forms - gills, in terrestrial forms - lungs, tracheas. Excretory s-ma: Malpighian vessels in insects and arachnids, green glands at the base of the antennae in crustaceans. The nervous system consists of the supraglottic and subpharyngeal ganglions. Many have well-developed sense organs: compound eyes, organs of touch - mechanoreceptors, organs of hearing. Dioecious. Sexual dimorphism (the difference between a male and a female). Development is direct and indirect. Shellfish (crayfish, shrimp, crab, lobster); arachnids (spiders, tarantulas, ticks, scorpions); insects (beetles, flies, mosquitoes, lice).

Type echinoderm
Sea stars Sea urchins Holothurians
vipertails
Consist of two layers.
The skeleton is formed by calcareous plates bearing spines. Having found the prey, it covers with its body, twists the stomach, the stomach juices digest the food. The anus lies on the upper surface. Body in calcareous shell. The mouth is surrounded by a special jaw apparatus with five teeth. The skeleton consists of small calcareous bodies.
The circulatory system consists of two vessels: one supplies the mouth, the other anus.
Water-vascular system: formed by an annular canal surrounding the esophagus and 5 radial canals.
Most are dioecious, but there are hermaphrodites. development with metamorphosis. Animals are capable of regeneration (restoration of body parts)

Type chordates. Subtype non-cranial. Lancelets.
The body consists of a body, tail, fin, covered with skin. Skeleton chord. Alimentary canal: mouth, pharynx, intestinal tube, anus. One circle of blood circulation, no heart, cold-blooded animals. Respiratory organs: gill slits in the pharynx. Organs of excretion: nephridine. nervous system in the form of a neural tube. Sense organs: tentacles, olfactory fossa. Dioecious. Fertilization is external. The eggs develop in water.

Vertebrates (cranial) subtype. Superclass of fish.
Streamlined body shape. Body parts: head, trunk, tail, fins. Trunk and caudal spine. Bony skull, limbs - fins are formed by many small bones. The neck section is missing. Inside the vertebrae are the cartilaginous remnants of the notochord. Digestive system: mouth - oral cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - intestines - anus. The swim bladder is an outgrowth of the intestine. One circle of blood circulation, two-chambered heart, cold-blooded. Respiratory organs: gills, protected by gill covers. Excretory organs: kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder. Separate animals. Fertilization is external in water - spawning.

Class amphibians or amphibians.
Body parts: head, torso, fore and hind limbs. The skin is bare and covered with mucus. The spine is divided into cervical, trunk, sacral and caudal sections. The skull consists of the cranium and jaw. Movable articulation of the skull, one cervical vertebra. The muscles are well developed. Gluteal, femoral and calf muscles appear. Like fish, digestive system. cloaca. Two circles of blood circulation. Mixed blood three-chambered heart. Both circles start from the ventricle. Blood - venous, arterial, mixed. Cold-blooded animals. The respiratory organs are paired lungs. Respiratory ways: nostrils, oral cavity, larynx, lungs. There is cutaneous respiration. Excretory s-maparnye kidneys, ureters, cloaca, bladder. Brain and spinal cord with nerves. Eyes with upper and lower eyelids. In anurans, fertilization is external, in caudates it is internal. development with metamorphosis.

Class reptiles (reptiles).
The skin is dry. The outer layers of the epidermis are keratinized. Well developed cervical region. The lumbar-thoracic spine is connected to the ribs with the sternum. Intercostal muscles appear. Like amphibians, digestive system. They breathe oxygen through their lungs. Cutaneous respiration is absent. Two circles of blood circulation. The circulatory system is closed. The heart is three-chambered. Cold-blooded. Extraction system-see amphibians the size of the cerebellum increases. The primary cortex appears. Language. Dioecious. Fertilization is internal. The eggs are laid on dry land. The development is direct.

Bird class.
Streamlined body shape. Head, torso, neck, forelimbs - wings, hind limbs - legs. The skin is dry. Digestive system like reptiles. Teeth are missing. The circulatory system is closed. Two circles. The blood doesn't mix. The heart is 4-chambered. Warm-blooded. Breathing is double. Dedicated system like reptiles, but without a bladder. Enlargement of the cerebral hemispheres. The organs of hearing and vision are well developed. Proper color vision. Seperated animals. The development is direct. Sexual dimorphism.

Classification of birds.
Sedentary - sparrows, jackdaws, pigeons, magpies
Nomadic - owls, bullfinches, tits, rooks.
Migratory - orioles, nightingales, ducks, starlings, cranes.

Class Mammals.
The presence of hair on the body. There are many glands in the skin: sebaceous, sweat, milky. Food system like reptiles. Teeth and salivary glands. Two circles of blood circulation. The heart is 4-chambered. Erythrocytes do not have a nucleus. They breathe atmospheric air. Respiratory organs - lungs. There is a diaphragm. The auricle appears. Dioecious. The development is direct. Uterus. Live birth.

Bacteria cells:
Spherical - cocci, rod-shaped - bacilli; arcuately curved - vibrios. Spiral-shaped - spirella. Colonies of bacteria: diplococci, streptococci.

The structure of bacteria.
Shell - 2 layers. Cytoplasm. The nuclear substance is represented as a DNA molecule closed in a ring. Ribosomes synthesize protein. Cellular inclusions - starch, glycogen fats.

Mushrooms.
Mold, yeast, hat: tubular, lamellar. They have a cell wall. Little mobile. Unlimited growth, reproduction by spores and vegetatively, by parts of the mycelium. Contains chitin. Reserve nutrient - glycogen. no chloroplasts. The body is made up of individual threads. Represented by unicellular and multicellular forms.

Lichens.
Scale - the thallus has the appearance of raids or crusts, tightly adjacent to the substrates. - lecanora. Leafy - thallus in the form of plates, attached to the substrate by hyphae - xanthoria. Bushy - thallus in the form of stems, grows together with a substrate only with a base - reindeer moss. They are an indicator of clean air. They serve as food for animals. "pioneers" of vegetation. Scale: tree bark and stones. Produce: sugar, alcohol, dyes, litmus.

Moss.
Peat - sphagnum, green - cuckoo flax. The science of bryology. Dioecious plant.
Horsetail.
Spring organs are generative, summer organs are vegetative.

Internal structure of the stem.
The bark is a protective function. The skin is a single-layer integumentary tissue. Protection against dust, overheating, microorganisms. Water and gas exchange. Cork is a multi-layer covering fabric. There are lentils. Formed on the surface of wintering stems, protects against temperature fluctuations, pests). Lub is formed by mechanical (fibers) and conductive (sieve tubes) tissues. Gives strength, holding solutions from the leaves to the root. Cambium is a single layer educational fabric. Stem growth in thickness and cell differentiation. Wood - formed by three tissues: conductive - vessels; the main one is loosely arranged cells; mechanical - wood fibers; vessels - carrying water and minerals; support function; main spare. The core is the main tissue - from living, loosely located cells. Stores nutrients.

Dicotyledonous class.
Cruciferous: inflorescence-brush, fruit-pod, cabbage, turnip, colza, shepherd's purse.
Rosaceae: inflorescence-brush, simple umbrella, corymb, fruit-drupe, apple, multi-nut, dog rose, apple tree, mountain ash, cinquefoil, gravel, strawberry, plum, pear.
Legumes: bone, head, bean, soybean, lupine, pea, acacia, bean, clover, porridge, sweet clover.
Nightshade - brush, curl, panicle, fruit - berry, box. Tomatoes, nightshade, tobacco, petunia, eggplant, henbane, dope.

Monocot class.
Liliaceae: inflorescence - brush; fruit - berry, box. Onions, garlic, lilies, daffodils, tulips.
Cereals: compound ear, sultan, panicle, cob, fruit-grain. Wheat, oats, rice, wild oats, bluegrass. Raven eye.

Dicotyledonous
2 cotyledons, rod, reticulate or pinnate, with double perianth, cruciferous, solanaceous, rosaceous. monocots
1 cotyledon, fibrous root; venation: parallel or arcuate; cereal, lily, orchid.

Root.
The main one develops from the germinal root. Adnexal - develops from a stem or leaf. Lateral - develop from the main, subordinate and lateral. root vegetables: turnips, carrots; root tubers: dahlia, sweet potato; adventitious sucker roots: ivy; aerial roots - orchids.

Nervous system
Central: brain and spinal cord. Peripheral: nerves and ganglions.
Somatic
Regulates the work of skeletal muscles. Vegetative
Regulates the work of all internal organs.
Sympathetic
Enhances the exchange of things. Increases excitability. Parasympathetic
Helps restore energy. Reduces metabolism. Regulates the body during sleep. Metasympathetic
It is located in the walls of the organ itself and participates in the processes of its self-regulation

Eye.
The membranes of the eye: the retina is a light-perceiving system. Fibrous membrane: sclera, vascular. Rods are receptors for twilight light, cones are receptors for color vision. Optical system: cornea, iris, pupil, lens, vitreous body. The color of the iris determines the color of the eyes. The vitreous body maintains the shape of the eyeball.

Ear.
External: auricle - cartilaginous motionless, tympanic membrane. Middle: a narrow cavity filled with air, in which the auditory ossicles are located, the hammer (perceives vibrations and transmits them to the anvil and stirrup), anvil, stirrup, auditory-Eustachian tube. Inner ear: Represents a cavity filled with fluid. The snail is a system of labyrinths, winding channels. 24,000 tightly stretched fibers of various lengths.

Taste analyzer.
The tip of the tongue is sweet, on the back of the tongue it is bitter, on the lateral and anterior it is salty, and sour is the lateral surface.

Endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon. It secretes neurohormones (vasopressin, oxytocin). Regulates secretion of pituitary hormones. The pituitary gland is located below the pons of the diencephalon. There are two functions: growth (tropic): growth hormone regulates growth. Hyperfunction - at a young age causes gigantism disease. In adulthood, acromegaly. Hypofunction - dwarfism; regulatory: gonadotropic hormones regulate activity. Sex glands, prolactin - enhances milk production, thyrotropic - regulates the functioning of the thyroid gland, adrenocorticotropic - enhances the synthesis of hormones of the adrenal cortex.
Epiphysis: an outgrowth of the diencephalon. It secretes the hormone melatonin, which inhibits the action of gonadotropic hormones.
Thyroid gland: iodine-containing hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which affect oxidative processes that regulate the metabolism of v-in, growth, affect the central nervous system.
The adrenal glands are paired glands located above the kidneys. Comp. Of two layers: cortical and cerebral (internal). Cortical produces 3 groups of hormones: cortisone and corticosterone, which affect metabolism and stimulate the formation of glycogen, aldosterone - the exchange of potassium and sodium; androgens, estrogens, progesterone - the development of secondary sexual characteristics. The medulla: adrenaline and norepinephrine - increase blood pressure, dilate the coronary vessels of the heart. Pancreas: Located below the stomach. The gland of mixed secretion, the endocrine part of the gland are the islets of Lagerhans. It produces insulin (lowers glucose levels, stimulates the liver to convert glucose into glycogen), glucagon (increases glucose levels, stimulates the rapid breakdown of glycogen to glucose). Sex glands: produce estrogens and androgens. Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.

Bones. Skeleton.
Organic things - va - 30%. Miner. Salts-60%, water-10%.
Brain - a large unpaired frontal bone; - flat bone the seam is immovable! Facial section - upper and lower jaw, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal bones - flat - fixed seam. Trunk skeleton: Spine: 33-34 vertebrae; 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 4-5 coccygeal. The bones are short, mixed; the joint is semi-movable. Thorax: 12 pairs of ribs and sternum - short - mixed - flat - semi-movable. The belt of the upper limbs (a pair of shoulder blades, a pair of clavicles) - flat - movable. The skeleton of the upper limbs (humerus, forearm, hand) - tubular, short - movable. Belt of the lower extremities (two pelvic bones) - flat - motionless. The skeleton of the lower extremities (femur, lower leg; the foot is formed by two rows of the tarsus (7), metatarsus (5), and the bones of the fingers (14) - tubular - long - movable.

Circulatory system.
Arteries - blood flows from the heart to the organs. They pass into the capillaries. Arterial blood (saturated with oxygen) flows through the arteries. Veins - blood moves to the heart from the organs - venous blood. Large circle: left ventricle-aorta-arterial capillaries-venous capillaries-portal vein-superior and inferior vena cava-right atrium. (23 minutes). Small circle: right atrium - right ventricle - pulmonary arteries - pulmonary veins - left atrium (4 seconds). Relaxation-0.4; contraction-relaxation-0.1; relaxation-contraction-0.3.

Respiratory system.
Nasal cavity-nasopharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-lungs. The respiratory center is the medulla oblongata.
Digestive system.
Teeth 32: 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small and 6 large molars in each jaw. Salivary glands-3.-pharynx, esophagus-stomach-intestine. Pepsin is a stomach enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides, and lipases are milk fats. Absorbed in the stomach: water, glucose, mineral salts. The acidic environment of the pancreatic juice enzyme trypsin breaks down proteins into amino acids, lipases - into glycerol and fatty acids, amylase - carbohydrates into glucose. The medium is alkaline.

Plastic exchange - assimilation - synthesis - energy consumption. Energy exchange - dissimilation - decay - release of energy.
Vitamins: water-soluble (C, B1-thiamine, B2-riboflavin, B6-pyrodoxin, B12-cyanocobalamide, PP-nicotinic acid); fat-soluble (A-retinol, D-calciferol, E-tocopherol, K-phylloquinone).

BJU
Proteins: 20 amino acids, biopolymers. The primary structure is a chain of amino acids, a peptide bond; secondary - spiral, hydrogen bond; tertiary - globule, hydrogen, ionic, covalent, hydrophobic bonds; quaternary - the union of globules in several structures. With the decay of 1r = 17.6 kJ.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides - ribose, glucose; disaccharides - maltose, sucrose; polysaccharides - starch, cellulose. 17.6 kJ.
Fats. Esters of glycerol. 38.9 kJ.
DNA: A=T, C=G. a biopolymer made up of nucleotides.
RNA: A=U, C=G. single polynucleotide chain. + ribose + H2PO4 residue.

cell organelles.
Core. Surrounded by a two-layer porous membrane. Contains chromatin. The nucleolus is made up of protein and RNA. Nuclear juice - karyolymph. Functions: storage of hereditary information; regulation of protein synthesis; transport of substances; RNA synthesis, ribosome assembly.
EPS. Rough - a system of membranes that form tubules, cisterns, tubules - protein synthesis on ribosomes, transport of substances through tanks and tubules, cell division into sections - compartments. Smooth - has the same structure, but does not carry ribosomes - lipid synthesis, protein is not synthesized, other functions are similar to SER.
Ribosomes. The smallest organelles, with a diameter of about 20 nm. Consist of two subunits. They are composed of rRNA and proteins. Synthesized in the nucleolus. They form a polysome. Functions: biosynthesis of the primary protein structure according to the principle of matrix synthesis.
Lysosomes. Single membrane vesicle with a diameter of 0.2-0.8 µm, oval. Formed in the Golgi complex. Functions: digestive, participates in the dissolution of organelles, cells and parts of the body.
Mitochondria. Double membrane organelle. The outer membrane is smooth, the inner one has outgrowths - cristae. The inside is filled with a structureless matrix. It has a round, oval, cylindrical, rod-shaped shape. Functions: the energy and respiratory center of cells, the release of energy in the process of breathing. Storage of energy in the form of ATP molecules. Oxidation under the action of enzymes to CO2 and H2O.
Cell center. Non-membrane organelle consisting of two centrioles. F-and: participate in cell division of animals and lower plants, forming a division spindle.
Golgi apparatus. A system of flattened cisterns bounded by double membranes forming bubbles along the edges. Functions: transport of biosynthetic products. Substances are packed into bubbles. They form lysosomes.
Organelles of movement: microtubules - long thin hollow cylinders, composed of proteins - support and movement. Microfilaments - thin structures - promotes the flow of the cytoplasm, support. Eyelashes, flagella.
Plastids. Chloroplasts: the contents of plastids are called stroma; form grana, in the membranes of the grana is chlorophyll, giving a green color. Leukoplasts: rounded, colorless, in the light they are converted into chloroplasts, serve as a site for the deposition of nutrients. Chromoplast: Double-membrane spherical organelle that gives different colors to leaves and fruits.
Vacuole. Characteristic only for plants. The membrane cavity is filled with cell sap. Vacuole is a derivative of EPS. Functions: regulation of water-salt solution; maintenance of turgor pressure; accumulation of metabolic products and reserve substances, removal of toxic substances from the metabolism.

Energy exchange.
Preparatory: in the digestive tract in the body, in lysosomes in the cell; there is a splitting of high molecular weight organic substances to low molecular weight. Proteins - amino acids + Q1, fats - glycerol + higher fatty acids, polysaccharides - glucose + Q. Glycolysis (oxygen-free) occurs in the cytoplasm, is not associated with membranes; enzymatic breakdown of glucose occurs - fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation: C6H12O6 + 2H3PO4 + 2ADP = 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP + 2H2O. Hydrolysis: carried out in mitochondria: CO2 is formed as a result of the oxidation of lactic acid under the action of enzymes; In the matrix: the hydrogen atom, with the help of carrier enzymes, enters the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which forms cristae. Oxidation of hydrogen atoms to cations in the membrane of the cristae, cations are carried by carrier proteins. 36 ATP molecules are formed.

Mitosis.
Prophase: spiralization of chromosomes, as a result of which they become visible; each chromosome consists of two chromatids; dissolution of the nuclear membrane; spindle formation.
Metaphase: arrangement of chromosomes along the equator; spindle fibers are attached to the centromeres.
Anaphase: centromere division; individual chromatids diverge towards the poles of the cell.
Telophase: chromatids despiralize, a new nuclear membrane forms around them, two new nuclei form; a cell membrane is laid at the equator; the fission spindle threads dissolve; two daughter diploid cells are formed.

Meiosis
First division.
Prophase: duplication of homologous chromosomes; spiralization of chromosomes; conjugation of homologous chromosomes; chromosomes merge in pairs, and crossing over occurs; thickening of chromosomes, dissolution of the nuclear envelope; spindle formation.
Metaphase: Homologous chromosomes line up in pairs on both sides of the equator.
Anaphase: separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes; divergence of two-chromatid chromosomes to the poles of the cell.
Telophase: the formation of two daughter cells. Chromosomes are made up of two chromatids. Second division.
Prophase: there is no interphase, two cells start dividing at the same time; a fission spindle is formed; similar to the prophase of mitosis.
Metaphase: two-chromatid chromosomes are located at the equator of the cell.
Anaphase: centromere division; the chromatids move towards the poles.
Telophase: Formation of four haploid cells.

Embryo development:
A zygote is a fertilized egg with a diploid set of chromosomes.
Blastula is a multicellular embryo with a cavity inside. The shape is like a ball. It is formed as a result of repeated division of the zygote.
The gastrula is a two-layer embryo, formed as a result of the invagination of the blastula. Formation of two germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm.
Neurula is the stage of laying the internal organs.
Ectoderm: nervous system, sensory organs, integumentary and nervous tissue.
Endoderm: intestines, digestive glands, gills, lungs, thyroid gland.
Mesoderm: notochord, skeleton, muscles, kidneys, circulatory system, connective and muscle tissue.

Genetics.
Mendel's first law: the rule of uniformity of hybrids of the first generation: with monohybrid crossing, hybrids of the first generation are uniform in phenotype and genotype. Only dominant traits appear.
Second Mendel's law: the law of splitting: when monohybrid crossing of hybrids of the first generation in the offspring occurs, the splitting of signs occurs in the ratio 1:2:1 - according to the genotype, 3:1 - according to the phenotype.
Mendel's third law: the law of independent inheritance - 9:3:3:1.
Analyzing cross - crossing the test organism with homozygous for the trait under study in order to determine its genotype.
The law of linked inheritance (Morgan). Linked inheritance - the joint inheritance of genes concentrated on the same chromosome, the genes form linkage groups.

Variability.
Modification - changes in the characteristics of the organism under the influence of the environment and not associated with a change in the genotype. Modifications are not inherited, appear within the limits determined by the norm of the reaction (human tan, differences in plant sizes)
Mutational - hereditary variability, causing changes in the genotype, is inherited (hair color, leaf shape) - genotypic - variability of the genotype; cytoplasmic - variability of plastids and mitochondria.
Genotypic: combinative and mutational (genetic, chromosomal, genomic).

driving forces of evolution.
Hereditary variability is the ability to acquire new features, differences between individuals and pass them on by inheritance.
The struggle for existence is a set of relationships between individuals and various environmental factors.
Natural selection is survival of the fittest.
Genetic drift is a change in the frequency of occurrence of genes in a population in a number of generations under the influence of random factors.
Isolation - the emergence of any barriers that prevent the interbreeding of individuals within a population.

View criteria.
Morphological - the similarity of the external and internal structure of individuals of the same species.
Physiological - the similarity of the life processes of individuals of the same species.
Biochemical - similarity in composition, structure of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates.
Genetic - the similarity of the number, shape, color of chromosomes.
Geographic - a specific area occupied by a species in nature.
Ecological - a set of environmental factors in which a species exists.

Arogenesis - aromorphosis - the main path of progressive evolution, is not adaptive in nature, it raises organisms to a higher level. (bilateral body symmetry, warm-bloodedness, pulmonary respiration.
Allogenesis - degeneration - simplification of organization, reduction of some organs.
Allogenesis - idioadaptation - the emergence of particular adaptations to environmental conditions, without changing the level of organization.

environmental factors.
Abiotic: light, temperature, humidity.
Biotic: the influence of plants on each other, the interaction of animals and plants, the interaction of animals with each other.
Anthropogenic - human impact on plants and animals.

The structure of the biocenosis.
Producers are producers. Able to synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances using solar energy (autotrophs - higher plants, algae)
Consumers are consumers. Heterotrophs - organisms that use ready-made organic substances for nutrition. Primary heterotrophs are herbivores, secondary are carnivores.
Decomposers - decompose organic residues of producers and consumers. Detritophages - bacteria, fungi, animals that feed on carrion.

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Detailed modern data on the structure and vital activity of cells and tissues are presented, all cellular components are described. The main functions of cells are considered: metabolism, including respiration, synthetic processes, cell division (mitosis, meiosis). A comparative description of eukaryotic (animal and plant) and prokaryotic cells, as well as viruses, is given. Photosynthesis is considered in detail. Particular attention is paid to classical and modern genetics. The structure of tissues is described. A significant part of the book is devoted to the functional human anatomy.

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VOLUME 1.
Cell
Viruses
fabrics
Organs, systems and apparatuses of organs
Features of development, growth and structure of a person
Efficiency, work, fatigue and rest
Internal organs
Respiratory system
Genitourinary apparatus
Musculoskeletal system
The cardiovascular system
Organs of hematopoiesis and immune system
Nonspecific body resistance
Nervous system
sense organs
endocrine apparatus
Genetics

VOLUME 2.
Plants
Plant tissues
Plant organs, their structure and functions
Photosynthesis
plant classification
Mushrooms
Lichens
Slime molds or Myxomycetes.

VOLUME 3.
SUBKINGDOM SINGLE-CELLULAR (MONOCYTOZOA), OR PROTOZOA (PROTOZOA)
Type Sarcomastigophora (Sarcomastigophora)
Sporozoa type
Type Knidosporidia (Cnidosporidia)
Type of Microsporidia (Microsporidia)
Type Ciliates (Infuzoria), or Ciliary (Ciliophora)
SUBKINGDOM MULTICELLULAR (METAZOA)
Theories of the origin of multicellular organisms
Type Intestinal (Coelenterata)
Type Flatworms (Plathelminthes)
Type Roundworms (Nemathelmentes)
Type Annelids (Annedelia)
Type Arthropoda (Arthropoda)
Type Mollusca (Mollusca)
Type Chordates (Chordata)

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7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2016. - 512 p.

The proposed manual contains theoretical material and options for examination tasks for self-preparation for the Unified State Exam in Biology. All tasks are accompanied by answers and comments. The book is intended for graduates of secondary schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, can be used by applicants to prepare for the university exam, and will also help biology teachers.

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Completing the exam paper in biology will require secondary school graduates to have the following knowledge and skills:
- knowledge of the most important concepts, patterns and laws relating to the structure, life and development of plant, animal and human organisms, the development of wildlife;
- knowledge of the structure and life of plants, animals, humans, the main groups of plants and the classification of animals;
- the ability to substantiate conclusions, operate with concepts when explaining natural phenomena, giving examples from the practice of agricultural and industrial production, healthcare, etc. This skill is of particular importance, since it will testify to the meaningfulness of knowledge, to the understanding of the material being presented by the examiner.

SHORT COURSE OF BIOLOGY FOR GRADES 6-11

Living organisms

Noncellular Cellular

Viruses Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

(pre-nuclear) (nuclear)

Bacteria Mushrooms Plants Animals
Signs of wildlife:

1. 
   Metabolism and energy(respiration, nutrition, excretion)
2. 
   Heredity and variability
3. 
   Self-reproduction (reproduction)
4. 
   Individual development (ontogeny), historical development (phylogenesis)
5. 
   Motion
6. 
   Composition - organic(proteins, fats, carbohydrates, NK) and inorganic substances (water and mineral salts).

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY
Characteristics of the kingdoms of wildlife

1. Viruses (discovered by scientist Ivanovsky in 1892 on the tobacco mosaic virus)

2. They do not have a cellular structure, outside the cell - in the form of a crystal.

3. Structure - DNA or RNA - outside the protein shell - capsid, less often there is a carbohydrate-lipid shell (in the herpes and influenza virus).

4. similarity to living organisms- multiply (doubling of DNA), heredity and variability are characteristic.

5
. Similarities between viruses and non-living systems- do not divide, do not grow, metabolism is not characteristic, there is no own mechanism for protein synthesis.

2. Bacteria (Levenhoek in 1683 - plaque bacteria)

1. unicellular or colonial organisms that do not have a formalized nucleus

2. do not have complex organelles - EPS, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, plastids.

3. diverse in shape - cocci (round), spirilla, bacilli (rod-shaped), virions (in the form of an arc).

4. have a cell wall of murein protein and a mucous capsule of polysaccharides, a nucleoid with a circular DNA molecule is located in the cytoplasm, there are ribosomes.

5. reproduce by dividing in half every 20-30 minutes, under adverse conditions form spores (thick shell)

6. food - autotrophs(synthesize organic substances from inorganic): a) phototrophs(during photosynthesis) - cyanide, b) chemotrophs(in the process of chemical reactions) - iron bacteria;

heterotrophs(using ready-made organic substances): a) saprophytes(feed on dead organic residues) - bacteria of decay and fermentation,

b) symbionts(organic substances are obtained as a result of symbiosis with other organisms) - nodule bacteria of legumes (they absorb nitrogen from the air and transfer it to leguminous plants, which in return provide them with organic substances),

7. Importance of bacteria - positive- nodule bacteria enrich the soil with nitrates and nitrites, assimilating nitrogen from the air; decay bacteria utilize dead organisms; lactic acid bacteria are used in industry to produce kefir, yogurt, silage, feed proteins, and in leather processing.

negative- cause food spoilage (putrefactive bacteria), pathogens of dangerous diseases - pneumonia, plague, cholera.
3. Mushrooms

1. Structural features - the body consists of hyphae that form the mycelium (mycelium), reproduce by budding (yeast), spores, vegetatively (parts of the mycelium), sexually.

2. Similarity to plants- immobile, absorb nutrients with the entire surface of the body, unlimited growth, there is a cell wall (consists of chitin), reproduce by spores.

3. Similarity to animals- no chlorophyll, heterotrophs (eat organic matter), reserve nutrient - glycogen.

5. Types of mushrooms - see point 6 - "nutrition".

4. Plants

1. Motionless - have a strong cell wall made of cellulose, few mitochondria.

2. Unlimited growth - grow throughout life

3. Reserve nutrient - starch

4. Nutrition - autotrophs (they feed on inorganic substances through photosynthesis). Nutrition through absorption by the entire surface of the body.

5. Features of a plant cell- 1. the presence of plastids (chloroplasts - the function of photosynthesis, leukoplasts - the accumulation of substances, chromoplasts - provide the color of fruits and flowers); 2. large vacuoles (storage function); 3. few mitochondria; 4. there is a cell wall made of cellulose; 5. no microtubules.

5. Animals

1. Mobile for the most part - a lot of mitochondria, a thin shell.

2. Limited growth - until puberty

3. Reserve substance - glycogen (in muscles and liver)

5. Features of an animal cell- no plastids, small vacuoles - perform an excretory function in aquatic animals, a thin shell, microtubules - to build a division spindle during mitosis and meiosis.

6. characteristic irritability, reflex.
Classification of plants and animals. Systematics.

Classification - distribution of organisms into groups.

Systematics the science of classifying

System category	animals	plants
supra-kingdom	Nuclear (pre-nuclear)	nuclear
kingdom	Animals (plants, mushrooms)	plants
sub-kingdom	Multicellular (unicellular)	multicellular
Type (department)	Chordates (protozoa, flatworms, roundworms, annelids, arthropods, mollusks)	Flowering (algae, bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms)
Class	Mammals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds)	Monocots (bicots)
detachment	Predatory (rodents, bats, primates, (non) artiodactyls, pinnipeds, cetaceans)	-
family	fox	Lily (cereal, rosaceous, nightshade, legume)
genus	a fox	lily of the valley
view	fox	May lily of the valley

The complication of plants in the course of evolution on Earth:

Algae → mosses → club mosses → horsetails → ferns → gymnosperms → angiosperms

Directions of plant evolution - aromorphoses

1. 
   Emergence of multicellularity (algae → flowering plants)
2. 
   Landfall (mosses→flowering)
3. 
   The appearance of tissues (integumentary, conductive, mechanical, photosynthetic) and organs (roots, stems, leaves): mosses → flowering.
4. 
   Reducing the dependence of fertilization on the presence of water (gymnosperms, flowering)
5. 
   Appearance of flower and fruit (flowering)

Characteristics of plant divisions (500,000 species)

1. Algae. Lower spore plants.

1. Unicellular (chlorella, chlamydomonas) and multicellular organisms (spirogyra, kelp, ulotrix), some form colonies (volvox).

2. Body - thallus (no division into organs and tissues)

3. There are chromatophores with chlorophyll - they provide photosynthesis.

4. Brown and red algae have rhizoids instead of roots - the function of fixing in the soil.

5. They reproduce asexually - by spores and sexually - by gametes.

6. Significance: agar-agar substance is obtained from red algae; brown algae - kelp-seaweed - in the food industry, livestock feed, chlamydomonas causes flowering of reservoirs.

2. Lichens.

1. lower plants, consist of a symbiosis of fungus and algae. The body is a thallus.

2. nutrition - autoheterotrophs: algae is autotrophic, gives the fungus organic substances during photosynthesis, the fungus is heterotrophic, gives algae water and minerals, protects it from drying out.

3. Reproduction - asexually - vegetatively - by sections of the thallus, sexually.

4. Lichens - indicators of purity (grow only in ecologically clean areas).

5. Lichens - "pioneers of life" - inhabit the most difficult to reach places, enrich the soil with mineral salts and organic matter - fertilize, after lichens other plants can grow.

6. Species - deer moss, xanthoria, cetraria. (bushy, crusty, leafy).

Higher spore plants.

3.Mossy.

1. Leafy spore plants that do not have roots (or have rhizoids)

2. Tissues and organs are little differentiated - there is no conductive system and mechanical tissue is poorly developed.

3. A change of generations is characteristic: sexual - gametophyte (haploid) and asexual - sporophyte (diploid). The gametophyte predominates - it is a leafy plant itself, the sporophyte lives at the expense of the gametophyte and is represented by a box on a stem (on a female plant).

4. They reproduce by spores and sexually. Water is necessary for fertilization, as with all spore-bearing plants.

5. Species - cuckoo flax, sphagnum
4. Ferns (Horsetails, club mosses, ferns)

1. The body is differentiated into stem, leaves and root or rhizome.

2. Mechanical and conductive tissues are well developed - ferns are taller and bushier than mosses.

3. A change of generations is characteristic with a predominance of the sporophyte (the plant itself), the gametophyte is small - it is represented by a growth (an independent heart-shaped plant, gametes ripen on it). Water is required for fertilization.

4. Reproduction - sexual and asexual - by spores, rhizome - vegetative.

higher seed plants

1. Evergreen (rarely deciduous) trees or shrubs with erect perennial stems and tap root systems.

2. Instead of vessels, there are tracheids in wood, a lot of resin passages

3. Needle-shaped leaves

4. Gametophyte reduction, sporophyte (diploid) predominates. Water is not needed for fertilization.

5. Reproduction - seeds (sexual). The seeds lie bare on the scales of the cones. The seed has a peel, embryo and nutritive tissue - endosperm (haploid). Cones of 2 types ripen on 1 branch: female and male.

6. Species - juniper, pine, thuja, spruce, fir, larch.
6. Flowering. (Angiosperms)

Angiosperms are evolutionarily the youngest and most numerous group of plants - 250 thousand species that grow in all climatic zones. The wide distribution and diversity of the structure of flowering plants is associated with the acquisition of a number of progressive features:

1. Formation of a flower that combines the functions of sexual and asexual reproduction.

2. Formation of the ovary as part of the flower, which contains the ovules and protects them from adverse conditions.

3. Double fertilization, which results in the formation of a nutritious triploid endosperm.

4.Storing nutritional tissue in the composition of the fetus.

5. Complication and high degree of differentiation of vegetative organs and tissues.
Families of flowering (angiosperms). Classes.

class dicots

sign	Rosaceae	solanaceous	legumes
flower	P 5 L 5 T ∞ P 1 (sepals-5, petals-5, stamens - many, pistil -1 or more)	W(5) L(5) W(5) R 1 (5 fused petals and 5 fused sepals, 5 fused stamens, 1 pestle).	W 5 L 1+2+(2) T (9)+1 P 1 (5 fused sepals; 5 petals: the two lower ones grow together, forming a “boat”, the upper one is the largest - a sail, the lateral 2 are oars; stamens -10, 9 of them grow together, pistil-1)
fetus	Drupes, nuts	berry, box	bean
Inflorescence	Brush, simple umbrella, shield	Curl, brush, whisk	brush head
examples	Apple tree, wild rose, rose, wild strawberry	Potato, tobacco, black nightshade, tomato	Peas, soybeans, clover, rank, beans, lupins, vetch

sign	cruciferous	Compositae	Cereals -monocots
flower	W 2+2 L 2+2 T 4+2 R 1 (sepals 2+2, petals 4 stamens 6, pistil -1)	Flowers of 4 types: tubular, reed, pseudo-reed, funnel-shaped. L(5) T (5) R 1 Instead of a cup - a film or a tuft.	O 2+(2) T 3 P 1 Perianth - 2+2
fetus	Pod, pod	achene	weevil
inflorescence	brush	basket	Complex ear, panicle, cob
examples	Cabbage, radish, turnip, mustard, colza, yarutka	Sunflower, chamomile, cornflower, tansy, dahlia, aster, dandelion, wormwood	Rye, millet, barley, bluegrass, bonfire, corn, sorghum